Subject:- Applied Thermodynamics

Subject Code:- BTMC506 Total Credits:- 3

Examination Scheme
CA-I : 10M (GATE BASED TEST)
CA-II: 10M (Case study on applications)
MSE : 20M
ESE : 60M
Dr. U. S. Patil 1
What is Thermodynamics?

• Thermodynamics
can be
defined as
the science
of energy.

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Applications of Thermodynamics

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Applications of Thermodynamics

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Institute Vision & Mission

Vision
● Nation building by creating opportunities for rural and urban students through excellence
in education and research in the field of Engineering and Management.

Mission
● To develop the students for best academic and industrial practices by implementing
innovative teaching learning methodologies, promoting all round development by giving
exposure to series of activities.
● To prepare the students to face global challenges by equipping them with requisite
technical expertise and developing entrepreneurship skills among them.
● To promote research attitude among faculty and students.

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Departmental Vision & Mission

Vision
Developing the department as a centre of excellence to produce engineers with knowledge,skills and
character for all occupation.

Mission
● To impart high quality education to the students to develop technical skills and make them a
competitive mechanical engineer.
● To educate, prepare, inspire and mentor students to excel professionally and personally to serve the
society.
● To produce graduates who meet the requirements of employers from all sectors.
● Promote inter-disciplinary research with in itself.
● Recruit excellent staff and improve their advance skills through appropriate training and development.

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Program Outcomes

• Apply basic knowledge of mathematics, science and engineering principles to solve technical problems.

• Design and analyze a system component, or process to meet desired needs in Mechanical Engineering.

• Design a system and conduct experiments to find suitable solution in the field of mechanical engineering.

• Identify, visualize, formulate and solve engineering problems in the field of mechanical Engineering.

• Use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering practice with appropriate

considerations for societal, and environmental constraints.

• Apply their fundamental field skills towards the understanding of the impact of engineering solutions on the

society in a global and social context.

• Impart knowledge of contemporary issues about society and environment.

• Apply ethical principles and responsibilities during professional practice.

• Function on multi disciplinary teams as a team member/leader and create user friendly environment.

• Communicate effectively in oral, written, visual and graphic modes within interpersonal, team, and group

environments.

• Apply the techniques, skills and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering projects.

• Recognize the need for professional advancement by engaging in lifelong learning.

Course Outcomes
• CO1-Define the terms like calorific value of fuel, stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, excess air, .Determine
minimum air & Actual air required for combustion of fuel & also calculate product of Combustion
(1)

• CO2- Classify various types of boiler, boiler draught used in steam power plant. Evaluate the
performance of Boiler. (2)

• CO3- Study and Analyze vapour power cycles like Rankine cycle, Reheat and Regeneration cycle (3)

• CO4- Classify various types of Nozzle, Condenser & turbine used in steam power plant. Evaluation
of performance of Nozzle , Condenser & Steam Turbine ( 3,4)

• CO5- Draw P-v diagram for single-stage reciprocating air compressor, with and without clearance
volume, and evaluate its performance. Differentiate between reciprocating and rotary air
compressors. (5)

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Syllabus
• Total Units:- 05
• Unit-1: Fuels and Combustion
• Types of fuels, calorific values of fuel and its
determination, combustion equation for
hydrocarbon fuel, determination of minimum
air required for combustion and excess air
supplied conversion of volumetric analysis to
mass analysis, fuel gas analysis.
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Syllabus
• Unit 2: Steam Generators
• Classification of boilers, boiler details, requirements of
a good boiler; merits and demerits of fire tube and
water tube boilers, boiler mountings and accessories.
• Boiler Draught: Classification of draught, natural
draught, efficiency of the chimney, draught losses,
types of boiler draught.
• Performance of Boilers: Evaporation, equipment
evaporation, boiler efficiency, boiler trial and heat
balance, Introduction to IBR.
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Syllabus
• Unit 3: Vapor and Gas Power Cycles , steam nozzles
• Carnot cycle, ideal Rankine cycle, Reheat and
Regeneration, Stirling cycle, Joule-Brayton cycle.
Calculation of thermal efficiency, specific steam/fuel
consumption, work ratio for above cycles.
• Types of Nozzles, flow of steam through nozzles,
condition for maximum discharge, expansion of steam
considering friction, super saturated flow through
nozzles, General relationship between area, velocity
and pressure.
•
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Syllabus
• Unit 4: condensers, cooling towers and Steam Turbines

• Condensers and Cooling Towers: Elements of steam

condensing plants, advantages of using condensers,
types of condensers, thermodynamic analysis of
condensers, efficiencies, cooling towers.
• Advantages and classification of steam turbines,
compounding of steam turbines, velocity diagrams,
work done and efficiencies, losses in turbines.

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Syllabus
• Unit 5: Reciprocating Air Compressor
• Classification constructional details, theoretical and
actual indicator diagram, FAD, multi staging, condition
for maximum efficiency, capacity control.
• Rotary Compressor – Concepts of Rotary compressors,
Root blower and vane type compressors, Centrifugal
compressors. Velocity diagram construction and
expression for work done, introduction to slip factor,
power input factor.

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Books
• Text:
• T. D. Eastop, A. McConkey, “Applied Thermodynamics”, Addison
Wesley Longman.
• Rayner Joel, “Basic engineering Thermodynamics”, Addison Wesley
Longman.
• References:
• Yunus A. Cengel, “Thermodynamics- An Engineering Approach",
Tata McGraw Hill Publications.
• P. K. Nag, “Basic and Applied Thermodynamics", Tata McGraw Hill
Publications.
• P. K. Nag, “Power Plant Engineering”, Tata McGraw Hill
Publications, 2nd edition.
• Sharma and Mathur, “Internal Combustion Engines”, Tata McGraw
Hill Publications.
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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

• Fuel (Definition):-
• Any material that can be burned to release thermal
energy is called a fuel
• Most familiar fuels consist primarily of hydrogen and
carbon. They are called hydrocarbon fuels
e.g.:- Coal, Gasoline, Diesel, Kerosene
• A chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and
a large quantity of energy is released is called
combustion

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Fuels

Primary Secondary

- Solid
- Liquid
-Gaseous

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
Type of Fuel Natural(Primary) Prepared(Secondary)
Solid -Wood - Coke
-Peat -Charcoal
-Lignite Coal -Briquettes
Liquid Petroleum -Gasoline
-Kerosene
-Alcohol
-Benzol
Gaseous Natural gas -Petroleum gas
-Producer gas
-Coal gas
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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
- The main constituent of coal is carbon.
- Coal also contains varying amounts of oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, moisture, and
ash.(Varies with geographical area)

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Liquid Fuels: Main source is Petroleum

Distillation:- Distillation is the process of separating components of a
mixture based on different boiling points

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
Liquid Fuels:
Most liquid hydrocarbon fuels are a mixture of numerous
hydrocarbons and are obtained from crude oil by distillation
• Although liquid hydrocarbon fuels are mixtures of many different
hydrocarbons, they are usually considered to be a single
hydrocarbon for convenience
For example,
• Gasoline is treated as octane, C8H18
• The diesel fuel as dodecane, C12H26
• Another common liquid hydrocarbon fuel is methyl alcohol,
CH3OH, which is also called methanol and is used in some gasoline
blends.

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
Advantages of Liquid fuels over Solid fuels
• Require less space for storage.
• Higher calorific value.
• Easy control of consumption.
• Absence of danger from spontaneous combustion.
• Easy handling and transportation.
• Cleanliness.
• No ash problem.
• Non-deterioration of the oil in storage.
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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

- Gaseous Fuels
1) Natural Gas:-
• Composed mainly of methane, but it also contains small
amounts of ethane, propane, hydrogen, helium, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfate and water vapor.
• CNG(Compressed Natural Gas): Stored at pressure of 150 to
250 atm.
• LNG(Liquefied Natural Gas): Stored at -162⁰C
• It has calorific value nearly 21000 kJ/m3

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
2) Coal Gas
- Mainly consists of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
- It is prepared by carbonization of coal.
- Use- Boilers
3) Coke-oven gas
- It is obtained during the production of coke by heating the bituminous
coal.
- The volatile content of coal is driven off by heating and major portion of
this gas is utilized in heating the ovens
- This gas must be thoroughly filtered before using in gas engines

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
4) Blast furnace gas
- It is obtained from smelting operation
- The heating value of this gas is very low
5) Producer gas
- It results from the partial oxidation of coal, coke or peat when they are
burnt with an insufficient quantity of air.
- It is produced in specially designed retorts.
- It has low heating value and in general is suitable for large installations
• It is also used in steel industry for firing open hearth furnaces.

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
Advantages of Gaseous fuels
• Better control of combustion.
• Much less excess air is needed for complete combustion.
• Economy in fuel and more efficiency of furnace operation.
• Easy maintenance of oxidizing or reducing atmosphere.
• Cleanliness.
• No problem of storage if the supply is available from public supply line.
• The distribution of gaseous fuels even over a wide area is easy through
the pipe lines and such handling of the fuel is altogether eliminated.
• Gaseous fuels give economy of heat and produce higher temperatures (as
they can be preheated in regenerative furnaces and thus heat from hot
flue gases can be recovered).

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
Calorific value and its determination
Calorific Value:- ( Heating value)
• The “calorific value or heating value” of the fuel is defined as the energy
liberated by the complete oxidation of a unit mass or volume of a fuel.
• Solid and liquid:- kJ/kg
• Gases:- kJ/m3
• There are generally two heating values defines
• Higher heating value (HHV)
• Lower heating value (LHV)

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
Calorific value and its determination
• The higher heating value, HHV, is obtained when the water
formed by combustion is completely condensed.
• The lower heating value, LHV, is obtained when the water
formed by combustion exists completely in the vapor phase.
• (HHV)p = (LHV)p + m hfg
• (HHV)v = (LHV)v + m(ug – uf)
• In almost all practical cases, the water vapor in the products is
vapor, the lower value is the one which usually applies.

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
Calorific value and its determination
• Dulong’s formula. Dulong suggested a formula for the calculation of the
calorific value of the solid or liquid fuels from their chemical composition
which is as given below

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
BOMB CALORIMETER

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
JUNKER’S GAS CALORMITER

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
COMBUSTION EQUATION
• A chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and a large quantity of
energy is released is called combustion
• The oxidizer most often used in combustion processes is air (As it is free
and readily available)
• Actual composition of dry air For analysis consideration
• Oxygen:-20.9% Oxygen:-21%
• Nitrogen:- 78.1% Nitrogen:- 79%
• Argon:-0.9%
• Small amount of carbon dioxide,
helium, neon, and hydrogen.

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
COMBUSTION EQUATION Complete Combustion
C CO2
H H2O
S SO2

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
SYMBOLS AND MOLECULAR WEIGHTS

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
COMBUSTION EQUATION
• Combustion equation of Carbon:-
• C + O2 CO2 (Complete Combustion)
• 12Kg of C + 32 Kg of O2 44Kg of CO2
• 1 Kg of C + 8/3 Kg of O2 11/3 Kg of CO2
• So for producing 1 Kg of CO2 = 3/11 Kg of Carbon is needed
• 2C + O2 2CO (Incomplete Combustion)
• 24 Kg of C + 32 Kg of O2 56Kg of CO
• 1 Kg of C + 4/3 Kg of O2 7/3 Kg of CO

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
COMBUSTION EQUATION
• Combustion equation of Hydrogen:-
2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 Kg of H2 + 32 Kg of O2 36 Kg of H2O
1 Kg of H2 + 8 Kg of O2 9 Kg of H2O
• Combustion equation of Sulphur:-
S + O2 SO2
32 Kg of S + 32 Kg of O2 64 Kg of SO2
1Kg of S + 1 Kg of O2 2 Kg of SO2

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
COMBUSTION EQUATION
• Combustion equation for hydrocarbon fuel :-
Let CnH2n+2 is general formula for hydrocarbon fuel.
Then,
x CnH2n+2 + yO2 pCO2 + qH2O……………………………..(I)
(Where x,y,p,q are constants)
Equating weights of C, H and O
We get,
xn=p (for carbon) 2y=2p+q (For Oxygen)
x(2n+2)=2q (for hydrogen) y= (2p+q)/2………………………..(II)
q=x(n+1)

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
COMBUSTION EQUATION
• Putting the values of p and q in equation (II)
• y= ½(2xn+xn+x) = x/2(3n+1)
• Substituting values in equation (I) we get,
• x CnH2n+2 + x/2(3n+1)O2 xnCO2 + x(n+1)H2O
CnH2n+2 + 1/2(3n+1)O2 nCO2 + (n+1)H2O
• Assuming n=1, we get,
• CH4+ 2O2 CO2+2H2O

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
COMBUSTION EQUATION
• Putting the values of p and q in equation (II)
• y= ½(2xn+xn+x) = x/2(3n+1)
• Substituting values in equation (I) we get,
• x CnH2n+2 + x/2(3n+1)O2 xnCO2 + x(n+1)H2O
CnH2n+2 + 1/2(3n+1)O2 nCO2 + (n+1)H2O
• Assuming n=1, we get,
• CH4+ 2O2 CO2+2H2O

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
Minimum air required per Kg of fuel is
= 1/23 (8/3C + (H-O/8) + S)
Where
C = % Carbon
H = % Hydrogen
O = % Oxygen
S = % Sulphur in fuel

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
AIR-FUEL RATIO
• The ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel for a combustion process

• The reciprocal of air–fuel ratio is called the fuel–air ratio.

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
THEORETICAL AIR AND EXCESS AIR
• The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a
fuel is called the stoichiometric or theoretical air
• The theoretical air is also referred to as the chemically correct amount of
air, or 100 percent theoretical air.
• The ideal combustion process during which a fuel is burned completely
with theoretical air is called the stoichiometric or theoretical combustion
of that fuel
• For example, the theoretical combustion of methane is
• CH4 + 2(O2+ 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2H2O + 2(3.76) N2

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
THEORETICAL AIR AND EXCESS AIR
• In Practice it is found that complete combustion is not likely to be
achieved unless the amount of air supplied is somewhat greater than
theoretical amount.
• Min amount of theoretical air required for complete combustion of
methane
• CH4 + 2(O2+ 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2H2O + 2(3.76) N2
• 150% of theoretical air supplied
• CH4 + 2 (1.5)(O2+ 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2H2O + 3(3.76) N2 + O2

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
• % of excess air =
(Actual A/F ratio – Stoichiometric A/F ratio) / Stoichiometric A/F ratio
• Mixture strength
• Weak Mixture:- Excess air
• Rich Mixture:- Deficiency of air

• Mixture Strength= (Stoichiometric A/F ratio)/ (Actual A/F ratio)

• Types of flue gas analysis
• 1) Volumetric analysis
• 2) Mass analysis

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
• How to convert volumetric analysis to mass analysis
Constituents Volume of Molecular Relative mass Mass/kg of
Constituent Weight C=a*b flue gases
(a) (b) D=C/ΣC
CO2

CO

O2

N2

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
• How to convert volumetric analysis to mass analysis
• volumetric analysis of the dry exhaust gas is
• CO2 = 11.5 per cent ; CO = 1.2 per cent ; O2 = 0.9 per cent ; N2 = 86 per
cent.
Constituents Volume of Molecular Relative mass Mass/kg of
Constituent Weight C=a*b flue gases
(a) (b) D=C/ΣC
CO2 0.115 44 5.06 0.1700

CO 0.012 28 0.336 0.0133

O2 0.009 32 0.288 0.0096

N2 0.86 28 24.08 0.8091

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
• How to convert mass analysis to volume analysis
Constituents Mass of Molecular Relative Volume/m3 of
Constituent Weight Volume flue gases
(a) (b) C=a/b D=C/ΣC
CO2

CO

O2

N2

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion
• How to convert mass analysis to volume analysis
• CO = 0.313 ; CO2 = 2.662 ; O2= 0.5216; N2 = 9.24
Constituents Mass of Molecular Relative Volume Volume/m3 of
Constituent Weight C=a/b flue gases
(a) (b) D=C/ΣC
CO 0.313 28 0.0112 0.0267

CO2 2.662 44 0.0605 0.145

O2 0.5216 32 0.0163 0.0389

N2 9.24 28 0.33 0.789

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

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• Numericals

R. N. Patil
51
Applied Thermodynamics-I
THANKS

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

53
UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

54
UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

55
UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

56
UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

57
UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

58
UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

59
UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

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UNIT 1: Fuels and Combustion

Solid Fuels
Coal :-
Plant debris Lignite
Peat Brown Coal
Bituminous coal sub-bituminous coal
Semi-bituminous coal Semi-anthracite coal
Graphite Anthracite coal

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Applications of Thermodynamics

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