Understanding and Mastering The

Bluebook®
Understanding and Mastering The
Bluebook®
A Guide for Students and Practitioners
FOURTH EDITION

Linda J. Barris
Copyright © 2007, 2010, 2015, 2020
Linda J. Barris
All Rights Reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Barris, Linda J., author.

Title: Understanding and mastering the bluebook : a guide for students and
practitioners / by Linda J. Barris.
Description: Fourth edition. | Durham, North Carolina : Carolina Academic
Press, LLC, [2020] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020005221 | ISBN 9781531019150 (spiral bound) | ISBN
9781531019167 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Citation of legal authorities--United States. | Annotations and
citations (Law)--United States.
Classification: LCC KF245 .B37 2020 | DDC 808.02/7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005221

Carolina Academic Press

700 Kent Street
Durham, NC 27701
Telephone (919) 489-7486
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www.cap-press.com

This book is published as a guide to the rules of legal citation set forth in The
Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation,® Twenty-First Edition, copyright 2020
by The Columbia Law Review Association, The Harvard Law Review, the
University of Pennsylvania Law Review, and The Yale Law Journal. This book
is neither published by nor affiliated with the publishers of The Bluebook. The
Bluebook is published by The Harvard Law Review Association, Gannett
House, 1511 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138.

Printed in the United States of America

Contents
Keeping Up to Date
Acknowledgments
1 Getting Started
A. Introduction to Legal Citation and The Bluebook
1. The Purpose of Legal Citation
2. Bluebook Organization
B. Practitioners' Style and Local Rules
1. Typeface Conventions: Practitioners' Style
2. Introduction to Local Rules
C. When to Cite
D. Citation Sentences, Clauses, and Embedded Citations
1. Citation Sentences
2. Citation Clauses
3. Embedded Citations
E. Pinpoint Citations
1. Pages
2. Sections and Subsections
3. Paragraphs
4. Lines
5. Footnotes
6. Endnotes
7. Supplements
F. Spacing Rules for Citation Abbreviations
G. Introduction to Short Form Citations
1. Id.
2. Supra
3. Alternate Short Forms
2 Cases
A. Basic Case Citation Rules
 1. Case Name
2. Source Information
(a) Volume
(b) Reporter Name
(c) Beginning Page Number
(d) Pinpoint Page Number (aka Pincite)
3. Court
4. Year
B. Special Rules for Case Names
1. Businesses and Organizations
2. Governmental Parties (Geographical Terms)
(a) Federal Government
(b) State Governments
(c) A County, City, or Town Is a Party
3. Alternate Names
4. Procedural and Descriptive Phrases
5. Unions
6. Commissioner of Internal Revenue
C. Short Form Case Citations
1. Id.
2. Alternate Short Form
D. Parallel Citations
E. Public Domain Citations
F. Parenthetical Information
1. Dissents and Concurrences
2. Quoting or Citing Parentheticals
3. Weight of Authority
G. Subsequent History
H. Ordering Multiple Additions to Citations
3 Statutes
A. Federal and State Statutes
1. Form
2. Basic Statutory Citations
3. Code Name
4. Titles, Chapters, and Section Numbers
 5. Publisher
6. Year of Code
B. Additional Information in Statutory Citations
1. Supplements
2. Subject Matter Codes
3. Named Statutes
C. Short Forms: Statutes
1. Id.
2. Alternate Short Form
4 Constitutions
A. Basic Citation Forms
B. Short Form: Constitutions
5 Regulations
A. Federal Administrative Regulations
B. State Administrative Regulations
C. Internal Revenue Code
D. Treasury Regulations
6 Procedural and Court Rules
A. Rules of Procedure and Evidence
1. Federal Rules of Procedure and Evidence
2. State Rules of Procedure and Evidence
B. Rules of Court
1. Federal Rules of Court
2. State Rules of Court
C. Short Forms: Rules
7 Secondary Sources
A. Treatises and Books
1. Author's Full Name
2. Book Title
3. Pinpoint Page, Section, or Volume
4. Publication Information
5. Year
6. Short Forms: Treatises and Books
B. Periodicals (Law Reviews and Journals)
 1. Author's Full Name
2. Article Title
3. Volume
4. Periodical Name
5. Beginning Page
6. Pinpoint Page(s)
7. Year
Short Forms: Periodicals
C. Restatements
Short Forms: Restatements
D. Legal Dictionaries
Short Forms: Dictionaries
E. American Law Reports (A.L.R.) Annotations
Short Forms: A.L.R. Annotations
F. Legal Encyclopedias
Short Forms: Encyclopedias
8 Litigation Documents and Record Citations
A. Litigation Documents and Appellate Record
1. Document Title
2. Pinpoint Citations
B. Short Forms: Litigation and Record Citations
C. Enclosing Citations in Parentheses
9 Strings, Signals, and Explanatory Parentheticals
A. String Citations
1. String Basics
2. Short Forms in String Citations
B. Signals
1. Signal Basics
2. Using Multiple Signals in a Single String
3. Using Short Forms with Signals
C. Explanatory Parentheticals
10 Quotations
A. Form of Quotations
1. Block Quotations
2. Short Quotations
 B. Alterations
C. Omissions
11 Capitalization
A. Capitalization Basics
B. Court Documents and Proceedings
1. Courts
2. Parties to a Legal Action
3. Titles of Court Documents
4. Court Proceedings
5. Judges
12 Numbers, Numerals, Ordinals, and Symbols
A. Numbers and Numerals
B. Ordinals
C. Symbols
13 Electronic Sources
A. Cases
1. Commercial Databases: Published Decisions
2. Commercial Databases: Unpublished Decisions
3. Authenticated or Official Decisions
B. Statutes
1. Commercial Databases
2. Authenticated or Official Versions
3. Short Forms
4. Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional)
C. Constitutions
D. Regulations
E. Procedural and Court Rules
F. Secondary Sources
1. Treatises and Books
2. Periodicals
3. Restatements
4. Dictionaries
5. A.L.R. Annotations
6. Encyclopedias
Appendix: Citing Cases from Commercial Databases
Index of Bluebook Rules
Subject Index
Keeping Up to Date
From time to time, the editors of The Bluebook announce minor rule changes,
correct errors in examples, or revise entries in the White Pages tables. When
these changes affect practitioners' citations, an online update to Understanding
and Mastering The Bluebook is posted.

To check for updates, visit: caplaw.com/umb.

Acknowledgments
A special thanks to the many legal writing instructors, librarians, colleagues,
and friends who have offered insight and feedback over the years.
1 Getting Started
If you have cracked open The Bluebook, you already know that it presents a
bewildering assortment of rules, rules, and more rules for legal citation. If you
are new to legal citation, or a little rusty at it, the task of deciphering and
applying those rules can seem overwhelming. This book is designed to help you
learn basic Bluebook citation form and how to use The Bluebook manual. By
breaking citations down into individual steps and pulling together rules scattered
throughout The Bluebook, the task of preparing citations in correct Bluebook
form is much easier to understand—and master.
Chapter 1 of this guide reviews the concepts and purposes of legal citation,
and introduces a few citation rules and principles applying to most citations, no
matter what type of authority is cited. This introductory chapter includes the
following:

A. Introduction to legal citation and the Bluebook, beginning on page

4;
B. Introduction to Practitioner's Style, and local rules, beginning on
page 6;
C. When to cite, beginning on page 10;
D. Where to place the citation, including citation sentences, clauses,
and embedded citations, beginning on page 12;
E. Pinpoint cites to specific pages, sections, paragraphs, lines,
supplements, or footnotes, beginning on page 17;
F. Spacing in citation abbreviations, beginning on page 24; and
G. Introduction to short form citations, beginning on page 26.

About This Guide

This guidebook is designed to help you learn how to use The Bluebook, but
it is not—and is not meant to be—a substitute for The Bluebook itself. The
citation forms described in this guide are basic forms only. As you will learn,
there are many exceptions to the basic rules, and many less-common rules
and sources that this guide is not designed to cover. Cross references in this
guide point to the Bluebook rules pertaining to the topic under discussion. Be
sure to use those cross references because there is simply no substitute for
digging into The Bluebook and learning to decipher its rules.
This guide follows the 21st edition of The Bluebook. Make sure your copy of
The Bluebook is the 21st edition.

Throughout this guide certain conventions have been employed:

Indicates a Basic Rule.
Indicates an Exception to the Basic Rule.
Points to a tip, example, or helpful information about a particular rule.
Indicates that The Bluebook allows alternatives, or that customary practice
may deviate from Bluebook rules. Always follow your instructor's or
supervisor's preferred style or practice.

The Bluebook itself has a citation form: The Bluebook: A Uniform System
of Citation R. 15.8(c)(v), at 154 (Columbia Law Review Ass'n et al. eds.,
21st ed. 2020). Throughout this guide you will see references to Bluebook
rules using a short form citation method. Look for: Bluebook R. 15.8 or
simply Rule 15.8.

Many of the examples in this guide use boldface type to help illustrate
rules. DO NOT USE BOLDFACE IN ANY PART OF YOUR
CITATIONS.
Some examples include gray numbers [ 2 ], gray dots [ ], or vertical lines
[ | ]. These are for illustration purposes only—do not include in your
citation.
A. Introduction to Legal Citation and The
Bluebook
Before learning how to create legal citations, it is important to understand the
purpose of legal citation, as it may differ from the purpose of citations you have
created in the past.

1. The Purpose of Legal Citation

The purpose of legal citation is threefold: (1) to indicate that you are relying
upon authority; (2) to identify the specific authority relied upon and its weight
or persuasiveness; and (3) to provide an easy way to locate a copy of the
authority.
As noted, the first purpose of citation is to let your reader know that the
statement you have just made is based upon authority. If you make an assertion
about the law and do not immediately follow with a citation, your reader will
assume that whatever you just wrote is your personal opinion. Good legal
analysis is based on law, not personal opinion. Using citations tells the reader
that the statement is backed by authority.
The second function of legal citation is to identify the authority relied upon
and indicate how it fits in with other rules of authority in the United States. Not
all authorities are created equal. Some authorities such as a Constitution or
United States Supreme Court case, are usually more “important” or “persuasive”
than cases from lower courts or state authorities. Your citation will tell the
reader exactly where the authority fits into the pecking order of all authorities.
The third purpose of citation is to provide all the information needed to
quickly locate the cited authority. There are millions of different authorities a
legal writer can cite including cases, statutes, regulations, treatises, and legal
articles, to name just a few. Law libraries are stuffed with volume after volume
of legal authorities. Online resources offer even more. Legal citations point
readers straight to the original source enabling them to go directly to the specific
book on the library shelf—or click a few computer keys—and open to the exact
spot in the authority where you obtained your information.

2. Bluebook Organization
To understand how The Bluebook is organized, it helps to know a little of its
history. The citation manual was first published in 1926 to provide rules for
academic writers writing articles published in law reviews, journals, or books on
specialized legal topics. As The Bluebook's subtitle indicates, it provided a
“uniform system of citation” so that all academic writers used the same formats
for their citations.
Some years after the initial publication of The Bluebook, practicing attorneys
began using The Bluebook as a guide for uniform citations in documents they
submitted to courts, adapting some of the rules to fit their needs. The Bluebook's
publisher eventually responded by developing the Bluepages in the front of the
manual to specifically address practitioners' needs.
Take a few minutes to familiarize yourself with the type of information in the
21st edition of The Bluebook and how that information is organized. The two
charts below show: (1) the general organization of The Bluebook rules, and (2)
the tools available to help you find the specific rules governing your citation.

The Rules

The Tools to Find the Rules

B. Practitioners' Style and Local Rules
Practicing lawyers writing legal memoranda or briefs must adapt some
Bluebook rules from the Academic Style, found in the Whitepages, to a style
suitable for use in a law office or court. These adaptations are described in the
Bluepages found at the beginning of The Bluebook. This section discusses the
following adaptations practitioners must make:
1. Conforming typefaces to Practitioners' Style, beginning on this
page; and
2. Conforming citations to local rules or customs, beginning on page
9.
This guide pulls together the Whitepages and Bluepages rules so that all
practitioners' adaptations are discussed with the general rule. However, this
guide does not cover every rule or citation situation you will encounter, so
always check the Bluepages, Whitepages, and tables.

1. Typeface Conventions: Practitioners' Style Rule B2

The Bluebook uses several typefaces for different kinds of authorities. In the
Rules section of The Bluebook (Whitepages), you will see citations in ordinary
roman type, italics, and LARGE AND SMALL CAPITALS.
Traditionally, all italics shown in Bluebook rules were converted to
underlining in practitioners' citations. The Bluebook now permits the use of
either. Some practitioners prefer underlining; others prefer italics. Ask your
instructor or supervisor which typeface he or she prefers. Do not mix typefaces.
Once you have decided to use italics or underlining, use that style consistently
throughout the document.
This guide uses underlining in citation examples for the simple reason that it
makes the examples easier to read.
Academic writers also used SMALL CAPITALS for some citation parts,
including names of codes, authors of books, and others. Practitioners
traditionally did not use SMALL CAPITALS because typewriters were unable to
produce them. Instead, the text was converted to ordinary type. The Bluebook
has now authorized the use of SMALL CAPITALS by practitioners, although it
continues to convert the style to ordinary type in the Bluepages.
 Should You Use Small Capitals?

The permissive use of SMALL CAPITALS was new to the last edition of The
Bluebook published in 2015. As the rule change is still new, many readers of
your documents are not yet accustomed to the change, or might not even be
aware of it. To them, the citation may look “wrong.” As with any optional
Bluebook rule, consider your reader first. If you think the reader may believe
the citation is wrongly formatted, forego the use of SMALL CAPITALS. Ask
your instructor or supervisor what style is preferred.
This guide uses ordinary type, not SMALL CAPITALS, for all
practitioner's citations.

Typeface Examples

Comparison of Academic and Practitioners' Styles

2. Introduction to Local Rules
The introduction to the Bluepages states that “[m]any courts have their own
rules of citation differing in some respects from The Bluebook. Make sure you
are familiar with and abide by any additional or different citation requirements
of the court to which you are submitting your documents.” The Bluebook: A
Uniform System of Citation 3 (Columbia Law Review Ass'n et al. eds., 21st ed.
2020).
When practicing law in a specific jurisdiction, you will encounter these
additional or different citation requirements, often termed “local rules” of
citation. If you are a student, your instructor may ask you to conform your
citations to The Bluebook as you learn citation, even though practitioners in your
area may follow different rules. Once you learn the basics of Bluebook citation
it is easy to make modifications to conform your citations to local rules.
For times when local rules are required, the chart below provides a quick
guide to finding those rules.

How to Find Court Rules

The best source for local citation requirements is the court's own website.
Here are some places to look for local rules.
1. Bluebook Table 1 includes entries for the main court website for each
jurisdiction. The main website will usually provide links to the state's
procedural and court rules, as well as links to individual courts in the
jurisdiction which may have separate rules.
2. Search the Internet using the name of the court plus the phrase “court
rules” as search terms.
3. Once you have found the appropriate website and located the jurisdiction's
rules:
(a) Check Bluepages Table BT2, which provides a list of citation rules for
the jurisdiction. The entry will provide the rule number(s) to look up on
the website.
(b) If the rule you are looking for is not listed in Table BT2, look in the
rules index on the court's website (most courts index their rules).
(c) If you cannot find the rule listed in the rules index, look for likely
spots. If the court has specific citation rules, they are usually found in
the first few rules, perhaps labeled as introductory, prefatory, or
 miscellaneous rules. Or, use the “find” feature of your browser to
search for “cite” or “citation.”
Both local rules and web addresses are subject to frequent change, and what
is here today may be gone tomorrow. If the website has moved and there is
no new link, try a different source.
C. When to Cite
Basic Rule: Provide a citation for ANYTHING you take from ANY type of
primary authority, secondary source, or other publication. Cite anything you
take from:
• Cases, including facts, rules, holdings, explanations, dicta, or any other
information or idea taken directly from a case.
• Statutes, constitutions, administrative rules, procedural and court rules, or
any other legislative source.
• Secondary source material, including examples or illustrations,
explanations, or commentary about the law included in treatises, legal
encyclopedias, dictionaries, or any other type of secondary legal materials.
• Non-legal publications, including newspapers, video, the Internet, or any
other source.
• Facts or other information taken directly from court documents or filings.
Exception: The only time you can refer to authority and skip a citation is
when you are repeating a concept that you have previously discussed.
Example: The joint defense doctrine analyzed in Smith protects the
statements our client made.

Caution

If you omit a citation to primary authority, it tells the reader that there is
no authority for what you just said, i.e., it's wishful thinking or argument, but
not the law.
If you use ideas or information from any type of authority, secondary
source, or other publication without a citation, you run the risk of a
plagiarism accusation. Don't tarnish your legal reputation, or ruin your career
before it gets off the ground! When in doubt, ask your instructor or
supervisor for guidance.

Examples: When to Cite

D. Citation Sentences, Clauses, and Rule B1.1
Embedded Citations Rule B1.1
One key difference between how academic writers cite in law review articles
and practitioners cite in court documents lies in the placement of citations.
Academic writers place citations in footnotes, while practitioners incorporate
citations into the text directly after the propositions they support. Depending on
the circumstances, this means the citation may be placed:
(a) In a separate citation sentence following a textual sentence (most
common);
(b) Within a textual sentence in a separate citation clause, but only when
the citation is not an integral part of the sentence itself; or
(c) Embedded within the textual sentence when the citation is integral to
the meaning of the sentence.
The following two charts show examples of citation placement in
practitioners' documents. Chart 1 shows citations to cases, while Chart 2
illustrates statutory citations. Look for differences in punctuation and
abbreviations between citation sentences, clauses, and embedded citations. A
detailed discussion of these differences follows the charts.
Chart 1: Case Citations
Chart 2: Statutory Citations

Distinguishing Between Citation Clauses and Embedded

Citations
 It is important to distinguish between citation clauses and embedded
citations because different citation rules apply. What's the difference?
• In a citation clause, the citation itself is not essential (i.e., integral) to the
meaning of the sentence. If the citation is stricken from the sentence, the
sentence still makes sense.
• In an embedded citation, the citation itself is essential (i.e., integral) to
the meaning of the sentence. If the citation is stricken from the sentence,
the sentence no longer makes sense—something is obviously missing.
The examples below show how the meaning of the sentence is affected
when the citations are stricken.

Citation Clause Citations are not Embedded Citation Citations are

integral to the sentence. integral to the sentence.
Probable cause exists if, under the According to the Supreme
totality of the circumstances, there Court's holding in Illinois v.
is a fair probability that Gates, 462 U.S. 213, 238 (1983),
contraband will be found in a probable cause exists if, under
particular place, Illinois v. Gates, the totality of the circumstances,
462 U.S. 213, 238 (1983), but there is a fair probability that
direct evidence is not required to contraband will be found in a
obtain a search warrant, United particular place, and the Third
States v. Jones, 994 F.2d 1051, Circuit stated in United States v.
1056 (3d Cir. 1993). Jones, 994 F.2d 1051, 1056 (3d
Cir. 1993) that direct evidence is
not required to obtain a search
warrant.

To avoid awkward citations, rewrite sentences containing embedded

citations so that the citation is placed in a citation sentence at the end of
the text sentence.

1. Citation Sentences
Citation sentences are the most common and preferred method of citation.
Basic Rule: When the citation supports the entire sentence, place the citation
after the text sentence. The citation sentence begins with a capital letter and
 has a period at its end—it is its own complete sentence.

Examples: Citation Sentences

2. Citation Clauses
Citation clauses are most commonly used when a single sentence is supported
by two or more authorities; see the first two examples, below. Occasionally
citation clauses are used when one part of the sentence is from an authority, and
another part is the application of the authority; see the third example in the chart
below.
Basic Rule: When the citation supports only part of the textual sentence,
AND the authority is NOT an integral part of the sentence, set the citation
off from the textual sentence with commas.

Examples: Citation Clauses

 Avoiding Awkward Citation Placement: Part 1

Including multiple citations can lead to long, awkwardly constructed, and

difficult to follow sentences. When possible, divide single sentences with
multiple citations into separate sentences containing one citation each.
First example from previous page, rewritten:
Using litigation reports concerning accidents resulting from the
failure of a locomotive boiler is statutorily barred. 49 U.S.C. § 20703
(2018). This reveals an explicit Congressional policy to rule out
reports of accidents even though they may have a claim to
objectivity. Palmer v. Hoffman, 318 U.S. 109, 115 (1943).

3. Embedded Citations Rule 10.1.1(vi)

Basic Rule: Case Citations. When a case citation is embedded into the
textual sentence and forms an integral part of the sentence, provide the
citation followed by a comma. Do not place a comma before the citation.
Basic Rule: Other Authorities. When an authority other than a case is
embedded into a textual sentence, include the citation without a following
comma unless the citation is at the end of an introductory phrase or
independent clause that would ordinarily require a comma.

Examples: Embedded Citations

 Avoiding Awkward Citation Placement: Part 2

Embedding a citation in a text sentence interrupts the narrative flow and

lessens the impact of the point you are making. This is especially true if the
citation is toward the beginning of the sentence. Whenever possible, rewrite
the sentence to place the citation in a separate citation sentence.

Rewritten example from previous page:

While the lack of probable cause alone does not infer actual malice, it
does lend support to that finding. Stamathis v. Flying J, Inc., 389
F.3d 429, 441 (4th Cir. 2004).

Splitting Full Case Citations

A split case citation is one where the case name appears in the text of the
sentence but the remainder appears in a citation sentence at the end. Split
citations are used by academic writers, but are not “approved” for
practitioners.
Local practice in some areas allows split citations even in practitioners'
documents. Before using, ask your instructor or supervisor if splitting full
citations is acceptable. When using a split citation keep in mind that they
can only be used when there is one citation in the sentence, and never
with citation clauses.
Most sentences can be revised to eliminate the need for the case name in the
text, eliminating the need for a split citation, as shown in the example below.

With Split Citation Without Split Citation

The court held in Wood v. Hulsey Repetition of the same
that repetition of the same proposition in several jury
proposition in several jury instructions is generally within
instructions is generally within the the discretion of the trial court
discretion of the trial court and is and is not reversible error.
not reversible error. 271 S.W.2d Wood v. Hulsey, 271 S.W.2d
218, 222 (Mo. Ct. App. 1954). 218, 222 (Mo. Ct. App. 1954).
A type of split citation can be used with short form case citations. See
discussion in Chapter 2, on page 55.
E. Pinpoint Citations Rule 3
One purpose of legal citation is to provide the reader with the information
necessary to locate the cited authority, and the exact place in that authority
where the cited material can be found. That exact place is called a pinpoint or
pincite. Except when referring to an authority in general, provide the specific
page, section or paragraph number, footnote, or supplement, where the cited
material appears.
The method used to pinpoint depends upon the specific authority cited and is
covered in detail in the chapters on those authorities. This section introduces the
general rules for pinpoint citation that are applicable to multiple types of
authorities including:

1. Pages: One or multiple pages of a case, book, article, or other paginated

authority, beginning on page 18.
2. Sections: One or multiple sections or subsections of a statute, treatise, or
other authority divided into sections, beginning on page 19.
3. Paragraphs: One or multiple paragraphs or subparagraphs of material
divided into numbered paragraphs, beginning on page 21.
4. Lines: One or multiple lines of paginated material, beginning on page 21.
5. Footnotes: One or multiple footnotes, beginning on page 22.
6. Endnotes: One or multiple endnotes, beginning on page 23.
7. Supplements: Material appearing in a pocket part or supplement,
beginning on page 24.

For information on pinpointing other types of subdivisions (tables, graphs,

appendices, etc.) see Bluebook Rule 3.

About Hyphens and En Dashes

Hyphens are a type of punctuation occurring frequently in citations,

especially statutes. An en dash is another punctuation mark used to separate
consecutive pages or section numbers in pinpoints. Another type of dash—
called an em dash—is used to set off text (as in this sentence), but is not used
in citation. What's the difference?
A hyphen is short dash mark: -
 An en dash is a wider dash mark: –
An em dash is an even wider dash mark: —
Most Bluebook rules allow you to use hyphens or en dashes interchangeably,
but in certain situations using the wider en dash is preferred. Look for hints
on when to use hyphens or en dashes throughout this guide.
This guide uses en dashes to separate consecutive pages or section
numbers.
To create an en dash, insert a special character or symbol from the drop
down menu.
Your word processing program may be set to default to an en dash when
you type two hyphens in succession. Check it and see.

1. Pages Rule 3.2(a)

Basic Rule No. 1: Single Page. For an authority divided into pages, provide
the exact page number where the cited material can be found.
Basic Rule No. 2: Multiple Consecutive Pages. To cite material spanning
two or more consecutive pages, give the inclusive page numbers, separated
by an en dash or hyphen. Retain the last TWO digits, but drop other
repetitious digits.
Example: 662–63 Not: 662–663
Basic Rule No. 3: Multiple Nonconsecutive Pages. To cite material that
appears on two or more nonconsecutive pages (i.e., skips pages), give the
pinpoint page numbers separated by a comma. Retain all digits, even if
repetitious.
Example: 414, 418 Not: 414, 18
Basic Rule No. 4: First Page. To cite material that appears on the first page
of a paginated authority (e.g., cases, periodicals), repeat the page number as
the pinpoint. Do not omit the pinpoint even though it is repetitive.
Example: 467 S.W.2d 363, 363

Examples: Citing Pages

2. Sections and Subsections Rule 3.3
Follow the rules below to pinpoint one or more sections or subsections of a
statute, book, or other authority divided into sections.
To create a section symbol, see the discussion of symbols on page 152 of
this guide.
Always include a space between the section symbol and section number.
Section numbers may include punctuation in the form of a periods, colons,
or hyphens. Be sure to use the correct punctuation—they are not
interchangeable.
Use an en dash to separate multiple consecutive sections or subsections.
Although The Bluebook allows either an en dash or hyphen, the wider en
 dash should be used to distinguish multiple sections from ordinary
punctuation included in the section number. See “About Hyphens and En
Dashes” on page 17 of this guide.
Basic Rule No. 1: Single Section. Include a section symbol followed by the
section number where the specific material is found.
Example: § 1874 § 284.15 § 68:29 § 320-45-16
Basic Rule No. 2: Consecutive Sections. To pinpoint material spanning two
or more consecutive sections, provide the section numbers, separated by an en
dash. Use TWO section symbols to indicate multiple sections. If the second
section number contains repetitious digits, follow the rules below based on
the punctuation within the section numbers.
(a) No punctuation: If the section numbers contain no punctuation, retain
all digits of the section number, even if repetitious. Do not include spaces
before or after the en dash.
Examples: §§ 1874–1875 §§ 395–398
(b) Period or colon: If the section numbers are punctuated with periods or
colons, omit repetitious digits preceding the final punctuation. Separate
the sections using an en dash, then include the punctuation and the non-
repetitious digits. Do not include spaces before or after the en dash.
Examples: §§ 284.15–.16 §§ 68:29–:30
(c) Hyphen: If the section numbers are punctuated with hyphens, omit
repetitious digits preceding the final punctuation. Include the word “to”
before the punctuation (hyphen) and the non-repetitious digits. Include
spaces before and after “to.”
Examples: §§ 320-45-16 to -17 Not: §§ 320-45-16–17.
Basic Rule No. 3: Non-Consecutive Sections. To cite material that skips
sections (non-consecutive sections) within one title or chapter, provide the
section numbers separated by a comma. Use TWO section symbols to
indicate multiple sections. If the section number contains no punctuation,
retain all digits of the section number, even if repetitious. If the section
number contains punctuation, omit repetitious digits preceding the
punctuation, unless the result would be ambiguous.
Examples: §§ 1874, 1877 §§ 284.15, .18 §§ 68:29, :34 §§ 320-45-16,
-22
Sections are frequently broken down into smaller subdivisions, called
subsections, sub-subsections, etc. Always pinpoint to the narrowest subdivision
possible.
Basic Rule No. 4: Single Subsection. To cite material located in a
subsection, provide the section number as described in Basic Rule No. 1 for
Sections. Append the subsection letter or number immediately after the
section number, without spaces before or after, and place the subsection in
parentheses.
Examples: § 1874(b) § 284.15(1) § 68:29(G) § 320-45-16(a)
Basic Rule No. 5: Single Sub-Subsection. To cite material located in a sub-
subsection, follow Basic Rule No. 4 for Single Subsections. Append the sub-
subsection letter or number immediately after the subsection letter or number,
without spaces before or after, and placing the sub-subsection in parentheses.
Repeat for any additional subdivisions, appending each to the end of the
previous subdivision, without spaces, and placing each in parentheses.
Examples: § 1874(b)(2) § 284.15(1)(a) § 68:29(G)(1)(c) § 320-45-
16(a)(3)(B)(iii)
Basic Rule No. 6: Consecutive Subsections. To cite material spanning two
or more consecutive subsections (or sub-subsections) of a single section,
provide the subsection numbers, separated by an en dash (preferred) or
hyphen. Use ONE section symbol (because you are citing only one section).
Examples: § 1874(b)–(c) § 284.15(1)–(3) § 68:29(G)(1)(c)–(e)
Basic Rule No. 7: Non-Consecutive Subsections. To cite material that skips
subsections (non-consecutive subsections) of a single section, provide the
subsection numbers separated by a comma. Use ONE section symbol
(because you are citing only one section). Include a space after the comma.
Examples: § 1874(b), (f) § 284.15(1), (4) § 68:29(G)(1)(c), (g)

3. Paragraphs Rule 3.3

Paragraphs are cited exactly like sections. Follow the rules for sections,
above, substituting the paragraph symbol for the section symbol.
To create a paragraph symbol, see the discussion of symbols on page 152 of
this guide.
Always include a space between the paragraph symbol and paragraph
 number.

Examples: Pinpointing Paragraphs

4. Lines Rule B17.1.2

Many litigation documents, and a few other sources, divide material into
lines. If the source has numbered lines, pinpoint to the precise line numbers.
Basic Rule No. 1: Single Line. Include the page number where the material
appears, followed by a colon and the line number.
Examples: 15:25 2:12
Basic Rule No. 2: Multiple Consecutive Lines. To cite material spanning
two or more consecutive lines:
(a) If the lines appear on a single page, include the page number, a colon,
the beginning line number followed by an en dash (preferred) or hyphen,
and the ending line number.
Examples: 15:25–28 2:12–18
(b) If the lines are on consecutive pages, provide the beginning page
number, a colon, the beginning line number followed by an en dash
(preferred) or hyphen, the ending page number followed by a colon and
the ending line number.
Examples: 15:25–16:3 2:12–3:11
Basic Rule No. 3: Multiple Non-Consecutive Lines. Cite as shown for
 multiple consecutive lines, but substitute a comma for the en dash.

Examples: Multiple Non-Consecutive Lines

5. Footnotes Rule 3.2(b)

Basic Rule No. 1: Single Footnote. If the cited material appears in a footnote,
cite the page, section, or paragraph number of the text where the footnote
reference appears, followed by the abbreviation “n.” and the footnote number.
There is no space between the “n.” and the footnote number.
Basic Rule No. 2: Page and Footnote. To cite material appearing in both the
text and in the footnote, include the page, section or paragraph number of the
text where the material is found, followed by an ampersand (&), the “n.”
abbreviation for footnote, and the footnote number.
Basic Rule No. 3: Consecutive Footnotes. To cite material spanning two or
more consecutive footnotes, give the inclusive note numbers, separated by an
en dash or hyphen. Use TWO note number abbreviations (nn.) to indicate
multiple footnotes. Retain the last TWO digits, but drop other repetitious
digits.
Basic Rule No. 4: Non-Consecutive Footnotes. To cite material that appears
in two or more non-consecutive footnotes (i.e., skips footnotes) on the same
page, give the note numbers separated by an ampersand. Use TWO note
abbreviations (nn.) to indicate multiple footnotes. Retain all digits, even if
repetitious. When footnotes appear on different pages, cite pages individually.

Examples: Pinpointing Footnotes

6. Endnotes Rule 3.2(c)
Basic Rule No. 1: Single Endnote. If the cited material appears in an
endnote, cite the page where the endnote actually appears, not the page in the
text that refers to the endnote. Follow with the abbreviation “n.” and the
endnote number. There is no space between the “n.” and the endnote number.
Basic Rule No. 2: Page and Endnote. To cite material appearing in both the
text and in the endnote, include the page number of the text where the
material is found, followed by an ampersand (&), the page number where
the endnote appears, the “n.” abbreviation for endnote, and the endnote
number.
To cite material appearing in multiple endnotes, follow the guidelines for
footnotes, above.

Examples: Endnotes
7. Supplements Rule 3.1(c)
Basic Rule: To indicate the material appears in a pocket part or supplement to
the main volume, include the abbreviation “Supp.” in the end parenthetical.
Pinpoint to the page or section number of the supplement.
To cite material found in both the main volume AND in the supplement, see
Bluebook Rule 3.1(c).

Examples: Supplements
F. Spacing Rules for Citation Abbreviations Rule 6.1
The Bluebook has detailed rules for when to insert blank spaces in a citation.
ALWAYS pay very close attention to the spacing in The Bluebook examples,
and ALWAYS ignore the spacing shown in the original authority.
Basic Rule No. 1: Always put a space between each word and distinct part of
the citation. In the following examples indicates a required space.
Metzler v. Rowell, 547 S.E.2d 311, 314 (Ga. Ct. App. 2001).
Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2911.01 (West 2019).
Jamal Greene, Note, Judging Partisan Gerrymanders Under the
Elections Clause, 114 Yale L.J. 1021, 1044 (2005).
Basic Rule No. 2: The Adjacent Single Capitals Rule. In abbreviations, DO
NOT use spaces when the abbreviation consists of “adjacent single capitals,”
i.e., a single capital letter followed by another single capital letter. Bluebook
Rule 6.1(a).
Numerals and ordinals in citations (2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, etc.) are treated as
single-letter abbreviations for the purposes of this rule.
Exception 1: Periodical Citations. When citing a periodical, insert a space
between single adjacent capitals making up the institution's name, and
capitals that are part of the publication's title. See discussion of periodicals in
Chapter 7 of this guide, page 103.
Exception 2: Court Documents. When briefs and other documents filed in
courts are subject to word limits, spacing in the source segment of the citation
may be “closed up.” See discussion in Chapter 2 of this guide, page 35.

Examples: Single Adjacent Capitals Rule 6.1(a)

G. Introduction to Short Form Citations Rule 4
Full citations contain all the information a reader may need to determine the
source of the cited material. Depending on the specific source cited, full
citations can be long and cumbersome. As a partial solution, The Bluebook
allows the use of shortened citation forms for repeated references to the same
authority. This section discusses the most common short forms used by
practitioners:

1. Id., used with any type of authority, discussed on this page;

2. Supra, used for some secondary sources, discussed on page 27; and
3. Alternate short form, for situations where id. or supra cannot be used.
Alternate short forms vary depending upon the source or authority being
cited, and are discussed in the chapters for the specific authority.

Additional information on how to use short forms with a specific type of

authority is found in the chapter for the individual authority.
Basic Rule: Once a full citation has been given, a shortened form may be
used for subsequent citations to the same authority found within the same
general discussion. Short forms are one of the three types discussed below.
Local custom may vary with respect to the meaning of “same general
discussion.” Seek advice from your instructor or supervisor.

1. Id. Rule 4.1

Id. is the abbreviation for the Latin word idem, which means “the same.” It is
used to indicate that the immediately preceding citation is to the same authority.
If there has been an intervening citation to different authority between the
current citation and the previous mention of the same authority, id. cannot be
used and an alternate short form must be used instead.
Basic Rule No. 1: All Id. Short Forms. Use id. to cite the same authority as
was cited in the immediately preceding citation, observing the following
rules:
Id. is always underlined or italicized.
Use id. only with citation sentences and clauses; do not use in embedded
citations.
 Id. is capitalized when it starts a citation sentence, but use a lower case id.
in citation clauses.
Basic Rule No. 2: Pinpointing Same Page or Section. When the cited
material is found on the same page or in the same section as the immediately
preceding citation, no pinpoint is required.
Basic Rule No. 3: Pinpointing Different Page or Section. When the cited
material is found on a different page or in a different section than the
immediately preceding citation, include a pinpoint. Follow the appropriate
rule below:
(a) Pages: Include the word “at” and the new page number.
Examples: Id. at 578. or Id. at 578.
(b) Sections: Include a section symbol [ § ] and the new section number.
Examples: Id. § 166(a) or Id. § 166(a).
(c) Subsections: Include a section symbol [ § ], the section number, and the
new subsection number. Do not include only the new section number.
Examples: Id. § 166(f) or Id. § 166(f) Not: Id. § (f).
Id. can be used in citation sentences and clauses, but not in embedded
citations, nor as a substitute for the case name in a text sentence.
Right: In deciding Armstrong the court looked at several competing
factors.
Wrong: In deciding id. the court looked at several competing factors.

2. Supra Rule 4.2

Supra is a Latin word meaning “above.” It is the short form used to refer the
reader to a previous part of a document where the full citation is found. It is
used for some types of secondary authorities after an intervening citation to
different authority.
Basic Rule: Use supra when id. cannot be used because of an intervening
citation to different authority. When the use of supra is appropriate, include
the following in the citation:
(1) The author's name, followed by a comma;
(2) The word supra, underlined or italicized, followed by a comma;
 (3) The word “at” if citing pages, or a section symbol if citing sections; and
(4) A pinpoint citation to the page or section number.

See Bluebook Rule 4.2 for a list of publications where supra is appropriate,
and check the Bluepages for examples of supra citations for individual
publications.
Supra is NEVER used as a short form for cases, statutes, constitutions, court
rules, or regulations.

3. Alternate Short Forms

Individual authorities, including cases, statutes, and constitutions, have special
rules for short form citations when id. cannot be used. These special short forms
are discussed in the chapters pertaining to the specific authority.
2 Cases
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 10, Bluepages Rule B10, and Table 1 control the
form for case citations.
Case citations are not mysterious—they are simply an assemblage of
component parts following a few specific rules for each segment.
Court decisions are available from a number of sources, including print and
electronic sources. This chapter addresses citation forms for cases obtained from
print sources. Cases obtained from electronic sources (commercial databases
or the Internet) are discussed in Chapter 13.
Included in this chapter are discussions of:

A. The basic rules for case citations, beginning on page 30;

B. Special rules for case names, beginning on page 40;
C. Short form citations, beginning on page 52;
D. Parallel citations, beginning on page 58;
E. Public domain (format neutral) citations, beginning on page 59;
F. Parenthetical information, including dissents and concurrences, citing and
quoting parentheticals, and weight of authority, beginning on page 62;
G. Subsequent history, beginning on page 65; and
H. The ordering of multiple parentheticals, beginning on page 66.

Caution

NEVER rely on the source itself to provide the correct citation form. The
major publishers, print and electronic, use their own citation styles that at
times differ significantly from Bluebook style. ALWAYS conform your
citations to The Bluebook.
A. Basic Case Citation Rules Rules 10, B10 & Table 1
Every published opinion begins with a case caption containing the information
needed for a full citation to the case. The caption also contains information that
is not used in a citation. Details of each segment of the citation, including what
information to include and what information to omit, are contained in the next
few pages of this guide.
Basic Rule: Full Case Citations. The first time a case is cited in a document,
prepare a full citation by providing the following information:
(1) Case name, followed by a comma;
(2) Source information including the:
(a) volume;
(b) reporter name, including any series number, abbreviated;
(c) beginning page number; and
(d) pinpoint page number, if applicable;
(3) Court information, identifying the court rendering the decision; and
(4) Year of the decision.

Before constructing the citation, determine whether the citation will appear
in a citation sentence or clause, or will be embedded in the textual sentence
—the rules may be different depending on where the citation appears. See
discussion of citation sentences, clauses, and embedded citations beginning
on page 14 of this guide.

1. Case Name Rules 10.2.1, 10.2.2, B10.1.1

A full citation to a case begins with the case name. There are many rules that
control case names in citations. To get you started, this section focuses on the
simplest form: individuals suing other individuals. Other types of parties such as
businesses, governmental departments, and situations where additional
information is included in the caption such as descriptive terms or procedural
phrases, are discussed in Part B of this chapter beginning on page 40. For a list
of these special situations, see “More on Case Names,” on page 32.

Basic Rule No. 1: Individuals. Provide the names of the parties to the action
in the order they are shown in the caption. Include only the surname (last
name). For hyphenated surnames, include both names. Separate the parties'
names with a “v.”; do not spell out versus or abbreviate to “vs.” In addition,
omit the following:
First and middle names or initials;
Designations such as Jr., Sr., or IV;
Professional or courtesy titles such as Prof., Dr., Sgt., Mr./Mrs./Ms.; and
Designations such as plaintiff, appellant, etc., that follow the name.
Underline or italicize the entire case name, but NOT the comma that follows
the case name.

Exception 1: If a party's name consists of initials only, or a first name and

last initial, include the initials in the citations. Close up single adjacent
capital letters; see discussion on page 24 of this guide.

Exception 2: If a party's name is in a language where the surname (last

name) is given first, as in many Asian names, include the full name.

If a party's name is of Portugese or Spanish origin and includes multiple

surnames, see Bluebook Rule 10.2.1(g).
Basic Rule No. 2: Multiple Parties. Many cases have multiple appellants,
appellees, or both, listed in the caption. Include only the first-named party
for each side of the action.

Basic Rule No. 3: Et Al. Some captions indicate additional parties by

including the term “et al.” (a Latin abbreviation indicating there are
additional parties), “et ux.” (Latin abbreviation for “and wife”), or “etc.”
Always omit et al., et ux., etc., or similar terms from the case name.

Basic Rule No. 4: Multiple Actions. Occasionally a case will list multiple
actions, perhaps because a cross-complaint was filed against a third party, or
two or more cases have been consolidated into a single action. Include only
the first action listed.
You will know when this situation arises if there is more than one “versus”
in the caption.

More on Case Names

You will frequently encounter situations where the party is not an individual
or additional information is appended to the case name. These situations are
subject to special Bluebook rules. The following list includes the most
commonly encountered case names where special rules apply. Each situation
is discussed in detail in Part B of this Chapter, beginning on the page
indicated.
 • Businesses, organizations, or other non-governmental entities, page 40;
• Governmental bodies and their departments and agencies, including the
United States, individual states, counties, and cities, page 42;
• Alternate names, including a/k/a, d/b/a, etc., page 47;
• Procedural terms and phrases, including estate of, in re, etc., or
situations where there is no adversarial party, page 47;
• Descriptive terms and phrases, including trustee, warden, secretary, etc.,
page 47;
• Unions, page 51; and
• Internal Revenue Service Commissioner, page 52.

2. Source Information Rules 10.3, B10.1.2 & Table 1

Opinions issued by courts are available from multiple sources, including sets of
print volumes, commercial databases maintained by legal publishers, websites
maintained by courts, and on hundreds of Internet websites. This Chapter
discusses only print sources. Citation forms for online sources are discussed in
Chapter 13.
The same case may be published in more than one set of print reporters. For
example, many states publish their opinions in both a state reporter and a
regional reporter. Modern United States Supreme Court decisions are published
in three reporters and the United States Law Week, while older opinions are
published under a variety of publications named after the person holding the
office of Reporter of Decisions.
Lists of all available print reporters for each jurisdiction are found in
Bluebook Table 1. Federal jurisdictions (Supreme Court, circuit courts,
district courts, etc.) are listed in Table 1.1, and state courts are listed
alphabetically in Table 1.3.
When multiple reporters are listed in the case caption, cite to only one
source. Bluebook Tables 1.1 (federal) and 1.3 (states) designate the “correct”
reporter to cite for each jurisdiction. Use the explanation below to choose the
correct reporter to cite.
Parallel Citations: If local rules require citations to two or more reporters,
see page 58 of this guide.
Public Domain Citations: If local rules require the use of public domain
 citations, also known as medium-neutral format, see page 59 of this guide.
Basic Rule: Source Information. In a full citation, include the following
information about the source of the opinion. Each part is discussed in detail,
below.
(a) The volume number;
(b) The abbreviated name of the reporter set, including series number, if any;
(c) The beginning page number; and
(d) The pinpoint page number (in most situations).

Determining the “Correct” Reporter to Cite

1. Find the jurisdiction in Bluebook Table 1.1 (federal) or 1.3 (states).
2. Find the entry for the court you will cite (e.g., Supreme, Appellate,
District, etc.).
3. Read the blurb immediately following the court heading. It will say “cite
to [reporter name], if therein.” Some entries add “otherwise cite to
[reporter name].” Underneath that main heading one or several reporters
are listed with the full name, coverage dates, and abbreviation.
4. The “correct” reporter to cite is the first-named reporter (look for the
words “if therein”). The alternate reporter set is cited ONLY if the case
does not appear in the first-named reporter.
For state court cases, The Bluebook always lists the regional reporter as
the first choice. However, local rules may require practitioners to cite
their own state's reporters instead. Check the local rules, or ask your
instructor or supervisor.

Example: Citing an Illinois Appellate Court

Decision
1. The case caption printed at the right shows the case is published in three
reporters: Illinois Appellate Court Reports, North Eastern Reporter, and
West's Illinois Decisions.
2. Find Illinois in Table 1.3, then find the court you wish to cite (it is the
second group in Table 1.3, labeled Appellate Court).
3. Read the blurb immediately following the court heading: “Cite to N.E.2d
or N.E.3d, if therein.”
4. The correct reporter to cite is, according to the T1.3 entry, the North
Eastern Reporter. The citation for this example is: People v. Walls, 806
N.E.2d 712 (Ill. App. Ct. 2004).

THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS

v.
MICHAEL A. WALLS
APPELLATE COURT OF ILLINOIS,
FIFTH DISTRICT
346 Ill. App. 3d 1154
806 N.E.2d 712
282 Ill. Dec. 415
March 19, 2004

Many reporter sets are published in “series.” For example, the North
Eastern Reporter is published in three series: (1) North Eastern Reporter
[abbreviated N.E.]; (2) North Eastern Reporter, Second Series
[abbreviated N.E.2d]; and (3) North Eastern Reporter, Third Series
[abbreviated N.E.3d]. Be sure to cite the correct series.
Compare the Illinois entry in Table 1.3 to the Colorado Court of Appeals
entry. The Colorado entry lists several possible reporters you can cite, but
the “correct” reporter is the Pacific Reporter (abbreviated P., P.2d, or
P.3d).

Both Illinois and Colorado have adopted a public domain citation format
for recent cases. The 2004 Illinois case used as an example here is not
subject to the public domain rules. For additional information on public
domain citations, see page 59 of this guide.
(a) Volume
Basic Rule: Provide the volume number of the reporter set where the case
appears.

(b) Reporter Name Rules 10.3.2, B10.1.2, Table 1

Basic Rule: Include the name of the “correct” reporter, abbreviated as shown
in Table 1. Include the series number, if any, also abbreviated as shown in
Table 1.
Be sure to carefully copy the abbreviations and spacing shown in Table 1.
For assistance with spacing, see the discussion on page 24 of this guide.
Exception: Court Documents. In briefs or other documents submitted to
courts, abbreviations in reporter names may be closed up to conserve space.
Use this option only when the receiving court imposes word limits. See
Bluepages rule B6.

This is a new rule with the latest edition of The Bluebook. Because it is
new, closedup abbreviations may look “wrong” to those unfamiliar with
the rule change. Before closing up the spacing, ask your instructor or
supervisor if it is appropriate to use this option.

(c) Beginning Page Number Rule 3.2(a)

Basic Rule: Provide the page number where the case begins in the reporter
volume.

(d) Pinpoint Page Number (aka Pincite) Rules 3.2(a), B10.1.2

Basic Rule: All Citations. Provide the exact page number where the specific
material you are citing is located. Separate the beginning page number from
the pinpoint page number with a comma and a space.
Example: Meade v. Sturgill, 467 S.W.2d 363, 365 (Ky. Ct. App. 1971).
To pinpoint in any of the following situations, see Chapter 1 of this guide:
 Multiple Pages: To pinpoint material that spans more than one page, or
appears on two or more non-consecutive pages, see page 18 of this guide.
First Page: To pinpoint material found on the first page (beginning page) of
a case, see page 18 of this guide.
Footnotes: To pinpoint material found in a footnote, see page 22 of this
guide.

When to Use a Pinpoint

Pinpoint cites are almost always necessary. The only time a pinpoint is not
required is when you are referring to a case in general, without discussing
any specific fact, holding, rule, rationale, or other material from the case.
Example of a general statement where pinpoint IS NOT necessary:
The court addressed liability issues with respect to workers' compensation
carriers in Basil v. Wolf, 935 A.2d 1154 (N.J. 2007).
Example of a specific statement where a pinpoint IS necessary:
The Estate argued that a workers' compensation carrier can be a “third
party” capable of being sued directly. Basil v. Wolf, 935 A.2d 1154, 1167
(N.J. 2007).

3. Court Rules 10.4, B10.1.3, Table 1

A full case citation identifies the court that issued the opinion. This section
explains how to include court information in your citation and when to omit all
or part of the information.
The court information consists of two parts:
(a) Jurisdiction: Identifying the court system that decided the case, either the
federal system or a state's system.
(b) Court: Identifying the specific court from that jurisdiction that decided
the case. Examples include a circuit court decision from the federal
jurisdiction, or a Court of Appeals decision from a state court jurisdiction.
Basic Rule 1. Identify the (a) jurisdiction and (b) court that decided the case,
using the names as they appear in Table 1.1 for federal courts, or Table 1.3
for state courts. Abbreviate exactly as shown in the table, and as discussed in
Basic Rule 2, below. Place in parentheses with the year.
Basic Rule 2: Abbreviations. Abbreviate the name of the jurisdiction and
court as follows:
(a) Federal Jurisdictions: For circuit courts, include the abbreviated circuit
number followed by the word “Cir.” For district courts, include the name
of the district court, abbreviated according to Table 1.1 (federal
jurisdictions), Table 7 (court names), and Table 10.1 (state names).

Note that the Second and Third circuits use a two-character

abbreviation, 2d and 3d, respectively, while all other numbered circuits
use a three-character abbreviation: 1st, 4th, etc.
Do not use superscript for the ordinals: Right: 8th Wrong:8th
(b) State Jurisdictions: The correct abbreviation, if any, is shown
immediately after the bold-faced entry for the court in the jurisdiction's
Table 1.3 entry.
For example, the Table 1.3 entry for Missouri's Court of Appeals looks
like this: Court of Appeals (Mo. Ct. App.).
Do not use the two-letter postal abbreviation to identify a state. Always
use the abbreviation shown in Table 1.3 to the right of the court's name.
Be sure to copy the court abbreviation exactly as shown in Table 1,
including spacing. Do not rely on abbreviations found in the case itself or in
the publisher's own citation for the case—Bluebook rules may require a
 different abbreviation.
Exception 1: Jurisdiction. Omit the jurisdiction from the parenthetical if that
information is clearly identified by the name of the reporter. See examples in
the chart on page 39 of this guide.
For cases arising in federal courts, the print reporter name identifies the
jurisdiction as “federal,” either because the reporter name includes the
word federal (Federal Reporter, Federal Supplement), or because the
reporter only publishes cases from a single federal court.
Exception 2: Court. Omit the identity of the court when:
(a) The court that rendered the decision is that jurisdiction's highest
court; or
(b) The court is clearly identified by the name of the reporter.
Bluebook Table 1 lists the courts by rank under each entry. The highest
court always appears first in the table, followed in rank order by the
jurisdiction's lower courts.
Omit information identifying a subdivision of the court, such as: (1)
division or department names or numbers; (2) the court's location; (3) a
state court's district number; or (4) any smaller subdivision of a federal
district court.
Examples:
(1) Missouri Court of Appeals, Southern District, Division Two
(2) Supreme Court of Tennessee, at Nashville
(3) Illinois Appellate Court, Fifth District
(4) United States District Court, Eastern District of Arkansas, Western
Division
Exception: If the subdivision is particularly relevant to your discussion, it
may be included in the parenthetical. For example, if you are analyzing a
split between various districts in State X, it is useful to designate the
districts in your citations. See Rule 10.4 and its examples for guidance on
including subdivision information in your citation.

Beware the Coverage Trap

 When citing a state (not regional) reporter, check which courts are included
in the reporter. Most states have separate reporters for their highest and
intermediate courts of appeals, but occasionally both courts are included in
one reporter. Wisconsin Reports and West's California Reporter are two
examples of state reporter sets that publish cases from both their highest and
intermediate courts in a single volume. Other jurisdictions may include
several lower courts in one set; for example, the New York Supplement.
When citing a case published in a reporter set that reports more than one
court:
All cases: Omit the jurisdiction when it is identified by the name of the
reporter.
For cases from the jurisdiction's highest court: In addition to omitting the
jurisdiction, omit the court.
People v. Powell, 237 Cal. Rptr. 3d 793,798 (2018).
For cases from intermediate or lower courts: Include the court name, as
the name of the reporter does not identify the specific court.
People v. Joseph, 244 Cal. Rptr. 3d 380, 391 (Ct. App. 2019).

Examples: Jurisdiction and Court

4. Year Rules 10.5, B10.1.3

Basic Rule: Provide the year the case was decided. Omit the month and day.
Courts use various terms to identify the date a case was decided. The
most common are “decided,” “filed,” and “issued.” Some may just give a
date with no further description. No matter what it is called, this is the date
to include in the parenthetical.
Some opinions also include the date the case was “argued.” DO NOT
include this information in the parenthetical.
Some opinions include subsequent history such as “certiorari denied” or
“rehearing denied.” See discussion of subsequent history on page 65 of
this guide.
B. Special Rules for Case Names Rules 10.2.1, 10.2.2
This section discusses how to treat some common situations that arise with
case names.
If you have a situation that does not fit within the categories discussed in this
Part, see Bluebook Rule 10.1–.2 for guidance.

1. Businesses andRule 10.2.1(a), (c), (h), Tables 6 & 10

Organizations
Basic Rule No. 1: All Citations. When a business, for-profit or non-profit
organization, partnership, or similar entity is a party to the action, include the
full name of the entity, including the form of the entity, subject to Exceptions
1 and 2, below. Abbreviate terms as described in Basic Rule No. 2, below.
Include terms such as Inc., Corp., Co., Ltd., or FSB (a banking term), etc.
that follow the entity's name. These terms are part of the party's name.
Do not include descriptive terms such as “a Delaware corporation” or “a
non-profit corporation” that follow the entity's name. For discussion of
descriptive terms, see page 47 of this guide.
Example: Big Business, Incorporated, an Iowa Corporation Big
Business, Inc.
Include the given name or initials of a person if that person is part of the
company's name.
Example: J.K. Abernathy, Inc. v. Danny Pratt Groceries, Ltd.
Exception 1: Double Business Designations. When a company has two
of the following (or similar) terms in its name, omit the second term.
Bluebook R. 10.2.1(h).

The Bluebook cautions that dropping the second business designation

should be done carefully, and only when the name could not possibly be
mistaken for another entity or a natural person.

Examples: Double Business Designation

 Exception 2: “The” in Case Names. Omit “the” when it begins a case
name. Retain “the” when it is in the middle of a case name. Bluebook R.
10.2.1(d).

Basic Rule No. 2: Abbreviations in Citation Sentences and Clauses.

Abbreviate the following words appearing in a citation sentence or clause
unless it is the only word in the party's name. If the citation is embedded, see
Basic Rule No. 5, below.
(a) Any word appearing in Bluebook Table 6 (case name abbreviations),
even if it begins a party's name.
(b) Any word appearing in Bluebook Table 10 (geographic abbreviations).
(c) Words of eight or more letters not appearing in Table 6, if “substantial”
space is saved and the result is “unambiguous in context.”
In practice, it can be difficult to abbreviate words not found in Table 6 in
a way that satisfies both the requirements of saving substantial space and
being unambiguous. When in doubt, spell it out.

Basic Rule No. 3: Plurals. To form a plural of any word listed in Table 6,
 add an “s” to the end of the abbreviation. See the introductory paragraph at
the top of Table 6 for additional information.

Basic Rule No. 4: Widely Known Acronyms. If the company, organization,

or other entity can be identified by an acronym that is well known, use the
acronym. DO NOT place periods in the acronym. Bluebook R. 6.1(b).

The use of acronyms is optional. If you are not certain if the acronym is
“widely known,” use the full name.
Basic Rule No. 5: Embedded Citations. In citations embedded in and
integral to textual sentences, DO NOT abbreviate the names of parties.
Exception: Acronyms may be used in embedded citations. In addition, the
following eight words are always abbreviated, UNLESS the word begins
the party's name:

Rule 10.2.1(f)
2. Governmental Parties (Geographical Terms)
Many cases involve governmental parties, ranging from the United States and
all of its departments, to states, counties, and small towns. The Bluebook's
special rules for governmental parties are found in Rule 10.2.1(f), Geographical
Terms. Different rules apply to different types of governmental parties. This
section discusses the following:
(a) Federal Government: If the party is the United States, or any department,
division, or agency, see discussion starting on page 43 of this guide.
 (b) State Government: If the party is a state or commonwealth, the District
of Columbia, or a local court in a U.S. territory or possession, including
any department, division, or agency, see discussion starting on page 44 of
this guide.
(c) County, City, or Town Government: If the party is a county or city,
including any department, division, agency, or school district, see
discussion starting on page 46 of this guide.

Governmental Employees as Parties

Many cases filed against governmental departments or agencies name the

director or head as a party. In this situation, it is not necessary to identify the
defendant as a governmental employee or include the department or agency
in the case name. Apply the rules for individuals to the employee.
For example, “Jane Q. Prisoner” may sue “John Keeper, Warden of the
State Penitentiary.” In this example, the case name in the citation is: Prisoner
v. Keeper.

(a) Federal Government

Basic Rule No. 1: United States. Omit “the” and “of America” from the
party's name. Do not abbreviate to “U.S.”
Basic Rule No. 2: Units, Departments, and Agencies. Include the full name,
including the agency name, abbreviating terms as follows:
(1) In Citation Sentences and Clauses: Abbreviate any word found in
Bluebook Tables 6 or 10, including the United States when it is part of a
longer name.
(2) In Embedded Citations: Do not abbreviate any words except the eight
words in Rule 10.2.1(c).
Basic Rule No. 3: Acronyms. Well-known acronyms may be used. See
discussion of acronyms beginning on page 42 of this guide.
Use acronyms with caution. Be sure that the acronym is truly well known,
or that your reader will be familiar with it.
Examples: United States Is a Party

(b) State Governments

When a state is a party to the case, how that state is identified depends upon
which court issued the opinion. Use the following chart to determine the correct
rule to apply.

Chart: When a State Is a Party

Basic Rule No. 1: Cases Decided in State Courts. For cases decided by a
court in the same state:
(1) Omit the name of the state, substituting “State,” “Commonwealth,” or
“People,” as appropriate. If the name in the case caption includes both
“People of” and “State of,” use People.
(2) If the party is a department, agency, or other division of the state
government, append the name of the division. In citation sentences and
clauses, abbreviate all words according to Tables 6 and 10. In embedded
citations, do not abbreviate any words.
Examples: State Is a Party in State Court

Basic Rule No. 2: Cases Decided in Federal Courts. For cases decided
by a federal court:
(1) Use the state's name (“Kansas,” not “State”).
(2) Omit phrases such as “State of” or “People of.”
(3) Do not abbreviate if it is the only word in the party's name.
(4) If the party is a department, agency, or other division of the state
government, include the name of the division. In citation sentences and
clauses, abbreviate all words according to Tables 6 and 10, including the
name of the state. In embedded citations, do not abbreviate any words in
the agency's name.

Examples: State Is a Party in Federal Court

Notes on Local Practice and State Case Names

 Some practitioners prefer to include the name of the state when citing cases
from a different state than their own.
For example, a practitioner in Connecticut preparing a document to file in
a Connecticut court would cite a Connecticut case as State v. Dyous, 53 A.3d
153 (Conn. 2012). If, however, the Connecticut practitioner included in the
document a citation to a Vermont case, the cite according to Bluebook rules
would be State v. Sinclair, 49 A.3d 152 (Vt. 2012). Since both the home state
case (Dyous) and the out-of-state Vermont case (Sinclair) are titled “State,”
the practitioner must rely on the reader noticing that the parenthetical
identifies it as an out-of-jurisdiction Vermont case.
Recognizing that a busy reader may overlook the fact that the case is not
from the home state of Connecticut—and has a different precedential value—
the practitioner may choose to cite the case as Vermont v. Sinclair to
minimize the chance the case will be mistaken for a Connecticut case.
When citing out-of-jurisdiction cases, ask your instructor or supervisor if
the Bluebook rule or a local custom should be used in the case name.

(c) A County, City, or Town Is a Party

Basic Rule: Governmental Parties.
(1) When “County of,” “City of,” “Town of,” or a similar phrase BEGINS
the party's name, AND is the entire name of the party, include the phrase
in the citation. In addition:
• Do not include “The” if it precedes the phrase.
• Do not abbreviate any words if the geographical unit is the entire name of
the party.
• Omit geographical designations that follow a comma, such as the name of
a state.

(2) When the party's name includes two prepositional phrases—often a job
title followed by the geographic location—omit the second phrase,
retaining only the name of the county/city/town.
 (3) When a county, city, or town is part of a longer name, include the full
name, abbreviating any word found in Table 6 (case names) or table 10.1
(city names).

• Basic Rule: Non-Governmental Parties. When a county, city, or town is part

of the name of a non-governmental association or private business, include
the entity's full name, abbreviating any word found in Table 6 (case names) or
table 10.1 (city names).

3. Alternate Names Rule 10.2.1(a)

Basic Rule: When a case caption lists alternate names for an individual,
business, or other entity, omit the alternate name.

Examples: Alternate Names

 Rules
4. Procedural and Descriptive 10.2.1(b), (e), B10.1.1
Phrases
Occasionally case names include “procedural” or “descriptive” terms and
phrases. Citation rules differ for these two types of phrases, therefore it is
important to distinguish them. To sort out these rules, find an example of the
term or phrase in the charts below, then consult the Basic Rule indicated.
Procedural phrases precede a party's name.
Procedural phrases describe something about the case as a whole or the type
of case or procedural action before the court.
Descriptive phrases follow a party's name.
Descriptive phrases describe something about a party to a case.

Chart 1: Procedural Phrases

Chart 2: Descriptive Phrases

Basic Rule 1: Non-Adversarial. When there is only one party listed in the
caption and the party's name is preceded by one of the procedural phrases
identified as “non-adversarial” in Chart 1, shorten the procedural phrase to
“In re” and place it before the party's name.

Basic Rule 2: Adversarial. When adversarial parties are listed in the caption
(e.g., Smith v. Jones) and a party's name is preceded by one of the procedural
phrases identified as “Adversarial” in Chart 1, omit the procedural phrase.

Basic Rule 3: Ex Parte. When there is only one party listed in the caption
and the party's name is preceded by the words “ex parte,” include the
procedural phrase “Ex parte,” placing it before the party's name.
The phrase “ex parte” is used when only one party in an adversarial
action is seeking relief from the court. That party is said to be appearing
before the court “ex parte.” Often the full name of the case appears in
parentheses in the caption; omit the parenthetical case name from the
citation.

Basic Rule 4: Relator. When the procedural phrase precedes a party's name
indicating a person is acting on behalf of another party, shorten the procedural
phrase to “ex rel.” Include the name of the representative (the relator)
followed by “ex rel.,” then the name of the represented party.
Relators are persons or entities who institute or defend proceedings on
behalf of another party. These cases often involve parents, guardians, or
the state, taking action on behalf of minor children or legally incompetent
persons. The represented party is often identified by initials to protect
privacy.
Exception: When a relator (representative) sues individually and on behalf
of someone else, include only the relator's name. In other words, the
 ordinary multiple-party rules apply. See the last example, below.

Examples: Relators

Basic Rule 5: Introductory Phrases. When a party's name is preceded by an

introductory phrase, include the phrase in both adversarial and non-
adversarial cases.
Underline or italicize both the introductory phrase and case name.

Basic Rule 6: Descriptive Phrases. Omit all terms or phrases following a

party's name that describe:
(a) The party's capacity as a representative of someone else, such as
administrator, executor, trustee, etc.;
(b) The person's governmental or professional position, or other job title; and
(c) All terms describing a business party or other entity such as “a Nebraska
corporation” or “a not-for-profit corporation.”

Examples: Descriptive Phrases

5. Unions Rule 10.2.1(i)
Union names are often long and complicated. Always consult Bluebook Rule
10.2.1(i) when a union is a party, and follow the examples closely.
Basic Rule: Include the “smallest unit” that accurately describes the union. If
the union is widely known by an acronym, use the acronym initials, following
Bluebook Rule 10.2.1(c). In addition:
(a) Include the name and number of the local union, if any.
(b) Omit any words or phrases of location such as a city, state, or region.
(c) If the union represents several different industries or crafts, include only
the industry or craft listed first.
(d) In citation sentences and clauses, abbreviate any words appearing in
Tables 6 or 10. In embedded citations, do not abbreviate any words except
the eight words in Rule 10.2.1(c).
6. Commissioner of Internal Revenue Rule 10.2.1(j)
Basic Rule: Shorten the name to “Commissioner.” In citation sentences and
clauses, abbreviate to “Comm'r”; do not abbreviate in embedded citations.
C. Short Form Case Citations Rules 4.1, 10.9, B10.2
Once a case has been cited in full, subsequent references to that case may be
shortened. The two short forms that can be used for case citations are discussed
in detail below. Also see the discussion of general rules for short form citations
starting on page 26 of this guide. This Part discusses the following:
1. Id., when citing the same case as the immediately preceding citation;
2. Alternate short form, for use after an intervening citation to different
authority.
Adaptations that may be necessary when using parallel citations and public
domain formats are discussed in their respective sections of this guide.

1. Id. Rules 4.1, 10.9, B10.2

Id. is used to cite the same authority as was cited in the immediately
preceding citation. It may be used with or without a new pinpoint. See
discussion of the general rules for id. short form citations on page 26 of this
guide. Use id. only in citation sentences and clauses, never in embedded
citations.
Basic Rule No. 1: Same Page. When pinpointing the same page of the same
case, include id. by itself; no page number is necessary. Underline or
italicize id., including the period. Capitalize id. when it begins a citation
sentence, but use lowercase in a citation clause.
Basic Rule No. 2: Different Page. When pinpointing a different page of the
same case, include id. followed by “at” and the new pinpoint page number.
Special rules apply when the preceding citation contains more than one
authority. See discussion of string citations in Chapter 9, Part A of this guide.

Caution: Id. Is a Citation, Not a Substitute Case

Name
 Wrong: As a result, the court concluded in id. at 474 that the trial court
properly rendered summary judgment in favor of the co-
defendant.
Right: As a result, the court concluded in Sherman that the trial court
properly rendered summary judgment in favor of the co-
defendant. Id. at 474.

2. Alternate Short Form Rules 10.9, B10.2

When id. cannot be used because of one or more intervening citations to
different authority, use the following alternate short form.
Basic Rule No. 1: Alternate Form. Provide ONLY the information listed
below, in ordinary type. Omit all other information typically found in a full
citation, including the beginning page number, court information, and year.
(1) Name of the case, shortened as described in Basic Rules 2 and 3, below,
underlined or italicized;
(2) Volume number;
(3) Reporter name, abbreviated according to Bluebook Table 1;
(4) The word “at”; and
(5) A pinpoint page number, whether it is a new page number or the same
page as the prior citation to the same case.

Basic Rule No. 2: Case Name. To identify the case in the short form, use the
first party listed in the full citation; omit the other party.
Exception 1: Common Litigants. If the first party listed in the full
citation is a common or frequent litigant choose the second party for your
shortened case name.
Many governmental units, agencies, or officials engage in frequent
 litigation. For example, states are parties to thousands of criminal cases
each year, as is the United States government. If you are writing a brief in
a state criminal matter, you may cite dozens of cases that are all named
“State v. X.” In the alternate short form, all those cases would be shortened
to “State,” making it impossible to distinguish one case from another. To
avoid confusion, use the second party's name.
A couple of other well-known common litigants are the ACLU and
NAACP.
Businesses are not considered common litigants, even though some are
frequently involved in litigation (e.g., large insurance companies).
Exception 2: Two Cases with Same Name. If your document will
include short form citations to two cases with the same name (e.g., two
cases where the first party is State Farm Ins., or two parties with the
surname Miller), choose the second party for one or both of the cases to
avoid confusion.
Basic Rule No. 3: Shortening Long Names. You may shorten longer names
of businesses or organizations following these guidelines:
(a) Retain enough of the name so that it cannot be confused with a person's
last name. Generally two words is sufficient.
(b) Do not shorten to one word unless the party is very well known and it
cannot be confused with an individual. Examples include Walmart and
Exxon.
(c) Drop Inc., Co., Corp. and similar terms unless it would leave only a
single word.

Basic Rule No. 4: Procedural Phrases. When the full citation contains a
procedural phrase, retain that phrase in the short form.
Basic Rule No. 5: Split Citations. A split citation is one where the case name
appears in the text sentence but the rest of the citation appears in a citation
sentence following the text. Although The Bluebook does not authorize split
citations when a case is cited in full, they may be used with short forms to
avoid repeating the case name in short succession.
For further discussion of split citations, see page 16 of this guide.
Examples:
Optional Split Citation: Since both prongs of the standard were satisfied
in Byers, the court held they were entitled to conduct-based implied
antitrust immunity. 600 F.3d at 295.
Without Split Citation: Since both prongs of the standard were satisfied
in Byers, the court held they were entitled to conduct-based implied
antitrust immunity. Byers, 600 F.3d at 295.

More About Split Citations

Use split citations with caution. If there is any chance your reader might be
confused as to which case you are discussing, include the case name with the
citation that follows the text.
In theory, an alternate short form citation can be used without the name
appearing in either the text sentence or in the citation sentence at the end.
Revising the previous example from the Byers decision, the sentence and
citation would read:
Since both prongs of the standard were satisfied, the court held they were
entitled to conductbased implied antitrust immunity. 600 F.3d at 295.
Keep in mind, however, lawyers remember cases by name, not source
information. To determine which case is cited, your reader will be forced to
backtrack. Since this is an alternate short form, the last case cited was not the
Byers case, but a different authority. Although you can use this type of short
form—without the case name—that doesn't mean you should.
Examples: Alternate Short Forms

Example: Short Forms In Context

D. Parallel Citations Rules 10.3.1, B10.1.3
Many court opinions are published in multiple print reporters, and case captions
frequently include citations to two, three, or even more reporters. These are
known as parallel citations.
The Bluebook requires citation to one source only. However, local rules in
some states require citation to that state's official reporter AND to the regional
reporter. As a practitioner, you must conform to local rules.
While learning legal citation, your instructor may ask you to conform to
Bluebook rules, citing just one source. Be sure to ask if parallel citations are
required.

Basic Rule No. 1: All Parallel Citations. When parallel citations are
required, provide the source information for each reporter cited, with pinpoint
pages for all sources. Separate the parallel citations with a comma. Follow the
rules for source information discussed in Part A of this chapter.
If one or more of the reporters identifies the jurisdiction or court, omit
that information from the parenthetical.
Examples:
Marengo Cave Co. v. Ross, 212 Ind. 624, 630, 10 N.E.2d 917, 920
(1937).
Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330, 343, 92 S. Ct. 995, 1002, 31 L.
Ed. 2d 274, 285 (1972).
Basic Rule No. 2: Short Form. Follow the rules for case short forms
described in Part C of this chapter, with the following modifications. See
examples in the chart, below.
(1) Modified Id.: After id., include the following:
(a) For the first source, include the word “at” followed by pinpoint.
Include the pinpoint information even if citing to the same page.
 (b) For the second and each additional source, include the volume,
reporter, “at” and pinpoint. Separate each source with a comma. To cite
a different page of the first source, follow id. with “at” and the new
pinpoint.

(2) Modified Alternate Short Form. Include the case name followed by the
source information (volume, reporter, pinpoint) for all sources, separated
by commas.
E. Public Domain Citations Rule 10.3.3
About fifteen jurisdictions have adopted a public domain citation format for
documents submitted to their courts. Also known as “medium neutral” or
“universal” citations, these forms do not refer to or rely on a particular
publisher, and do not have reporter names or volume numbers. Pinpoints in
public domain citations may be either to paragraphs or pages, with pages always
starting at 1.
If a state has adopted a public domain format, it appears at the top of the
state's entry in Table 1.3, together with the effective date and examples of the
state's form. Although state public domain forms vary, they usually include the
following information, although not necessarily in this order:
(1) Case name;
(2) Year of decision;
(3) Jurisdiction, usually in the form of the state's two-character postal code;
(4) Deciding court, abbreviated as shown in the public domain form in Table
1.3, unless the case is from the jurisdiction's highest court;
(5) Decision or docket number: the sequential number of the decision (found
in the court caption);
(6) Pinpoint paragraph number, using the paragraph symbol [¶], or page
number, with or without a “p.” for page number; and
(7) Parallel citation(s) to the regional reporter.

The public domain entry in Table 1.3 shows at least two examples of public
domain citations for each jurisdiction. The first (usually) shows a citation
without a pinpoint, while the second shows the same citation with a pinpoint.
Or the two forms may differ in other ways. It might take a little detective
work to find the differences between the examples.
Basic Rule No. 1: All Citations. Use the state's required format for all cases
after the effective date. For cases decided before the effective date, use
standard Bluebook form.
The effective date is found under the state's Table 1.3 listing. Look for
language similar to this: [State] has adopted a public domain citation
format for cases after [date].
Basic Rule No. 2: Pinpoints. To pinpoint, follow the jurisdiction's example in
Table 1.3, pinpointing either paragraphs or pages as indicated in the Table.
(a) Paragraphs: When the state divides cases into paragraphs, individual
paragraphs are numbered and marked with a paragraph symbol.
(b) Pages: When the state divides cases into pages, the page numbers are
usually indicated in the citation with an asterisk (star), or a lower case “p.”
for page
Basic Rule No. 3: Parallel Citations. Most jurisdictions require parallel
citations to a regional or state reporter (or both). See discussion of parallel
citations in Part D of this chapter.
Although a state's form may not require pinpoints to the regional reporter,
it is courteous to include pinpoints in your citation.
Basic Rule No. 4: Unpublished Decisions. If the decision is unpublished,
add a “U” after the decision number. Omit a parallel citation (as none is
available).
Example: Flippen v. Jones, 2014 Ark. App. 220U, at 2.
Basic Rule No. 5: Short Forms. The Bluebook does not provide a specific
short form for public domain citations. Applying the ordinary rules for short
forms for cases discussed in Part C of this chapter, adapt short forms as
follows:
(a) Id.: Use id. with the pinpoint paragraph or page number. Include “at”
between id. and the pinpoint only when citing pages. When using the
paragraph symbol, do not use “at.” Follow with the modified short form
for the parallel citation. See discussion of parallel citation short forms in
Part D of this chapter.
(b) Alternate Short Form: When id. cannot be used, a modified short form
that includes the case name, followed by the decision number, the word
“at,” the pinpoint paragraph or page number, then a modified citation for
 all parallel citations. See discussion of parallel citation short forms in Part
D of this chapter.

Example 1: Public Domain Citations to Paragraphs

Example 2: Public Domain Citations to Pages

F. Parenthetical Information Rules 10.6, B10.1.5
Sometimes additional details about the precedential value of a cited decision
may be necessary or useful. This information is appended to the end of the
citation in a separate parenthetical. This section discusses the following
common situations:
1. Citing dissents and concurrences, beginning on this page;
2. Using quoting and citing parentheticals, beginning on page 63; and
3. Indicating the “weight of authority” for decisions rendered en banc, per
curiam, etc., beginning on page 64.
The parentheticals discussed in this section are distinct from
“explanatory parentheticals.” Explanatory parentheticals provide details
about the facts, holding, rationale, or other information about a case.
Explanatory parentheticals are discussed in Chapter 9, beginning on page
131.

1. Dissents and Concurrences Rule 10.6.1

When citing material from a dissenting or concurring opinion, always indicate
that information in a parenthetical at the end of the citation. Failing to note this
misleads the court about the weight of the cited material and may result in a
court issuing sanctions against the offending lawyer. Don't do it!
Basic Rule: In a separate parenthetical placed immediately after the date
parenthetical, include the judge's surname, followed by a “J.” (for judge or
justice), a comma, and the words “dissenting” or “concurring,” as
appropriate.
Include a space between the date parenthetical and the
dissenting/concurring parenthetical.

Examples: Dissents and Concurrences

2. Quoting or Citing Parentheticals Rule 10.6.3
The precedent-based U.S. legal system means opinions frequently quote from or
cite to prior opinions or other authority. Sometimes you may want to indicate to
your reader that the case you used to support your proposition was itself relying
on earlier authority.
• To indicate that you are quoting material from a case that in turn was
quoting from another authority, use a “quoting parenthetical.”
• To indicate that you are quoting or paraphrasing material from a case that
in turn relied on (but did not quote) another authority, use a “citing
parenthetical.”
Basic Rule No. 1: Quoting Parentheticals. Use a quoting parenthetical when
quoting material from one case that in turn was quoting from another
authority. In a separate parenthetical placed immediately after the date
parenthetical, include the word “quoting” followed by a full citation, with
pinpoint, to the original source. Include a space between the date and quoting
parentheticals.
Look closely at the examples below and the note at the bottom of the
chart about using two closing parentheses.
Basic Rule No. 2: Citing Parentheticals. Use a citing parenthetical when
citing material from one case that in turn cites another authority. In a separate
parenthetical placed immediately after the date parenthetical, include the
word “citing” followed by a full citation, with pinpoint, to the original source.
Include a space between the date and citing parentheticals.
Frequently courts do not use Bluebook citation form when citing to prior
decisions. Always place citations to prior cases in Bluebook form in your
document, even if the court did not.
 Basic Rule No. 3: Level of Recursion. If the cited material is derived from a
chain of prior cases—referred to as levels of recursion—cite only the first
level, i.e., the first prior authority.
For example, if you are citing to Case No. 1, which quotes from Case No.
2, which cites to Case No. 3, etc., stop after Case 2.
The Bluebook allows additional levels of recursion if the “information
conveyed is particularly relevant.” For practitioners, this would rarely, if
ever, be required. If the prior cases are particularly relevant, those cases
should be discussed in the text and cited directly.

Examples: Quoting and Citing Parentheticals

3. Weight of Authority Rules 10.6.1, B10.1.5

A parenthetical statement can be added to the end of a citation to provide
additional information about the relative “weight” or precedential value of a
case. For example, to indicate that the entire court rendered the decision, not just
a three-judge panel, include the word en banc in a parenthetical. Other common
weight-of-authority parentheticals include per curiam (indicating the opinion
was authored by the court as a whole instead of a single judge); or 5–4 decision
(indicating the court was closely divided on the question).
Basic Rule: Include the appropriate information indicating the weight of the
authority in a separate parenthetical placed immediately following the date
parenthetical.
Include a space between the date parenthetical and the weight of authority
parenthetical.
It is not necessary to italicize foreign words or phrases in a weight of
authority parenthetical as the usual terms have passed into common English
usage. For additional information, see Bluebook Rule 7.

Examples: Weight of Authority

G. Subsequent History Rules 10.7, B10.1.6
Once an opinion is issued by a court, the case is not necessarily over. A party
may appeal to a higher court, the case may be remanded to the trial court for
retrial, etc. The following explains how to include subsequent history in full
citations.
Basic Rule: Provide the subsequent history after the date parenthetical if the
case was addressed by the same or higher court, separated from the main
citation by a comma. Do not place in parentheses. In addition:
a. Begin with the appropriate word or phrase (e.g., reversed, affirmed,
overruled, etc.), underlined or italicized, and abbreviated as shown in
Bluebook Table 8.
b. Follow with a citation to the subsequent case that includes: (1) source
information, without a pinpoint; (2) jurisdiction and court of subsequent
decision; and (3) date of subsequent decision, unless it is the same year as
the main case. Only include the case name if it is different from the main
case.
Exception: Unless it is relevant to the point you are making, omit the
following:
• Denials of certiorari more than two years old;
• The history on remand if the case was remanded to a lower court for
further proceedings; and
• Denials of rehearing.

Examples: Subsequent History

H. Ordering Multiple Additions toRules 10.6.4, 1.5(b)
Citations
When a citation has more than one type of parenthetical information or
subsequent history appended, that appended information must be placed in a
specific order as provided in Bluebook Rule 1.5
Basic Rule: Prepare the parenthetical(s) or subsequent history following
Bluebook rules and the discussion for each type of information found in this
guide. Once prepared, place the the information in the order listed below. Do
not use punctuation between parentheticals, but leave a space. If the citation
includes subsequent history—which is not placed in parentheses—separate
the subsequent history with a comma.
1. Weight of authority (en banc);
2. Dissents or concurrence;
3. Weight of authority (plurality opinion, per curiam);
4. Quoting or citing parentheticals;
5. Explanatory parentheticals; and
6. Subsequent history.
If you encounter more complex situations than shown in this guide, see
Bluebook Rule 1.5(b).

Examples: Order of Multiple Additions Appended to Citations

3 Statutes
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 12 and Bluepages Rule B12 control the form for
statutory citations.
The legislative branches of the federal government and each state enact laws
governing the affairs within their borders. The body of law for a jurisdiction is
referred to as its “code,” and is published in multi-volume sets called “code
sets.” Individual laws found within the code are called “statutes” or “code
sections.”
Jurisdictions differ on how they organize statutes within their code sets. All
jurisdictions use some type of grouping to keep statutes on a particular topic
together. Most use a combination of titles, articles, and chapters, but there are
variations. Some jurisdictions include these subdivisions in their citation forms,
while others do not. Bluebook Table 1 will show you what to include in your
citation
Statutes are available in print sources, online from the jurisdiction itself,
and from commercial databases such as Westlaw, LEXIS, and Fastcase.
This chapter discusses print sources only. To cite statutes from commercial
databases, see Chapter 13 of this guide.
This chapter addresses the following:
A. Basic federal and state statutory citations, beginning on the next page;
B. Additional information that may be required including citing to
supplements, subject matter codes, and named statutes, beginning on page
76; and
C. Short form citations, beginning on page 77.
Before embarking on statutory citations, it is helpful to keep a few things in
mind:
Typefaces: By tradition, practitioners use ordinary type for all parts of
statutory citations, while academics use LARGE AND SMALL CAPITALS. The
rules have recently changed. Before using LARGE AND SMALL CAPITALS, see
discussion of typefaces in Chapter 1, beginning on page 6.
 Dates: The examples shown throughout this chapter are actual authorities
in force at the time of publication. Code sets are continuously updated as
statutes are enacted, revised, or repealed. Each jurisdiction follows its own
publication schedule for printing code sets and supplements. As it would
be impossible to keep up with the changes, this guide uses fictitious dates
and examples may not represent current law.

Official v. Unofficial Code Sets

Most jurisdictions' codes are published in more than one code set. Bluebook
Tables 1.1 (federal) and 1.3 (states) list the code sets available in each
jurisdiction. Of these multiple code sets, one set is usually the “official” code
set published by, or at the request of, the jurisdiction itself. Other code sets,
often called “unofficial” codes, are published by commercial publishers.
Many law firms and smaller law libraries do not maintain both official and
unofficial code sets, often choosing to purchase an unofficial set because of
the editorial enhancements they contain. Furthermore, the growth of online
commercial databases such as LEXIS and Westlaw has many practitioners
citing unofficial sets published by the database owners. To complicate
matters, a growing number of states no longer publish official codes, relying
on private publishers to fill the gap, further blurring the lines between official
and unofficial codes.
Does it matter? Current Bluebook rules allow citation to any available set,
although the preference is for citations to the official code. R. 12.2.1.
Most practitioners cite to whichever version of the code they have at
hand, official or unofficial, although local custom varies. Ask your
instructor or supervisor which version you should cite.
A. Federal and State Statutes Rules 12, B12
Statutory citations share common elements but the exact form for the citation
varies by jurisdiction. This section discusses the following:

1. Determining a jurisdiction's citation form, beginning below;

2. Basic rules for federal and state citations, beginning on page 70;
3. Rules for citing code names, beginning on page 70;
4. Division of codes into titles, chapters, sections, and subsections, beginning
on page 71;
5. Including publisher information, beginning on page 74; and
6. Year of code, beginning on page 75.

1. Form Table 1
The first step in constructing a statutory citation is determining the jurisdiction's
citation form in Bluebook Table 1.

Using Table 1 for Statutory Citation Forms

In most jurisdictions, the code is printed in more than one code set, some
officially published by the state and others published by commercial
publishers. The citation form differs depending on which code set you are
using. Follow these steps to determine the correct form for your code set.

1. Find the jurisdiction's entry in Bluebook Table 1.1 (federal) or 1.3 (state).
2. Under the jurisdiction's entry, find the section titled “Statutory
compilations.”
3. Read the text following the Statutory compilations heading. That text will
identify the “preferred” code to cite—usually the official code. Cite to this
version of the code if it is available to you. Otherwise, cite to one of the
other versions listed under the heading.
Statutory compilations: Cite to Mich. Comp. Laws, if therein.
4. Immediately beneath the Statutory compilations head are two columns.
The left column lists the names of all code sets available in that
jurisdiction. The right column shows the citation form for each available
 code set. See examples, below.

Michigan Compiled Laws MICH. COMP. LAWS § x.x (<year>)

(1979)
Michigan Compiled Laws MICH. COMP. LAWS ANN. § x.x (West <year>)
Annotated
Michigan Compiled Laws MICH. COMP. LAWS SERV. § x.x (LexisNexis
Service <year>)

5. Choose the citation form for the code set you are using. Copy the citation
form shown in the right column, substituting the section number for each
“x” and the date in place of <year>.

Citation Form Shown in Right Citation in Your Document

Column Above
MICH. COMP. LAWS § x.x (<year>) Mich. Comp. Laws § 446.205
(2019)
MICH. COMP. LAWS ANN. § x.x Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. §
(West <year>) 446.205 (West 2017)
MICH. COMP. LAWS SERV. § x.x Mich. Comp. Laws Serv. §
(LexisNexis <year>) 446.205 (LexisNexis 2016)
Reminder: The entries in Table 1 use SMALL CAPITALS. Practitioners may use
ordinary type.

Rules 12.1–12.3, B12.1 & Table 1

2. Basic Statutory Citations
Statutory citation forms vary by jurisdiction, but generally include the following
information:
(1) Name of code set being cited, abbreviated per Table 1;
(2) Section symbol and section number;
(3) Publisher, if required for the code set you are using; and
(4) Year the code set was published.
 For federal statutes only: The Bluebook recently changed Rule 12.3.2 and
no longer requires the code year be included in citations to federal statutes.
See discussion on page 76 of this guide.

3. Code Name Rule 12.3 & Table 1

Basic Rule No. 1: All Citations. Include the name of the code set you are
using following the form specified in Table 1 for that set.
Basic Rule No. 2: Citations Sentences and Clauses. In citation sentences
and clauses, abbreviate the code name as shown in Table 1.
Basic Rule No. 3: Embedded Citations. When the citation is embedded in
and an integral part of a text sentence, follow the appropriate rule below for
the jurisdiction:
(a) Federal Statutory Citations: Abbreviate the name of the code as
shown in Table 1.1. There is no difference between the citation
sentence or embedded citation form.
(b) State Statutory Citations: Do not abbreviate any words in the
name of the code set.
See discussion of citation sentences, clauses, and embedded
citations in Chapter 1 of this guide, beginning on page 12.

Examples: Code Name

4. Titles, Chapters, and Section Numbers

Code sets contain all the statutes in force in a specific jurisdiction. A typical
code set contains hundreds or thousands of individual statutes, divided into
some combination of titles and subtitles, parts and subparts, chapters and
subchapters, etc. A few jurisdictions divide their codes by subject matter,
discussed in Section B of this chapter. How much of this information is included
in the citation depends on the individual jurisdiction. As with all statutory
citations, follow the form in Table 1, including all information indicated, and
matching the spacing precisely.
For instructions on how to create a section symbol see the discussion and
shortcuts on page 152 of this guide.
Always leave a space between the section symbol and the section number, as
shown here with a gray dot.
Right: § 56-11-43 Wrong: §56-11-43.
Basic Rule No. 1: Federal Statutes. Place the title number before the code
name. Include a section symbol [ § ] after the code name, followed by the
section number.
 Basic Rule No. 2: State Statutes. Use the state's form in Table 1.3. Place a
section symbol [§] after the code name followed by the section number. A
few states include the title number or chapter number either before or after the
code set's name. See examples below.
States use a variety of methods to punctuate section numbers. Some
incorporate hyphens, others use periods or colons. Some states include the
title number (e.g., Delaware) or chapter number (e.g., Massachusetts). Be
sure to copy the form exactly as it appears in Table 1.3.

Examples: Titles and Sections

Basic Rule No. 3: Multiple Sections. More than one section may be cited in
a single citation, but the form varies depending on whether the sections are
consecutive or non-consecutive. For additional information, see Chapter 1,
pages 19–21 of this guide.
(a) Consecutive Sections: To cite consecutive sections, use TWO
section symbols [ §§ ] followed by the section numbers. Separate
the consecutive sections with an en dash (preferred) or a hyphen.
In addition:
(1) When the statute has no internal punctuation in the section numbers,
DO NOT drop repetitious digits.
Examples:
38 U.S.C. §§ 1717–1718 (2018).
Del. Code tit. 16, §§ 142–143 (West 2015).
(2) When the statute has internal punctuation, drop repetitious digits
preceding the punctuation.
Examples:
 Fla. Stat. §§ 90.201–.203 (2020).
La. Stat. Ann. §§ 17:10.1–.2 (2015).
(3) When the statute's internal punctuation consists of hyphens, or in any
other instance where there might be confusion, separate the sections
with “to.”

(b) Non-consecutive sections: To cite non-consecutive sections, use

TWO section symbols followed by the section numbers separated
by a comma. If the statute has internal punctuation, drop the
repetitious digits preceding the punctuation, but include the last
punctuation with the section number.
Examples:
38 U.S.C. §§ 1717, 1719 (2018).
N.C. Gen. Stat. §§ 48-2-304, -306 (2014).
Basic Rule No. 4: Subsections. To cite a subsection of a statute, append the
subsection letter or number to the end of the section number, without spaces,
and enclose in parentheses. To cite further subdivisions, append each new
subsection to the end, without spaces, and enclose in parentheses. See
examples, below.
Basic Rule No. 5: Multiple Subsections. More than one subsection may be
cited in a single citation, but the form varies depending on whether the
subsections are consecutive or non-consecutive.
(a) Multiple consecutive subsections: To cite consecutive
subsections of a single statute, use ONE section symbol followed
by the subsection numbers separated by an en dash (strongly
preferred) or a hyphen.
(b) Multiple non-consecutive subsections: To cite non-consecutive
subsections, use ONE section symbol followed by the subsection
numbers separated by a comma.
For additional information on citing multiple subsections, see
Chapter 1, pages 19–21 of this guide.
Examples: Sections and Subsections

5. Publisher Rule 12.3.1(d)

Basic Rule: Include the name of the publisher in parentheses at the end of the
citation when indicated in Table 1 for the code set you are using.
The publisher is included when citing unofficial codes. With major changes
to the publication process in the last few years, the line between official and
unofficial codes has blurred. The easiest thing to do is simply follow the form
in Table 1 for the specific code set you are using, inserting the publisher only
if indicated.

Examples: Publisher
 A Note About Publishers
In recent years there has been a consolidation of legal publishers. During this
ongoing process, some states' hardbound code sets may identify one
publisher while Bluebook Table 1.3 shows a different one. Or, the softbound
supplement or insert (pocket part), may be published by a different company
than the hardbound volume, reflecting a recent change in ownership.

Always follow Table 1.3 for the correct form for publication information,
but use the publisher's name actually appearing on the code set or
supplement you are using.

6. Year of Code Rule 12.3.2

Basic Rule: State Statutes: Include the publication year for the code set you
are using, placing it in parentheses at the end of the citation. The publication
year is determined by checking these places, in the following order:
(1) Spine: If a year is printed on the spine of the book or supplement, use
that date.
(2) Title page: If no year appears on the spine, use the year printed on the
title page.
 (3) Copyright date: If no year appears on the spine or title page, use the
copyright year.
The required information is the year that the code set was published,
NOT the year the statute was enacted.
Basic Rule: Federal Statutes. Inclusion of the code year is optional for
federal statutes only. To include the date, follow the same procedure as for
state statutes, described above. If the date is omitted, no parenthetical is
necessary for citations to the official code (U.S.C.). When citing an unofficial
code, include only the publisher in the parenthetical.
Examples:
U.S. Official 6 U.S.C. § 1405.
Code:
U.S. Unofficial 6 U.S.C.A. § 1405 6 U.S.C.S. § 1405 (LexisNexis).
Codes: (West).
B. Additional Information in Statutory Citations
Occasionally, additional information is required for full statutory citations, or is
included to help identify the statute. This section discusses the following:
1. Citing statutes printed in supplements, beginning on this page;
2. Citing subject matter codes, beginning on page 77; and
3. Citing named statutes (optional), beginning on page 77.

1. Supplements Rule 12.3.2

Basic Rule: When citing a statute that is printed in a supplement (or pocket
part), include the abbreviation “Supp.” in the date parenthetical. Place it after
the publisher's name (if any) and before the code year.
See additional discussion of citing supplements in Chapter 1 of this
guide, page 24.

Examples: Supplements

2. Subject Matter Codes Rule 12.3.1(c)

Basic Rule: Subject Matter Codes. Four states divide their codes by subject
matter: California, Maryland, New York, and Texas. To cite statutes for these
states, include the subject in the citation as shown in Table 1.3. Names and
abbreviations for the subjects are found in the Table immediately below the
state's basic form.

Examples: Subject Matter Codes

3. Named Statutes Rule 10.3.1(a)
Some statutes are well known by a common name such as the Americans With
Disabilities Act or Florida's Baker Act. When discussing these statutes, you may
choose to include the name of the act for the convenience of your reader.
If the act is not well known by its common name, or if citation to its name
would not be helpful (which is true in most circumstances), do not include
the statute's name in the citation.
Basic Rule: Provide the official name of the act, placing it before the
beginning of the citation. Omit “The” if it is the first word in the name. For
federal statutes, include the original section number. For state statutes,
include the original section number only if available. Follow the name with a
comma, then the full citation following Bluebook rules as described in Part A
of this chapter.
Examples:
Federal Homeland Security Act of 2002 § 517, 6 U.S.C. § 321f
Statute: (2018).
State Statute: Nevada Fair Housing Law, Nev. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 118.020
(2017)
C. Short Forms: Statutes Rules 4, 12.10, B12.2
Once a statute has been cited in full, shorten subsequent references by using
id. or the alternate short form described below.

1. Id. Rules 4.1, 12.10, B12.2

Basic Rule No. 1: All Id. Citations. When the immediately preceding
citation is to the same section, use id. without a pinpoint.
Basic Rule No. 2: Different Subsection. When citing a different subsection
of the statute found in the immediately preceding citation, use id. followed by
a section symbol, the section number, and the new subsection number(s) or
letter(s). Do not use “at” with a section symbol.
Basic Rule No 3: Different Section, Same Title. When the immediately
preceding citation is to a different section found in the same title of the code,
use id. followed by a section symbol and the new section number. Do not use
“at” with a section symbol.”
Basic Rule No 4: Different Title. When the immediately preceding citation is
to a statute found in a different title of the code, do not use id. Instead, use a
full citation if the new section has not been previously cited in the document,
or an alternate short short form when appropriate.
Basic Rule No 5: Embedded citations. When a citation is embedded in and
is an integral part of the text sentence, use an alternate short form—do not use
id.
For additional information, including when to capitalize id., see the
discussion of id. short forms beginning on page 26 of this guide.

Examples: Id. Short Forms

2. Alternate Short Form Rules 12.10, B12.2
The Bluebook provides various alternate short forms for statutory citations, but
offers little information on how to choose the correct one. The discussion below
will help you select an appropriate alternate short form.
Basic Rule: After an intervening citation to different authority, use an
alternate short form that “clearly identifies the statute” being cited. Use one of
the following versions: (a) regular, (b) expanded, (c) subject matter, or (d)
embedded.
(a) Regular alternate short form: Include a section symbol followed by a
space and the section number.
Use a regular short form when the statute has been cited recently in
your document, and there will be no confusion about the reference.

(b) Expanded alternate short form: Add the name of the code and, if
applicable, a title or chapter number, to the regular short form.
Use an expanded form when the statute has not been cited recently in
your document, or there may be confusion about the reference. For
example, if your document discusses statutes from multiple
jurisdictions, or you have included sections from different titles of the
U.S. Code, use an expanded short form.

(c) Subject matter alternate short form: Add the subject matter to the
 regular short form.
Use a subject matter short form when citing one of the four
jurisdictions that have subject matter codes.

(d) Embedded alternate short form: For state statutes only, spell out
“section” instead of using a section symbol; do not abbreviate any words
in expanded or subject matter short forms. For federal statutes, there is no
difference between an embedded citation and one in a citation sentence
Use an embedded alternate short form when the citation is an integral
part of the text sentence.

Examples: State Statutes

 Important Note
The preceding discussion covers basic statutory citation rules only. The
Bluebook has special rules for citations to repealed statutes or prior versions
of the law, an entire legislative act, individual portions of legislative acts,
session laws (for uncodified acts), and named statutes published in scattered
sections of the code. See Bluebook Rule 12 if you encounter any of these or
other situations not covered by this guide.
4 Constitutions
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 11 and Bluepages Rule B11 control citation forms
for Federal and state constitutions.
Constitutions are a type of enacted law but have their own citation forms.
This chapter discusses the following:
A. Basic citation forms for federal and statute constitutions, below; and
B. Short forms for constitutions, beginning on page 82.
A. Basic Citation Forms Rules 11, B11

Basic Rule No. 1: All Constitutions. Include the following information in the
full citation:
(1) The name of the jurisdiction, abbreviating United States to U.S. and state
names according to Table 10;
(2) The word Constitution, abbreviated to “Const.”;
(3) The word “article” or “amendment,” abbreviated according to Table 16;
and
(4) The article or amendment number, written in roman numerals.
Basic Rule No. 2: Sections. To pinpoint a section of the constitution, place a
comma after the article or amendment number and add the following:
(5) A section symbol, followed by a space; and
(6) The section number, written in arabic numerals.
Basic Rule No. 3: Clauses. To pinpoint a clause, place a comma after the
section number and add the following:
(7) The word clause, abbreviated as “cl.”; and
(8) The clause number, written in arabic numerals.
Basic Rule No. 4: Embedded Citations. When the citation is embedded in
and an integral part of a text sentence, include the same information as above,
but do not abbreviate any words. Spell out the word “section” instead of
using the section symbol.
 Important Note Regarding State Constitutions
Some state constitutions vary slightly in their organization. For example,
some states divide their constitutions first into chapters, then sections.
Include any additional subdivisions in your citation, abbreviating as
appropriate using Bluebook Table 16 as a guide.
B. Short Form: Constitutions Rules 11, B11
Basic Rule No. 1: Id. If there are no intervening citations to other authority,
use id. Include a new article, amendment, section, or clause as appropriate.
Basic Rule No. 2: Alternate Short Form. If id. cannot be used because of
intervening citations to different authority, use one of the following methods
as a short form:
(1) In citation sentences and clauses, use a full citation.
(2) In text sentences, you may substitute the common name for the article or
amendment (e.g., Fourteenth Amendment or Commerce Clause). See
examples below.

Examples: Constitutions
5 Regulations
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 14.2, Bluepages Rule B14, and Tables 1.2 and
1.3 control citations to federal and state administrative regulations. Whitepages
Rule 12.9.1 and Bluepages Rule B12.1.4 control citations to the Internal
Revenue Service Code and Treasury Regulations.
This chapter discusses citations to the following:
A. Federal administrative regulations, beginning on this page;
B. State administrative regulations, beginning on page 87;
C. Internal Revenue (IRS) code, beginning on page 88; and
D. Treasury Department regulations, beginning on page 90.
A. Federal Administrative RegulationsRules 14.2, B14
Basic Rule: Code of Federal Regulations. Cite to the Code of Federal
Regulations and include the following:
(1) The title number;
(2) The abbreviation for Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.);
(3) A section symbol ( § ) and the section number, including a pinpoint to
subsection(s), if applicable; and
(4) The edition year of the code set you are using, placed in parentheses at
the end of the citation.

Basic Rule: Federal Register. If the regulation is new and has not yet been
included in the Code of Federal Regulations, cite to the Federal Register
following Bluebook Rule 14.2(a). Include (a) the regulation's common name;
(b) volume number; (c) abbreviation for Federal Register (Fed. Reg.); (d)
beginning page number; (e) full date of publication, in parentheses; and (f)
where the regulation will be codified, if available. See example on the next
page.
Basic Rule: Named Regulations. In most circumstances it is not necessary to
include the name of the regulation. If including the name will be helpful
because the purpose of the regulation cannot be ascertained from context,
place it in front of the citation. See example below.
Basic Rule: Multiple Sections or Subsections. To cite multiple sections or
subsections of treasury regulations, see discussion beginning on page 19 of
this guide.
Basic Rule: Embedded Citations. Do not spell out words. Use a section
symbol and abbreviate the Code of Federal Regulations to C.F.R.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Short forms for regulations are controlled by Rule
14.5. Use one of the following short forms:
 (1) Id.: If there are no intervening citations to different authority, use id. For
additional information on id., see discussion on page 26 of this guide.
(2) Alternate Short Form: When id. cannot be used, use one of the
following alternate short forms: (a) a section symbol followed by the
regulation number; or (b) the title number, C.F.R. abbreviation, section
symbol, and section number.
Use version (a) if the previous citation to the regulation was recent and
there will be no confusion about the reference. Otherwise, use version (b).
Regulations change often and the code is updated frequently, thus is it
important to cite to the most recent edition of the code—always double-
check.

Examples: Federal Administrative Regulations

B. State Administrative Regulations Rules 14.2, B14
Basic Rule: Bluebook Form. Cite regulations to the state's administrative
compilation as shown in Table 1.3, using the same information included in
federal regulations.
Some states use the abbreviation “R.” or “r.” while others use a section
symbol. Be sure to follow the state's form exactly.
Basic Rule: Local Form. If a state has a local form for citing regulations, use
that form in documents submitted to the jurisdiction's courts. Otherwise, use
the Bluebook form.
Basic Rule: State Register. If the regulation is new and has not yet been
included in the state's official compilation, cite to the state's register, adapting
the Bluebook's rules for citations to the Federal Register discussed in Part A
of this chapter.
Named Regulations. In most circumstances it is unnecessary to include the
name of the regulation. If it will be helpful to include the name because the
purpose of the regulation cannot be ascertained from context, include the
name by placing it in front of the basic citation. See discussion for Federal
Regulations in Part A, above.
Basic Rule: Multiple Sections or Subsections. To cite multiple sections or
subsections of regulations, see discussion beginning on page 19 of this guide.
Basic Rule: Embedded Citations. If the citation is embedded in and an
integral part of the text sentence, do not abbreviate any words. Spell out
“section” instead of using the section symbol.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Short forms for regulations are governed by Rule
14.4. Use one of the following short forms:
(1) Id.: If there are no intervening citations to different authority, use id. For
additional information on id., see discussion on page 26 of this guide.
(2) Alternate Short Form: When id. cannot be used, use one of the
following alternate short forms: (a) a section symbol or “R.” followed by
the regulation number; or (b) adapt a form following the state's entry in
Table 1.3. Include the shortened name of the administrative compilation
followed by a second symbol or “R” and the regulation number.
Use version (a) if the previous citation to the regulation was recent and
 there will be no confusion about the reference. Otherwise, use version
(b).
Regulations change often and codes are updated frequently, thus is it
important to cite to the most recent edition of the state's code—always
double-check.

Examples: State Administrative Regulations

C. Internal Revenue Code Rules 12.9.1, B12.1.4
Although citations may be made directly to the United States Code following
the rules for federal statutes described in Chapter 3 of this guide, I.R.S. sections
are usually cited as follows.
Basic Rule: In citation sentences, clauses, and embedded citations, use
ordinary type and include:
(1) The abbreviation for the Internal Revenue Code (I.R.C.);
(2) A section symbol ( § ) and the section number, including a pinpoint to
any subsection(s);
(3) Optional: When citing an unofficial code, the publisher's name in a
parenthetical; and
(4) Optional: Code year.

Basic Rule: Optional Parenthetical. Practitioners may omit the year and
publisher parenthetical when discussing only the current version of federal
tax laws. See Rule B12.1.4.
Basic Rule: Multiple Sections or Subsections. To cite multiple sections or
subsections of the code, see discussion beginning on page 19 of this guide.
Basic Rule: Embedded Citations. Abbreviate the code name to I.R.C. and
use a section symbol; do not spell out words.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Short forms for the I.R.C. Code are governed by
Rule 12.10. Use one of the following short forms:
 (1) Id.: If there are no intervening citations to different authority, use id. For
additional information on id., see discussion on page 26 of this guide.
(2) Alternate Short Form: When id. cannot be used, use one of the
following alternate short forms: (a) a section symbol followed by the
section number; or (b) the abbreviated name of the code (I.R.C.), a section
symbol, and the section number.
Use version (a) if the previous citation to the section was recent and
there will be no confusion about the reference. Otherwise, use version
(b).

Examples: Internal Revenue Code

D. Treasury RegulationsB12.1.4, 12.9.1, and Table 1.2
Treasury regulations are published in the Code of Federal Regulations but have
their own citation form.
Basic Rule: In citation sentences, clauses, and embedded citations, use
ordinary type and include:
(1) The abbreviation for Treasury Regulation (Treas. Reg.);
(2) A section symbol ( § ) and the section number, including a pinpoint to
any subsection(s);
(3) Optional: When citing an unofficial code, the publisher's name in a
parenthetical; and
(4) Optional: Code year.

Basic Rule: Optional Parenthetical. Practitioners may omit the year and
publisher parenthetical when discussing only the current version of federal
tax laws. See Rule B12.1.4.
Basic Rule: Code Year. The code year may be included at the end of the
citation but is unnecessary when citing the regulation's current version.
Basic Rule: Multiple Sections or Subsections. To cite multiple sections or
subsections of treasury regulations, see discussion beginning on page 19 of
this guide.
Basic Rule: Embedded Citations. When a treasury regulation citation is
embedded in and an integral part of a text sentence, abbreviate the words and
 use a section symbol.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Short forms for treasury regulations are governed
by Rule 12.10. Use one of the following short forms:
(1) Id.: If there are no intervening citations to different authority, use id. For
additional information on id., see discussion on page 26 of this guide.
(2) Alternate Short Form: When id. cannot be used, use one of the
following alternate short forms: (a) a section symbol followed by the
regulation number; or (b) the title, the abbreviation for Treasury
Regulation, a section symbol, and the section number.
Use version (a) if the previous citation to the regulation was recent and
there will be no confusion about the reference. Otherwise, use version
(b).

Examples: Treasury Regulations

Important Note
The preceding discussion covers basic citation rules for the most frequently
cited regulatory materials. The Bluebook has additional rules for citations to
other materials, including administrative adjudications, advisory opinions,
revenue rulings, presidential papers, executive orders, patents, etc. Consult
Bluebook Rule 14 to cite these materials.
6 Procedural and Court Rules
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 12.9.3 and Bluepages Rule B12.1.3 control the
form of citations to procedural and court rules.
All courts, whether federal or state, have rules of procedure regulating the
conduct of business before that court. In addition, courts adopt “local rules”
applicable to how business is conducted in a particular division of the courts
such as trial and appellate courts, or specialized courts such as juvenile and
probate divisions. This chapter discusses the following:
A. Rules of procedure and evidence, beginning on this page;
B. Court rules for federal, state, and local jurisdictions, beginning on page
95; and
C. Short form citations, beginning on page 97.
 Rules 12.9.3, B12.1.3
A. Rules of Procedure and Evidence
Procedural rules govern how courts hear and determine what happens in civil,
criminal, or administrative proceedings. Procedural rules may affect how
evidence will be presented during trial, when an appeal can be filed, and a wide
range of other matters.

Rule 12.9.3
1. Federal Rules of Procedure and Evidence
Basic Rule: In citation sentences and clauses, provide the following
information, in ordinary type:
(1) The name of the jurisdiction, abbreviated to “Fed.”;
(2) The word “rule,” abbreviated to “R.”;
(3) The type of rule cited, abbreviated using Bluebook Rule 12.9.3 as a
guide; and
(4) The specific rule number.

Basic Rule: Embedded Citations. Do not abbreviate any words in the

citation.

Examples: Federal Rules of Procedure and Evidence

 Rules
2. State Rules of Procedure and 12.9.3,
EvidenceB12.1.3, BT2.2
Many states have rules governing citation forms for their procedural and
evidence rules. Although their abbreviations may differ, they will generally
contain the same information as the Bluebook form. In practice you will cite
using the form specified by the state where you are filing the document. If the
state does not have a specific citation form, follow Bluebook rules, adapting the
form as required. Ask your instructor or supervisor which form you should
follow.
Basic Rule: State Form. For documents filed in state courts, follow the
state's citation forms. Most state forms are listed in Table BT2.2, or may be
obtained from the state court's website.
Basic Rule: Bluebook Form. If the state does not have a specific form or the
document will be filed in a different jurisdiction, use the Bluebook form.
Include the following information:
(1) The name of the jurisdiction, abbreviated per Table 10.1;
(2) The word “rule” abbreviated to “R.”;
(3) The type of rule cited, abbreviated using Bluebook Rule 12.9.3 as a
guide; and
(4) The specific rule number.
 Basic Rule: Embedded Citations. If the citation is embedded in and an
integral part of the text sentence, do not abbreviate any words in the citation.

Examples: State Rules of Procedure and Evidence

B. Rules of Court Rules 12.9.3, BT2.2
Rules of court govern how matters are handled and cases are processed through
the court system. The rules may apply to all courts within a jurisdiction, or only
specific courts. The latter are often referred to as “local rules.”
To find citation forms for a specific court, first check Bluepages Table 2. If
you cannot find the form in BT2, use a search engine to search for [court
name] + court rules. Once you have located the rules, look in the rule index
for a “cite as” entry or similar terms. Often the citation form can be found in
the first rule, or the last rule in the first section of rules. Many courts do not
have specific citation forms; if you cannot find the local form, ask your
instructor or supervisor for assistance.

1. Federal Rules of Court Rule 12.9.3

Basic Rule: Local Form. If the court has a specific form, use the court's form
in documents filed in that court. Many citation forms for federal courts are
listed in Table BT2.1, or the citation form may be obtained from the court's
website.
Basic Rule: Bluebook Form. If the court does not have a specific form, use
the Bluebook form. Include the following information:
(1) Name of court issuing the rule, abbreviated as shown in Bluebook Tables
7 and 10, and using ordinary type;
(2) The word “rule” abbreviated to “R.”; and
(3) The rule number, including any applicable subsections.
Basic Rule: Embedded Citations. If the citation is embedded in and an
integral part of the text sentence, do not abbreviate any words in the citation.

Examples: Federal Court Rules

2. State Rules of Court
Basic Rule: State Form. If the court has a specific form, use the court's form
in documents filed in that court. Some state court forms are listed in Table
BT2.2, or the citation form may be obtained from the court's website.
Basic Rule: Bluebook Form. If the court does not have a specific form, use
the Bluebook form. Using Rule 12.9.3 as a guide, include the following
information:
(1) Identity of the jurisdiction and court issuing the rule, abbreviated as
shown in Bluebook Tables 7 and 10, and using ordinary type;
(2) The word “rule” abbreviated to “R.”; and
(3) The rule number, including any applicable subsections.
Basic Rule: Embedded Citations. If the citation is embedded in and an
integral part of the text sentence, do not abbreviate any words in the citation.

Examples: State Court Rules

C. Short Forms: Rules Rule 4
The Bluebook does not provide short forms for procedural or court rules. As
these rules are a type of enacted law similar to statutes, short forms should
follow the general rules for statutory citations, modified as appropriate. See
Bluebook Rule 4 (short forms), and Chapters 1 (introduction to short forms) and
3 (statutes) of this guide.
Basic Rule: Id. To cite the same rule as the immediately preceding citation,
use id.
Basic Rule: Alternate Short Form. Use Rule 12.10 as a guide to prepare one
of these suggested short forms:
(1) The abbreviation “R.” followed by the rule number. Use this form only if
the full citation has been used recently or it is clear from the text which
rule is cited.
(2) A shortened version of the rule name following by an “R.” and the rule
number. Use this form if there is any possibility it may be unclear which
rule is cited.

Examples: Alternate Short Forms for Rules

7 Secondary Sources
Bluebook Whitepages Rules 15–16 and Bluepages Rules B15–16 control the
form for citations to most secondary sources. This chapter discusses citations to
the following sources:
A. Treatises and books, beginning on this page;
B. Periodicals, beginning on page 103;
C. Restatements, beginning on page 108;
D. Legal dictionaries, beginning on page 110;
E. American Law Reports (A.L.R.) annotations, beginning on page 112; and
F. Legal encyclopedias, beginning on page 114.
This guide concentrates on the sources most frequently cited by
practitioners. Consult The Bluebook if the source you are citing is not
covered by this guide.
A. Treatises and Books Rules 15, B15
Basic Rule: Full Citation. Provide the following information:
(1) Author's full name, followed by a comma;
(2) Book title, underlined or italicized;
(3) Pinpoint page(s) or section(s);
(4) Publication edition, or other information if applicable; and
(5) Year of publication.

Pay careful attention to comma placement. Place a comma after the author's
name, but not between the book title and the page number.
SMALL CAPITALS may be used for the author's name and book title. Before
using SMALL CAPITALS, see discussion on page 7 of this guide.

1. Author's Full Name Rule 15.1

Basic Rule: Single Author. Provide the full name of the author, given name
first, and including any designations such as Jr., Sr., etc., but not professional
titles or other designations such as Prof. or J.D.
Basic Rule: Two Authors. Provide the full names of both authors in the order
appearing on the title page, separated by an ampersand, and following Basic
Rule: Single Authors, above.
Basic Rule: Three or More Authors. Use one of the following forms:
(a) Provide the full name of the first-listed author only, followed by “et al.,”
which is not separated from the author's name by a comma. Follow Basic
Rule: Single Authors, above, for the author's name.
This is the preferred form.
(b) Provide the full names of all authors in the order appearing on the title
 page following Basic Rule: Single Authors, above, for the authors' names.
Separate the authors' names with commas, except for the last name, which
should be set off with an ampersand.
List all authors only when the authors' names are particularly relevant,
a rare occurrence.
Basic Rule: Institutional Author. If the author is an institution (e.g., a
government agency or a non-profit organization), see Bluebook Rule 15.1(c).
Use Bluebook Tables 6 and 10 for abbreviations.

Examples: Authors

2. Book Title Rule 15.3

Basic Rule: Provide the full title of the book, underlined or italicized. Do
not abbreviate words in the title. Capitalize the first letter of each word
except articles, conjunctions, and prepositions, unless they begin the title's
name.
Include subtitles only if particularly relevant.
See examples of book titles throughout this section.

3. Pinpoint Page, Section, or Volume Rule 3

Basic Rule: Always provide the exact page or section number where the cited
material appears. For additional information on pinpoints, including citing
multiple pages or sections, see discussion on pages 18–21 of this guide.

Examples: Pinpoint Page or Section

4. Publication Information Rules 15.2, 15.4
Include any applicable publication information in parentheses at the end of
the citation. The following situations are the most commonly encountered by
practitioners.
Basic Rule: Editions. When the book has more than one edition, include the
number of the edition you are citing, followed by the abbreviation “ed.” for
edition. If the book has only one edition, omit the edition information.
Basic Rule: Supplements. To cite information found in a supplement to the
main volume, include “Supp.” in the parenthetical. See discussion of
pinpointing supplements on page 24 of this guide.
Basic Rule: Editors or Translators. When the book has an editor or
translator, include that information in the parenthetical. Give (1) the editor's
or translator's full name; (2) the abbreviation “ed.” or “trans.” as appropriate,
followed by a comma to separate from other publication information in the
parenthetical.
Basic Rule: Order of Parenthetical Information. When including more
than one piece of publication information in the parenthetical, place in the
following order: (1) editors or translators, followed by a comma; (2) edition
number; (3) supplement.

Examples: Publication Information

5. Year Rule 15.4
Basic Rule: Include the year of publication in parentheses at the end of the
citation; this will generally be the copyright year.

Rules
6. Short Forms: Treatises and 15.10, 4.1–.2, B15.2
Books
Basic Rule: Once a full citation has been given, a short form may be used
following the rules below.
(1) Id.: If there has been no intervening citation to a different authority, use
id., either alone or combined with a new pinpoint page, section number, or
footnote number. See discussion of id. beginning on page 26 of this guide.
(2) Alternate Short Form: If there has been an intervening citation to
different authority, use supra. Include the author's last name and a pinpoint
page or section number. See discussion of supra beginning on page 27 of
this guide.
If there are two authors, use both names. If there are three or more
authors, do not include all authors' names, even if all names were
included in the full citation. Instead, use the first author's name followed
by “et al.” See examples below.
Examples: Short Forms for Treatises & Books

Important Note
The preceding discussion covers basic citation rules for treatises and books.
The Bluebook has special rules for citations to works in a collection,
collected documents, and serials. Special rules apply to prefaces, forewords,
introductions, epilogues, and other situations. See Bluebook Rule 15 if you
encounter any of these situations.
 Rules 16, B16
B. Periodicals (Law Reviews and Journals)
This section discusses periodicals in print. Most periodicals exist in both print
and online versions available in commercial databases. Cite to the print version
when possible. If you are citing to a periodical that is only available through a
commercial database, see Chapter 13 of this guide. If you are citing a periodical
only available on the Internet (such as a law review article available on the
publisher's website, see Bluebook rule 18.2.1 and Chapter 13.
Basic Rule: Provide the following information, using ordinary type unless
otherwise specified:
(1) Author's full name, followed by a comma;
(2) Article title, underlined or italicized, followed by a comma;
(3) Volume number, if available;
(4) Name of periodical, abbreviated according to Bluebook Tables T6, T10,
and T13;
(5) Beginning page number;
(6) Pinpoint page(s); and
(7) Publication year.

1. Author's Full Name Rule 16.2

Basic Rule: Provide the full name of the author(s), given name first. Include
designations such as Jr., Sr., etc.
If there are multiple authors, follow the rules for treatises and books; see
discussion beginning on page 100 of this guide.
Occasionally a student-written work is not “signed,” i.e., it does not
include the author's name. In some student-written works, the author's
name appears at the end of the piece. Always check thoroughly before
concluding the work is “unsigned.” To cite an unsigned work, omit the
 author's name but provide the rest of the citation information.

2. Article Title Rule 16.3

Basic Rule: Articles. Provide the full title of the article, underlined or
italicized. Capitalize the first letter of each word except articles, conjunctions,
or prepositions of less than five letters, unless it is the first word in the title.
Do not abbreviate words in the title unless they are abbreviated in the
original.
Examples:
Less than Five Law in the Age of Reason
Letters:
Five or More Law in the Age After Reason
Letters:
Begins Title: Of Law and Reason
Basic Rule: Comments, Notes or Recent Developments (Student-Written
Works). Cite in the same manner as other works, but include the designation
of the piece (e.g., Comment, Note, Recent Development) after the author's
name.
Refer to the special rules found in Bluebook Rule 16.7.1 when citing to
student-written works, and see the examples below.

3. Volume Rule 16.4

Basic Rule: Provide the volume number, if available. If the periodical has no
volume number, use the publication year in place of the volume number and
omit the date parenthetical from the citation.

4. Periodical Name Rule 16.4

Basic Rule: Provide the abbreviated name of the periodical, in ordinary type,
using the abbreviations found in Bluebook Tables T6, T10, and T13. Follow
the steps in the box below to determine the correct abbreviation.
SMALL CAPITALS may be used for the periodical's name. Before using
SMALL CAPITALS, see discussion on page 7 of this guide.
 How To Abbreviate a Periodical Name
(1) Look up each word in the periodical's name in Tables T6 (Case Names
and Institutional Authors), T10 (Geographical Terms), and T13
(Institutional Names in Periodical Titles).
• If the word appears in one of the tables, use the abbreviation shown.
• If the word does not appear in any of the tables, spell out the entire
word; do not abbreviate.
University: When the periodical name includes University, do not
abbreviate to Univ., as shown in Table T6. Instead, abbreviate as
“U.”

(2) Omit the following words from the periodical's name: “a,” “at,” “in,”
“of,” and “the” (but retain the word “on”).
(3) If only one word remains in the title after “a,” “at,” “in,” “of,” or “the”
have been omitted, do not abbreviate that remaining word.
(4) Check for correct spacing between abbreviations following the
modified spacing rule described below.

Modified Spacing Rule for Periodical Names

Periodical names constitute an exception to the “single adjacent capital
letters” rule. See Bluebook Rule 6.1(a) and the discussion of spacing
beginning on page 24 of this guide.
Basic Rule: Periodicals. Close up all adjacent single capital letters, except
when one or more of the capitals refers to the name of an institutional entity,
such as a school's law review or journal. Include a space between the entity
initials and other single capital letters in the periodical's name.
5. Beginning Page Rule 16.4
Basic Rule: Provide the page number where the cited article begins.

6. Pinpoint Page(s) Rule 3

Basic Rule: Always provide the exact pinpoint page number(s) where the
cited material appears. See discussion of pinpoints beginning on page 17 of
this guide.

7. Year Rule 16.4

Basic Rule: Include in parentheses the year of publication. Generally this will
be the copyright year. Omit months, seasons (e.g., Winter), or similar
descriptions.

Short Forms: Periodicals Rules 16.9, B16.2

Basic Rule: Once a full citation has been given, a short form may be used
following the rules below.
1. Id.: If there has been no intervening citation to a different authority, use
id., either alone or combined with a new pinpoint page or footnote number.
See discussion of id. beginning on page 26 of this guide.
2. Supra: If there has been an intervening citation to different authority, use
supra. Include the author's last name and a pinpoint page number. See
discussion of supra beginning on page 27 of this guide.
If there are two authors, use both names. If there are three or more
authors, use the first author's name followed by “et al.” Follow the same
rule used for books and treatises, discussed on page 100 of this guide. See
also the examples below.

Examples: Periodicals
 Important Note
The preceding discussion covers basic citation rules for law reviews and
journals, the most frequently cited periodicals. The Bluebook has special
rules for citations to magazines, newspapers, institutional publications, and
other types of periodicals. See Bluebook Rule 16 if you encounter any of
these situations.

C. Restatements Rules 12.9.4, B12.1.3

Basic Rule No. 1: All Citations. Provide the following information:
 (1) The word “Restatement”;
(2) Series number, if applicable, placed in parentheses;
(3) The word “of”;
(4) Subject (e.g., Torts, Judgments, etc.), abbreviated per Table 6;
(5) Section symbol (§);
(6) Section number;
(7) Name of institutional author, abbreviated per Table 6; and
(8) Year of Publication.

The names of institutional authors are abbreviated using Table 6. At press

time for this guide, there was an inconsistency between the print and online
versions of The Bluebook. In the parenthetical, “Law” should be abbreviated
to “L.” In the print Bluebook, “Law” is abbreviated in the illustrations, but
the online version spells it out. Although this inconsistency may have been
resolved by this time, be sure to abbreviate American Law Institute to Am.
L. Inst., as shown in the examples below.
Don't forget to abbreviate any word in the title of the restatement. For
example, Restatement of Contracts is abbreviated to Restatement of Conts.
See examples in Rule 12.9.4 and in the table below.
Basic Rule No. 2: Subtitles. For Restatements that are divided into subtitles,
follow Basic Rule No. 1, but place a colon after the subject title, followed by
the subtitle.
Basic Rule No. 3: Comments. To cite a comment to a Restatement section,
follow Basic Rule No. 1, but after the section number, insert the abbreviation
“cmt.” followed by the comment letter or number.
Basic Rule No. 4: Illustrations. To cite an illustration of a Restatement rule,
follow Basic Rules No. 1 and 3, but follow the comment number or letter
with the abbreviation “illus.” and the illustration number.
Basic Rule No. 5: Supplements. If the cited section appears in a supplement,
 add “Supp.” to the date parenthetical. See discussion of citing supplements on
page 24 of this guide.
SMALL CAPITALS may be used for the restatement name and the institution's
name. Before using SMALL CAPITALS, see discussion on page 7 of this guide.

Short Forms: Restatements Rule 4

Basic Rule: Once a full citation has been given, a short form may be used
following the rules below.
(1) Id.: If there has been no intervening citation to a different authority, use
id., either alone or combined with a new pinpoint page, section, or footnote
number. See discussion of id. beginning on page 26 of this guide.
(2) Alternate Short Form: If there has been an intervening citation to
different authority, use an alternate short form following the general
principles of short form citations for statutes found in Rule 12.10. Use one
of these suggested forms:
(a) If it will be clear to the reader the citation refers to the Restatement
and not some other authority, use a section symbol followed by the
pinpoint.
(b) If the restatement has not been cited recently, or the citation may cause
confusion because of other authorities cited, include the shortened name
of the restatement, a section symbol, and pinpoint.
An example of when a citation may cause confusion is when
statutes and restatements are cited in the same general discussion,
as both forms use section symbols and numbers.
(c) If further clarification is required to avoid confusion, include the full
name of the restatement followed by a section symbol and pinpoint.

Examples: Restatements
D. Legal Dictionaries Rules 15.8, B15.1
Basic Rule: Provide the following information:
(1) The term being defined, italicized (not underlined), but see Important
Note About Capitalization and Italics, below;
(2) Dictionary name, with no abbreviations, underlined or italicized;
(3) Edition number, if any; and
(4) Year of publication.

SMALL CAPITALS may be used for the book title. Before using SMALL
CAPITALS, see discussion on page 7 of this guide.

Important Note About Italics Capitalization

Capitalization: Bluebook rules 15.8 and B15.1 are inconsistent when the
defined term includes two or more words. In the first example in Whitepages
rule 15.8, Noscitur a sociis, only the first word is capitalized. In the example
immediately below it, Good-Faith Bargaining, the term bargaining is
capitalized as well as the first term. In the Bluepages, only the Good-Faith
Bargaining example appears. Should you capitalize the second word? As a
practitioner, follow the Bluepages example with its capitalized second term.

Italics: Bluepages rule B15.1 shows mixed typefaces—both italics and

underlining in the same citation. Traditionalists might say that mixing the
typefaces is “wrong,” and that they should be both italics or both
underlining. For those using underlining in their citations, go ahead and mix
the typefaces as shown in Bluepages rule 15.1. For those using italics in
citations, use italics for both the defined term and the dictionary title.
Short Forms: Dictionaries Rule 15.10
The Bluebook does not provide short forms specific to dictionaries. The
citation form for dictionaries contains no pinpoint page or section number,
making it different from a typical short form for books illustrated in Rule
15.10. The following are suggested short forms for dictionaries. See general
discussion of short form citations beginning on page 26 of this guide.
Basic Rule: Once a full citation has been given, a short form may be used
following the suggestions below.
(a) Id.: If there is no intervening cite to different authority, use id. to cite the
same definition. To cite a different definition from the same dictionary,
use alternate short form (c), below.
(b) Alternate Short Form: Same Definition. If there has been an
intervening citation to different authority, include the dictionary's name,
shortened, followed by a comma and the word supra. No pinpoint is
necessary
(c) Alternate Short Form: Different Definition. To cite a different
definition from the same dictionary previously cited, include the defined
term, in italics, followed by the shortened name of the dictionary, then
supra. No pinpoint is necessary.
Basic Rule: All Citations. Provide the following information:
(1) Author's full name including designations such as Jr. or III, but omitting
terms such as Prof. or J.D., followed by a comma;
(2) The word “Annotation,” followed by a comma;
(3) Title of the annotation, underlined or italicized, with no abbreviations.
Capitalize the first letter of each word except articles, conjunctions, and
prepositions, followed by a comma;
(4) Volume number;

Examples: Dictionaries
 Rule 16.7.6
E. American Law Reports (A.L.R.) Annotations
American Law Reports has introduced two new series: A.L.R. 7th (state law
annotations) and A.L.R. Fed. 3d (federal annotations). Starting with these new
series, A.L.R. began organizing annotations by article number. The Bluebook
updated its citation form to reflect the change and to omit the beginning page
number from citations to the new series.
The Bluebook includes a citation example for the new series, but not for the
older series still in use by practitioners (state 3d through 6th, Fed., and Fed. 2d).
The discussion below provides citation forms for both the new and older series.
(5) Abbreviation for American Law Reports [“A.L.R.”], followed by the
series number [e.g., 5th, 7th, Fed. or Fed. 3d];
(6) The (a) beginning page number (older series); or (b) article number (new
series);
(7) Pinpoint page number; and
(8) Year of publication.

Supplement: If the cited information appears in a supplement, include the

abbreviation “Supp.” in the end parenthetical. See discussion of supplements
beginning on page 24 of this guide.
No Author: If the annotation has no author, begin the citation with the word
“Annotation,” followed by the remaining citation information.
Multiple Authors: If the annotation has multiple authors, see discussion of
multiple authors for books beginning on page 100 of this guide.
Multiple Pages: To cite multiple pages, see discussion beginning on page
 18 of this guide.

Short Forms: A.L.R. Annotations Rule 16.9

Basic Rule: Once a full citation has been given, a short form may be used
following the rules below.
(1) Id.: If there has been no intervening citation to a different authority, use
id., either alone or combined with a new pinpoint page, section number, or
footnote number. See discussion of id. beginning on page 26 of this guide.
(2) Alternate Short Form: If there has been an intervening citation to
different authority, use supra. Include the author's last name and a pinpoint
page number. See discussion of supra beginning on page 27 of this guide.
If there are two authors, use both names separated by an ampersand. If
there are three or more authors, use the first author's name followed by “et
al.” See examples below.

Examples: Annotations
F. Legal Encyclopedias Rule 15.8
Basic Rule: All Citations. Provide the following information:
(1) Volume number;
(2) Abbreviated name of encyclopedia and series number, if applicable;
(3) Title of main article or entry, without abbreviations, underlined or
italicized;
(4) Section symbol (§);
(5) Section number; and
(6) Year of publication.

Supplement: If the cited information appears in a supplement, include the

abbreviation “Supp.” in the parenthetical. See discussion beginning on page
24 of this guide.
Multiple Sections: To cite to multiple sections, see discussion beginning on
page 19 of this guide.
Subsections: To cite subsections, see discussion beginning on page 19 of
this guide.
SMALL CAPITALS may be used for the book title. Before using SMALL
CAPITALS, see discussion on page 7 of this guide.

Short Forms: Encyclopedias Rule 15.10

Basic Rule: Once a full citation has been given, a short form may be used
following the rules below.
1. Id.: If there has been no intervening citation to a different authority, use
id., either alone or combined with a new pinpoint page, section number, or
footnote number. See discussion of id. beginning on page 26 of this guide.
 2. Alternate Short Form: If there has been an intervening citation to
different authority, use supra. Include the volume number, abbreviated
name of the encyclopedia, and a pinpoint page or section number. See
discussion of supra beginning on page 27 of this guide.

Examples: Encyclopedias

Important Note
The preceding discussion covers basic citation rules for the most frequently
cited secondary sources. Check the index in the Bluebook for citation rules
for sources not addressed by this guide.
8 Litigation Documents and Record
Citations
Bluebook Bluepages Rule B17 controls the form for citations to documents
filed in trial courts (litigation documents) and citations to the record in appellate
courts.
In documents submitted to trial courts, it may be necessary to refer to other
documents previously submitted that are a part of the court file. These are
collectively referred to as “litigation documents.” If a case is in the appellate
stage, an official record of the proceedings in the lower court is created called
the “record on appeal,” or simply the “record.” Citations to both litigation
documents and the appellate record are almost exclusively used by practitioners,
thus the special rules that apply to these citations are found in the Bluepages.
This chapter discusses the following:
A. Basic citation forms for litigation documents and record citations,
beginning on this page;
B. Short forms for litigation documents, beginning on page 120; and
C. Enclosing citations in parentheses (optional), beginning on page 121.
 Rule B17
A. Litigation Documents and Appellate Record
Basic Rule: To cite a litigation document or the appellate record, provide the
following information. The entire citation may be placed in parentheses; see
the Note on the next page.
(1) Title of the document, abbreviated if appropriate; and
(2) Pinpoint to the exact page, line, paragraph or section of the document.

Important Note About Using Parentheses

By tradition and long-standing Bluebook rules, citations to court documents
have been enclosed in parentheses, but many jurisdictions have abandoned
those parentheses. This guide uses the “modern” form—without parentheses,
but ask your instructor or supervisor whether parentheses should be used for
your litigation document citations. If parentheses are used, see Part C of this
chapter, on page 117.

1. Document Title Rule B17.1.1

Basic Rule No. 1: Title. Provide the title of the document, abbreviated
according to Bluepages Table BT1. Omit articles and prepositions unless the
result would be ambiguous.
If a word of seven or more letters is not listed in Table BT1, you may use
a well-known abbreviation as long as the result is unambiguous. When in
doubt, spell it out.
Example: Disposition Hearing Dispo. Hr'g
 Basic Rule No. 2: Appellate Records. An appellate record may be known by
different names depending on the jurisdiction, but in citations it is always
referred to as the “Record” and is abbreviated as “R.”
Basic Rule No. 3: Multiple Documents with Same Title. If the litigation or
court file contains multiple documents with the same title, include additional
identifying information as follows:
(a) Name: For depositions, affidavits, letters, or similar documents given by
or identified with a person, include the person's name by placing it before
the document's title. Use only the surname name if it sufficiently identifies
the person. Use the full name if necessary to distinguish parties (e.g., a
husband and wife are both parties to the action). See example (a), below.
(b) Date: Include the document's date. Place the date at the end of the
citation separated by a comma. Abbreviate months according to Table 12.
See example (b), below, and Bluebook Rule B17.1.3.
(c) Name and Date: When necessary, use both name and date. See example
(c), below.
(d) Other Identifying Information: If using the above methods does not
sufficiently distinguish the document from other similar documents, add
additional information. This may be a nickname, time of day, or a
numbering system you have assigned. You will likely need to identify your
naming convention in the text of the document. See example (d), below.
Basic Rule No. 4: Embedded Citations. Do not abbreviate any words in the
title if the citation is embedded in and an integral part of a text sentence.

Examples: Document Titles

2. Pinpoint Citations Rule B17.1.2
Basic Rule: Include a pinpoint cite to the exact place the cited material
appears, following the specific rules below to cite to pages, sections,
paragraphs, lines, or exhibits.
(a) Pages: Litigation Documents. If the document is divided into pages,
provide the page number(s) after the document title; DO NOT use “at” to
separate the title and page number. For single page documents, pinpoint to
page 1.
(b) Pages: Appellate Record. To cite the appellate record, provide the page
number(s) after the document title, preceded by the word “at.”
(c) Sections: If a document is divided into sections, insert a section symbol
(§), followed by a space and the section number.
(d) Paragraphs: If a document is divided into numbered paragraphs, insert a
paragraph symbol (¶), followed by a space and the paragraph number.
(e) Lines: If the document further divides pages into numbered lines,
provide the page number on which the lines appear, followed by a colon
and the specific line numbers.
(f) Exhibits: If the material you are citing is in an exhibit or appendix
attached to the document, include the abbreviation “Ex.” (for Exhibit) or
“App.” (for Appendix) after the document title, followed by the exhibit or
appendix name.
 To cite multiple pages, sections, paragraphs, or lines, see discussion
beginning on page 17 of this guide.
For subdivisions not listed above, see Bluebook Table 16, which includes
abbreviations for columns, schedules, tables, and other terms you may
encounter, allowing for more precise pinpointing. Also consult Rule 17.1.2.

Examples: Pinpoint Citations

 Rule B17.2
B. Short Forms: Litigation and Record Citations
Basic Rule: After a full citation has been given, for subsequent references use
a short form that will clearly convey to the reader which document is being
cited. Id. may be used, if appropriate, or a shortened version of the full
citation.
See discussion of short form citations beginning on page 26 of this guide,
and examples below and in Bluebook Rule B17.2.
Exception for the Appellate Record: When citing an appellate record, only
use id. when citing the same page. When citing a different page, use R. at xx.

Examples: Short Form Litigation & Record Citations

C. Enclosing Citations in Parentheses
When local custom or your supervisor requires parentheses around litigation
document and record citations, you will need to adjust the punctuation as
described below.
Basic Rule: Punctuation. Place punctuation inside or outside the closing
parenthesis according to the following rules:
(a) Citation Sentences: Include the final period INSIDE the closing
parenthesis when the citation is in a citation sentence.
(b) Citation Clauses and Embedded Citations: Place punctuation outside
the closing parenthesis.
(1) When the citation appears at the end of your sentence, place a period
outside of the closing parenthesis as final punctuation.
(2) When the citation is in a clause in the middle of your sentence, do not
place any punctuation inside the closing parenthesis. Do not set off a
citation clause with commas, although you should include a comma
after the citation if required by ordinary rules of grammar.

Examples: Punctuation When Parentheses Are Used with

Litigation Document Citations
9 Strings, Signals, and Explanatory
Parentheticals
Bluebook Whitepages Rules 1.2–1.5 and Bluepages Rule B1 control the form
for string citations, signals and explanatory parentheticals—tools used to
concisely convey information about authorities without a detailed discussion.
These tools can be used individually or combined as appropriate. This chapter
discusses the following:
A. String citations, beginning on this page;
B. Signals, beginning on page 126; and
C. Explanatory parentheticals, beginning on page 131.
A. String Citations Rules 1.1, 1.4, B1.1
A string citation is two or more authorities that appear one after another to
support a single proposition. The basic rules for string citations are discussed in
Part 1 of this section, and short forms in string citations are discussed in Part 2.
Example: Two cases in a string citation
An appellate court may use a different rationale than the district court
as long as the ground is supported by the record. Lahoti v.
VeriCheck, Inc., 586 F.3d 1190, 1196 (9th Cir. 2009); Lambert v.
Blodgett, 393 F.3d 943, 965 (9th Cir. 2004).

1. String Basics
Basic Rule: All String Citations. Prepare a citation for each authority
included in the string citation following Bluebook rules for that authority.
Arrange the authorities within the string in a logical manner: If one authority
is considerably more helpful or authoritative than another, it should precede
the other, less helpful or authoritative ones. Separate individual authorities
with semicolons.
Although The Bluebook may show examples of multiple authorities
contained in a single string, practitioners should think carefully before using
more than two. Long string citations are difficult to read and obscure your
point.

About “Logical Manner”

Arranging authorities in a logical manner is new to the 21st edition of The

Bluebook. The previous edition followed a strict, traditional order based on
the hierarchy of each type of authority (statute, case, treatise, etc.). The new
rule leaves it up to you to determine how to arrange the authorities in the
string citation. There is no right way to order authorities as it will depend
upon your issues, but here are some hints.
Always place binding authority first.
If your issue is controlled by the law of a particular jurisdiction (e.g.,
State X, or 10th Circuit), the controlling jurisdiction's authorities should
 be listed first as they are more authoritative, followed by authorities
from other jurisdictions.
Example: Controlling jurisdiction is Illinois
Nat'l Bank of Bloomington v. Norfolk & W.R. Co., 383 N.E.2d 919,
923 (Ill. 1978); Evans v. Gibson, 31 P.2d 389, 392 (Cal. 1934).
If your issue is controlled by enacted law (e.g., constitutions or
statutes), list the enacted law first, then any supporting cases.
Example: Controlling authority is a statute
28 U.S.C. § 2244(d)(1); Morris v. Horn, 187 F.3d 333, 337 (3d Cir.
1999).
If two or more cases from the same jurisdiction state the same
proposition, list the cases from the highest court first, followed by
lower courts. If the cases are from the same jurisdiction and court,
arrange them in reverse chronological order.
Examples: Multiple authorities of same type
Different Court Levels: People v. Avila, 208 P.3d 634, 645 (Cal.
2009); People v. Johnson, 35 Cal. App. 5th 134, 137 (2019).
Same Court, Reverse Chronological Order: Whitney v. Guys, Inc.,
826 F.3d 1074, 1076 (8th Cir. 2016); Hitt v. Harsco Corp., 356 F.3d
920, 923 (8th Cir. 2004).
Still in doubt? Follow the hierarchy of authority using the traditional
method, arranging authorities in the order shown below.

Traditional Order of Authorities in a String

Citation
When citing multiple authorities in a string citation, the traditional method is
to organize authorities by hierarchy, in the order shown below. For example,
the [1] Federal Constitution is the highest law of the land and is placed first,
while a [12] law review article is the least authoritative and is placed last.
 1. Federal Constitution 7. Federal district court cases
2. State constitutions 8. Other federal court cases
3. Federal statutes 9. State court cases
4. State statutes 10. Restatements
5. U.S. Supreme Court cases 11. Books & treatises
6. Federal circuit court of appeals 12. Law review and journal articles
cases

Example: A citation to the [1] Federal Constitution; a [3] federal statute;

and a [4] state case, would be written as:
U.S. Const. art. VI, § 2; 8 U.S.C. § 1621 (2018); In re Garcia, 58 Cal.
4th 440, 459-60 (2014).

2. Short Forms in String Citations Rule 4

Basic Rule. Short forms may be used in string citations—with caution—for
any authority that has previously been cited in full, following the short form
rules for the authority being cited. Before using the id. short form, see the
exception below.
Exception for Id.: When the immediately preceding citation contains more
than one authority, id. cannot be used. In other words, when the immediately
preceding citation is a string citation, use an alternate short form for the new
citation.
Why? It would not be clear to the reader which authority the id. referred
to in the previous string citation. One authority? All cited authorities?
Examples:
First Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 156.029 (2018); Tenn. Code Ann. §
Citation: 49-1-301 (2020).
Next § 156.029.
Citation:
Or: Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 156.029.
But not: Id.
Examples: Short Forms in String Citations
B. Signals Rules 1.2–1.4, B1.2
A signal is a word or brief phrase placed in front of a citation to indicate how
the cited authority relates to a proposition stated in the text. This section
discusses:
1. Signal Basics, starting on page 127;
2. Using multiple signals in string citations, beginning on page 129;
3. Using signals with short forms, beginning on page 131, and
4. Using signals with explanatory parentheticals, beginning on page 131.
The Bluebook authorizes eleven signals, plus combination signals. Practitioners
typically use only six of these signals, the ones that indicate support or provide
background information. The remaining signals, used for making comparisons
or showing contradiction, are more commonly used by academic writers.
Signals must be chosen with care because each conveys a slightly different
message to the reader. The six support and background signals commonly used
by practitioners are described in Chart A, below. For explanations of other
signals, see Bluebook Rule 1.2.

1. Signal Basics
Basic Rule: All Signals. Determine the appropriate signal by using Chart A,
below, and the descriptions in Bluebook rule 1.2. Once the appropriate signal
has been identified, place it before the citation. Underline or italicize the
signal. Capitalize the signal only if it begins a citation sentence.
Examples:
Underlining: See also Stone v. State, 74 S.W.3d 591, 594 (Ark. 2001).
Italics: See also Stone v. State, 74 S.W.3d 591, 594 (Ark. 2001).
When signals are used with cases, both the signal and the case name must be
underlined or italicized. Keep these two things in mind:
• Be consistent. If you underline the signal, underline the case name; if you
use italics, italicize both.
• If you use underlining, break the underline between the signal and case
 name; do not use one continuous line to underline both. Notice the break in
the example above.
Basic Rule: Combining Signals. Signals can be combined when appropriate.
Underline or italicize as one unit.
Example: See + E.g., = See, e.g.,
Merely moving into a home with another with whom one has a romantic
relationship does not constitute the giving of consideration essential to
contract formation. See, e.g., Williams v. Ormsby, 131 Ohio St. 3d 427,
437 (2012).

Chart A: Description of Individual Signals

 A Note About Direct v. Inferential Support
Pay careful attention to whether a citation “directly” or “inferentially”
supports your proposition so that you can choose the correct signal.
Direct Support: The cited portion of the authority matches what your
proposition says. It may be a quotation or a paraphrase, but it will be evident
to the reader how the authority supports the proposition.
Inferential Support: The cited portion of the authority does not say
precisely what your proposition says, but is analogous or follows from it.
The reader must take an inferential step to “see” how the authority supports
the proposition.

Rules 1.3, 1.4

2. Using Multiple Signals in a Single String
Signals may be used with multiple authorities in a string citation. All authorities
may follow the same signal, or multiple signals may be used when appropriate.
Read the inset below, About Type and Rank, then follow the steps to correctly
order your signals and authorities in a string citation:

About Type and Rank

Type: There are four “types” of signals: Support, comparison, contradiction,
and background. The right column in Chart B, below, briefly describes each
signal type. Notice in the chart that individual signals are grouped by signal
type, and are arranged in a hierarchy: Support-type signals at the top, as they
provide the strongest support for your proposition, and the background-type
signal at the bottom, as they provide the weakest support. Signal types factor
into your citation in Step 4, below.
Rank: Within each signal type, individual signals are “ranked.” Chart B
assigns a number to each signal. A signal ranked 2. offers more authority
than a signal ranked 8.

Step 1: After determining the appropriate signal for each authority you
will include in your string citation, use Chart B, below, to determine
the signal's “rank.”

Chart B: Signal Types and Ranks

 Step 2: Arrange authorities in your string by rank order, as identified in
Chart B.
Notice that each signal is “ranked” with a number. The higher the
number, the stronger the support it offers.
Step 3: If multiple authorities share the same signal, arrange the authorities
within the string in a logical manner as discussed in section A of this
chapter.
Step 4: Separate individual authorities in the string with appropriate
punctuation following these rules:
(a) Separate individual authorities of the same type with semicolons.
(b) Separate individual authorities of different types with periods.
In other words, each type of signal (and its authorities) is in it its own
citation sentence, starting with a capital letter and ending in a period.
Each new type of signal added to the string begins a new citation
sentence. See the examples, below.

Examples: Multiple Signals with Multiple Authorities

3. Using Short Forms with Signals
Basic Rule: Short forms may be used with signals following the ordinary
rules for short forms discussed in Chapter 1 of this guide. When using
multiple authorities in a string citation, see discussion of short forms with
strings on page 125 of this chapter.
Exception for id.: When the immediately preceding citation contains more
than one citation (i.e., a string citation), id. cannot be used. Instead, use the
alternate short form for the specific authority.
Example:
The statutes do not refer to the license held by a professional who has
yet to establish a practice. O'Brien v. O'Brien, 66 N.Y.2d 576, 586
(1985). Furthermore, there is no legal or logical reason to restrict the
statute's plain language to existing practices. See id. at 586; see e.g.,
Arvantides v. Arvantides, 64 N.Y.2d 1033, 1033 (1985). A license
represents a privilege conferred upon the professional spouse and the
determination that a professional license is marital property is consistent
with the conceptual basis of the statute. See O'Brien, 66 N.Y.2d at 586.
C. Explanatory Parentheticals Rules 1.5, B1.3
Explanatory parentheticals provide additional information about the authority
cited without the need for a detailed discussion in the text. Explanatory
parentheticals can be used to provide context for the authority or to clarify the
use of a particular signal. They are most commonly used with cases, but can be
used with any type of authority.
The Bluebook either encourages or strongly recommends using explanatory
parentheticals with some signals to briefly explain the relationship between the
authority and the proposition stated. However, explanatory parentheticals can be
used with any signal if it will help the reader follow your argument. The chart
below shows which signals should be accompanied by explanatory
parentheticals.

Basic Rule No. 1: All Citations. Succinctly explain the relevance of the cited
proposition, placing the explanation in parentheses at the end of the citation.
• Parenthetical information should be as concise as possible without
sacrificing clarity.
• Omit articles and prepositions unless the result would be confusing.
• Do not capitalize the first letter unless quoting an entire sentence.
• Place citation-ending punctuation outside the closing parenthesis.
Basic Rule No. 2: Participial Phrases. Explanatory phrases often begin with
the present participle form of a verb (one that ends with -ing). Use the
following to determine whether a participial phrase is necessary.
• Use a Participial Phrase When: A court is taking action. Begin the
parenthetical with a present participle form of a verb when describing an
 action taken by a court such as holding, finding, affirming, interpreting,
etc.
• Do Not Use a Participial Phrase When: You are stating facts, rules of
law, or contextual information about a case, or the cited authority is a
statute or other type of primary authority.
Basic Rule No. 3: Quotations. If the explanatory parenthetical consists
entirely of a quoted sentence, place the entire sentence in quotation marks,
capitalize the first word, and place the quotation's ending punctuation inside
the closing parenthesis. Place citation-ending punctuation after the closing
parenthesis. See the examples on the next page.
Indicate any omissions or alterations to the quoted material following
rules 5.2 and 5.3.

Examples: Explanatory Parentheticals

 Signals and Explanatory Parentheticals Are Not
a Substitute for Analysis!
It is easy to abuse both signals and explanatory parentheticals. While they
are useful tools, writers should be wary of misuse. Do not substitute either
tool for actual analysis of the cited authorities. Do not slap a signal such as
“see generally” in front of a citation and convince yourself that the signal
substitutes for explaining the relevant case law. Use explanatory
parentheticals only for information that is simple and not an important part of
your discussion or argument. If the material is important to the issue, always
explain it in the text.
10 Quotations
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 5 and Bluepages Rule B5 control the style for
quotations in legal documents. This chapter discusses the following:
A. The basic form of quotations, beginning on this page;
B. Making alterations to quotations, beginning on page 137; and
C. Omitting portions of quoted material, beginning on page 139.
A. Form of Quotations Rules 5.1, B5.1
Basic Rule: Count the number of words in the quoted passage. If the quoted
passage contains:
1. Fifty words or more, use a block quotation, following the rules
described in Part 1, below.
2. Forty-nine or fewer words, use a short quotation, incorporating the
quoted material directly into your text sentence or paragraph, following the
rules described in Part 2, below.

Examples: Quotations

1. Block Quotations Rule 5.1(a)

Basic Rule: For quotations of fifty or more words:
(a) Single space;
(b) Fully justify;
(c) Indent left and right;
(d) Do not enclose in quotation marks; and
 (e) Follow with a citation to the quote's source, placed at the left margin of
the paper (i.e., not part of the block quote itself), leaving one blank line
between the end of the block quotation and the citation.

2. Short Quotations Rule 5.1(b)

Basic Rule: Shorter passages of forty-nine or fewer words are incorporated
into the text of the document as follows:
(a) Place the quoted passage in quotation marks;
(b) Do not change the format, i.e., do not indent or change the line spacing;
and
(c) Follow the quote immediately with a citation to the quote's source.
(d) Whether punctuation is placed inside the quotation marks depends on the
type and usage of the punctuation mark.
• Commas and Periods: Always place inside the closing quote mark.
• Semicolons: Place outside the closing quote mark.
• Question Marks: Place inside or outside the closing quote mark,
depending on whether the question mark is part of the quote itself (place
inside), or it punctuates the non-quoted material (place outside).
• Exclamation Points: Place inside the closing quote mark if it is part of
the quote itself.
Exclamation points that are not part of a quote are not used in formal
legal writing. Change to a period.

Examples: Punctuation
B. Alterations Rule 5.2
Sometimes it is necessary to slightly alter a quotation so that it fits neatly into
the structure of your sentence or paragraph, or to insert a word to help the reader
better understand the quoted material. If an alternation is made, that alteration,
no matter how small, must be made known to the reader. This is accomplished
by the use of brackets around the altered material.
Basic Rule: All Alterations. Enclose the altered material in brackets. To add
a word or phrase, enclose the addition in brackets. To omit letters from a root
word, or to change a plural to singular, use empty brackets. See examples
below.
Basic Rule: Emphasis. To emphasize a word or phrase in a quotation that is
not emphasized in the original, convert the emphasized text to italics, then
add a parenthetical at the end of the citation enclosing the words “emphasis
added.”
If the word or phrase is emphasized in the original, keep that emphasis,
but DO NOT add a parenthetical saying the emphasis was in original. This
makes sense if you consider that you are not altering the text if you are
copying the original emphasis.
Bluebook Rule 5.2 discusses additional, less common, situations you may
encounter when altering quotations, including the use of “sic” to indicate a
mistake in the original, and altering quotations within quotations. Consult
The Bluebook if you encounter these situations.

Examples: Altering Quotations

C. Omissions Rule 5.3
Quotations can be shortened to omit unnecessary detail. Any omission must be
clearly indicated to the reader, no matter how small.
Basic Rule No. 1: All Omissions. Omission are indicated by a series of three
periods, known as an ellipsis. Periods in the ellipsis must be surrounded by
spaces before, between and after each period.
Right: “Include spaces . . . before, between and after each period.”
Wrong: “Include spaces...before, between and after each period.”
Basic Rule No. 2: Omitting Beginning of Quote. To omit material at the
beginning of a quote, simply add quotation marks at the start of your quote.
Do not use a leading ellipsis.
Right: “[S]tart the quoted passage with quote marks.”
Wrong: “. . . [D]o not use a leading ellipsis.”
Basic Rule No. 3: Omitting Middle of Quote. To omit material from the
middle of a quoted passage, insert an ellipsis in place of the excised words.
Right: “Use three periods to indicate an . . . omission from the middle of
a sentence.”
Wrong: “Don't forget...the spaces between the periods.”
Basic Rule No. 4: Omitting End of Quote. To omit material at the end of a
quote which also ends your sentence, use an ellipsis PLUS the final
punctuation for your sentence (e.g. four periods, or three periods and a
question mark).
Right: “Use four periods to indicate an omission at the end of a sentence .
. . .”
Wrong: “Don't forget the sentence-ending punctuation . . .”
Some publishers use asterisks [ *** ] instead of periods to indicate
omissions of material. This is not Bluebook style; use only periods to
indicate omissions.

Examples: Omissions in Quotations

 A Little Guidance on Omissions
Although The Bluebook provides rules for how to omit text from quotations,
it does not provide rules for determining how much of the text to quote or
what to omit. Here are a few tips to help you decide.
• Quote as little as possible. In most circumstances, it is unnecessary to
 quote an entire sentence. Instead, paraphrase the sentence and quote only
the key language: the three or four words you want your reader to notice.
• If a longer quote is necessary, keep omissions to a minimum. Too many
omissions in a single sentence or passage makes the reader wonder what
was left out—has the meaning been accidently (or deliberately!) altered by
dropping some words? It is far better to paraphrase the passage and quote
only the key language.
• Rarely (as in almost never) quote a fifty-plus word passage requiring a
block quotation. Rarely (as in almost never) is the language of the entire
passage so vital that it cannot be paraphrased and shortened. Busy readers
tend to skip or skim block quotes, potentially missing the point you are
making, and rendering the entire block quote useless. With the possible
exception of critical language in a statute that cannot be paraphrased
without changing its meaning, avoid block quotes by using a combination
of paraphrasing and short quotations of key language.
11 Capitalization
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 8 and Bluepages Rule B7.3 control the
capitalization of certain words and names in textual sentences. This chapter
discusses the following rules:
A. General capitalization rules, beginning on this page; and
B. Special capitalization rules for court documents and proceedings,
beginning on page 145.
A. Capitalization Basics Rules 8, B8
Basic Rule No. 1: Titles and Headings. Capitalize all words in titles or
headings, even if the word is not capitalized in the original.
Exception: Do not capitalize articles, conjunctions or prepositions that are
less than five letters, UNLESS it is the first word of a heading or title, or
follows a colon. Rule 8(a).
Examples:
Heading: The Measure Was Materially Relevant to the Attainment of the
Military Purpose.
Title: Seven Pillars of a New Evidentiary Paradigm: The Food, Drug,
and Cosmetic Act Enters the Genomic Era.
Basic Rule No. 2: Specific Persons or Groups. Capitalize nouns that
identify SPECIFIC persons, officials, groups, government offices or
government bodies; do not capitalize when the noun is a general reference.
Rule 8(c).
Examples:
The President spoke briefly.
The various organizations' presidents met briefly.
The Congress met in regular session.
The congressional committees gave their reports.
Basic Rule No. 3: Other Words. Certain words when used in certain
contexts should always be capitalized. See Bluebook Rule 8(c) and the chart
on the next page.

Examples: Capitalized Words Rule 8(c)

B. Court Documents and Proceedings Rule B8
In practitioners' documents, including office memoranda and documents that
will be submitted to a court, the following words may need to be capitalized:
(1). The word “court”;
(2) Words designating parties to a legal action;
(3) The titles of court documents; and
(4) The titles of court proceedings.

1. Courts Rule B8
Basic Rule: In text sentences, do not capitalize the word court when making a
general reference to a court. Always capitalize the word “court” when
referring to any of the following:
(a) The full name of a specific court;
(b) The United States Supreme Court; and
(c) The court that will be receiving the document.
In other words, capitalize if you are referring to the Court that is deciding
your matter. If you are referring to a different court, such as a court that
decided a precedent case you are discussing, do not capitalize.

Examples: Capitalization of Court

2. Parties to a Legal Action Rule B8
Basic Rule: Capitalize any words referring to parties to your legal action. Do
not capitalize party designations in other legal actions (e.g., parties in
precedent cases).

Examples: Capitalization of Party Names

3. Titles of Court Documents Rule B8

Basic Rule: Capitalize the full or shortened titles of documents prepared in
connection with your legal action. Do not capitalize generic names of court
documents filed in your case, or court documents filed in other cases (e.g.,
precedent cases).

Examples: Capitalization of Court Document Titles

4. Court Proceedings Rule B8

Basic Rule: Capitalize the full title of court proceedings in connection with
your legal action. Do not capitalize generic references in your case or
proceedings in other cases (e.g., precedent cases).
Examples: Capitalization of Court Proceedings

5. Judges Rule B8
Basic Rule: Judges and Justices. Always capitalize the title judge or justice
in the following circumstances:
(1) When giving the full name of a judge or justice;
(2) When referring to Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court and, although not
required by The Bluebook, when referring to Justices of your state's
highest court.
(3) When referring to the Judge who is hearing your matter, but not when
referring to judges or justices in another matter, including precedent cases.

Examples: Capitalization of Judges and Justices

12 Numbers, Numerals, Ordinals, and
Symbols
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 6.2 controls how numbers, numerals, and ordinals
are written in documents, and provides rules for inclusion of symbols in textual
sentences. This chapter discusses the following:
A. When to spell out numbers, and when to use numerals, beginning on this
page;
B. Using ordinals, beginning on page 151; and
C. Using section, paragraph, and percent symbols, and dollar signs,
beginning on page 151.
A. Numbers and Numerals Rule 6.2(a)
Basic Rule No. 1: Spell out the numbers zero to ninety-nine in textual
sentences. Use numerals for numbers 100 and larger.
Exception 1: Spell out numbers in the following situations:
(a) Any number that begins a sentence; and
(b) Round numbers (optional).
Exception 2: Use numerals in the following situations:
(a) Numbers in a series that includes numbers both greater and less than
100;
(b) Numbers that include decimals; and
(c) Numbers that include repeated percentages or dollar amounts.
Basic Rule No. 2: Commas. For numbers four digits or larger, use commas to
separate thousands. Rule 6.2(vii).

Examples: Numbers and Numerals

B. Ordinals Rule 6.2(b)
Basic Rule No. 1: Text Sentences. When a numeral is followed by an
ordinal, use a two-letter abbreviation for the ordinal [101st, 102nd, 103rd,
etc.].
102nd anniversary of the landmark decision.
Do not use superscript.
Right: 102nd
Wrong: 102nd
Basic Rule No. 2: Citations. Basic Rule No. 1, above, applies only to
ordinals in text sentences, NOT citations. In citations, use “2d” and “3d”
when referring to a second or third series number or judicial division. Use
two-letter abbreviations for all other series or divisions.
Examples:
Use One-Letter Abbreviations: N.E.2d 3d Cir.
Use Two-Letter Abbreviations: 1st Cir. 4th Dist. A.L.R.5th
C. Symbols Rules 6.2(c)–(d)
Basic Rule No. 1: Section and Paragraph Symbols. Spell out the words
“section” and “paragraph” in text sentences, except when referring to sections
of the United States Code. In citation sentences, use section (§ or §) or
paragraph (¶) symbols. Insert one space between the symbol and the
numeral.
See “How to Create Section and Paragraph Symbols” at the end of this
chapter.
Basic Rule No. 2: Dollar Signs and Percent Symbols. Spell out the words
“dollar” and “percent” whenever numbers are spelled out. Use the symbols
for dollars ($) and percentage (%) whenever numerals are used. DO NOT
insert a space between the symbol and the numeral.
See discussion of when to spell out numbers in Part A of this chapter.

Examples: Symbols
 How to Create Symbols
To create section (§ or §) or paragraph (¶) symbols in Word, follow these
instructions.

PC: From the “insert” drop down menu, select “symbol.” Look through the
collection of symbols for the § or ¶ symbol. Double-click on the
symbol to insert.
SHORTCUT: Hold down the ALT key and type 21 for a section
symbol, or 20 for a paragraph symbol on the numeric keypad. The
symbol will appear when you release the ALT key.
NOTE: This shortcut will work only if you enter the number using the
numeric keypad located on the right side of the keyboard. The PC
shortcut will not work by using the number keys at the top of the
keyboard. On laptops that do not have a numeric keypad, the shortcuts
will only work if the “NumLk” is toggled to convert the right hand
keys into a numeric keypad.
Mac: Hold down the OPTION key and type 6 for a section symbol, or 7 for
a paragraph symbol. This works the same on both desktop and laptop
models.
13 Electronic Sources
Bluebook Whitepages Rule 18 and Bluepages Rule B18 control citations to
electronic sources. Additional rules apply to specific types of sources.
When the first edition of the Bluebook was released in 1926, there was no
such thing as an electronic database, and citations to cases, statutes, and other
legal materials could only be made to their printed form—nothing else existed.
Of course things have changed. While law libraries and lawyers' offices are still
crammed with print sets of case reports, codes, and secondary authorities,
practitioners increasingly turn to electronic sources for their day-to-day research
needs.
Even after the switch to electronic sources, The Bluebook continues to
strongly encourage citation to print versions of legal materials. As a general
rule, electronic versions of authorities are to be cited only if the material is not
readily available in print. Of course “readily available” is open to interpretation,
and most practitioners routinely cite to electronic versions they obtained from
“reliable sources.”
Although the content is the same whether you are using print or electronic
versions, the form for the citation may differ. For example, a statute
photocopied from a printed code set will say exactly the same thing as a statute
from an online legal database, but the citation must be adjusted to indicate
whether your source was a print or electronic version.
This Chapter discusses citations to the two largest commercial databases,
Westlaw and LEXIS, citations to Internet authorities for some authorities, and
offers an optional, non-Bluebook-approved alternate form for practitioners to
replace some of the more cumbersome Bluebook forms. The following
authorities are included:
A. Cases, beginning on page 155;
B. Statutory law, beginning on page 160;
C. Constitutions, beginning on page 163;
D. Regulations, beginning on page 164;
E. Procedural and court rules, beginning on page 165; and
 F. Secondary sources, beginning on page 166.

A Note About Reliable Sources

The Bluebook allows citations to “reliable” online sources—ones that have
long track records of trustworthiness. Here is some guidance for choosing
reliable sources.
Commercial Databases: Reliable. The large commercial databases,
including Westlaw, LEXIS, Bloomberg, VersusLaw, and Loislaw, are all
reliable sources and can be cited directly.
Court and Government Websites: Reliable, With Caution. Sites
maintained by a governmental body are reliable if the document is
“authenticated” or is an “official version” as described below.
Internet Websites (Non-Governmental): Not Reliable for Primary
Authority. Although information found on many websites may be accurate,
sites maintained by individuals or organizations should not be cited for
primary authority as they lack the history of reliability of the commercial
databases. They may be cited for some secondary sources when the
information is not available from another, reliable, source, as discussed in
this Chapter.

Authenticated Documents: Available for most federal government

documents and many state documents, these are encrypted to prevent
tampering. An authenticated document will have a certificate, logo, or digital
signature attesting to its authenticity. Look for an indication of authenticity
on the document itself, or elsewhere on the website.
Official Versions: Many states designate an “official source” for documents,
usually maintained on the state's official website. Look for words indicating
the document (or website) is official.

A Note About Practitioners' Alternate Forms

 (Optional)
The Bluebook forms for citation to electronic sources do not necessarily
reflect the needs of practitioners. Those forms often include redundant
information, or information in a form that is not useful in practice.
Additionally, a practitioners' cite to one commercial database is not useful if
the reader only has access to a different database. Local customs generally
translate the Bluebook's forms into something more practical for use in law
offices.
This guide offers an alternate form for citations to most of the sources
discussed in this section. These alternate forms are NOT in Bluebook form,
rather they show another way to cite the source that is tailored to
practitioners' needs. It is more consistent in form between different sources,
while still providing all information required for easy location of the source
material in any commercial database.
Before using a practitioners' alternate form, be sure to check with
your instructor or supervisor. While you are learning citation, you
may be asked to follow Bluebook form.
A. Cases Rules 18.3, 10.8, B10.1.4
Any case printed in a hardbound print volume is also available from electronic
sources. In addition, many “unreported” cases, also known as “unpublished”
cases, are available electronically. Citation forms vary between published and
unpublished opinions, as explained below. This Part discusses the following
topics:
1. Citing published decisions to commercial databases, beginning on page
156;
2. Citing unpublished decisions to commercial databases, beginning on page
157; and
3. Citing Authenticated or Official decisions from a government website on
page 160.

About Unpublished Decisions

In response to the growing number of cases winding through the appellate
process, more and more decisions are designated as “unpublished
opinions.” These are decisions that the court determines are of insufficient
precedential value to warrant publication in official reporters. Often these
cases are cumulative, applying well-established rules of law to facts similar
to those in prior cases. Although not appearing in print reporters (except the
Federal Appendix, discussed later in this chapter), they are widely available
through commercial databases and court websites.
When to cite unpublished opinions—if at all—is beyond the scope of this
guide, but it is important to learn to identify unpublished opinions that you
will come across when researching in commercial databases. The following
are clues that you might be looking at an unpublished opinion.
1. Look for a notation at the top of the opinion stating “not for publication”
or “not released for publication,” or similar phrases.
2. For cases retrieved from a commercial database, look for a citation to the
hardbound print reporters. If the only available citation is to the database,
you probably have an unpublished opinion. However, if the case is very
 recent, it may not have been assigned a citation in the print reporters, or
the citation may include blank lines: ___ N.W.2d ___. For very recent
cases, you may not be able to tell if the case will be published; see the
next clue.
3. If you have a recent case, be sure to check local rules to determine the
jurisdiction's practice with respect to the finality of decisions. In some
jurisdictions, cases do not become “final” for a period of time (usually 30
days) after the decision is released. Other jurisdictions may publish a case
that was previously labeled unpublished, or may withdraw a case from
publication (de-publish). Always verify the current status of recent
decisions before citing.

Rules 18.3,
1. Commercial Databases: Published 10.8, B10.1.4
Decisions
Citations to published cases are exactly the same, whether you are using a copy
of the case from the print reporter or a version downloaded from an electronic
database. All of the information necessary to cite the case appears on the
electronic version. However, an extra step may be required to determine the
pinpoint page number, as discussed below.
Basic Rule: Full Citation: Follow the rules discussed in Chapter 2 of this
guide for the basic citation form. If the commercial database uses a system of
“star paging” to provide the pinpoint, see the discussion below.
Basic Rule: Short Form: Follow the rules for short form citations discussed
in Chapter 2 of this Guide.
As commercial databases evolve, you may find that the “stars” have been
replaced by an ordinary page numbers—sans stars, or you may be able to
hover over the passage until a pop-up window appears with citation
information. In these situations, use the page numbers provided.

Determining Pinpoints Using Star Paging

It is a contradiction in terms to base a claim for intentional infliction
of emotional distress on mere “negligent misinformation.”
You are writing a memo that will include the above passage from the
Fitzgerald case found in Appendix A to this guide. Your copy of the case
was retrieved from a commercial database.
Steps For Determining Pinpoint Page Numbers
1. Locate the print reporter's citations in the case caption. Some cases are
reported in only one reporter, others may be reported in two or more.
Whenever there are cites to multiple reporters, they are referred to as
parallel citations.
2. In the Fitzgerald caption, there are parallel citations to two reporters. The
first citation is to volume 184 of the Georgia Appeals Reports, beginning on
page 567; the second is to volume 362 the South Eastern Reporter, second
series, beginning on page 103.
3. Draw a single asterisk (star) above the first parallel citation; draw two
asterisks (stars) above the second parallel citation. If the case has additional
parallel citations, mark each with the appropriate number of asterisks.

4. Determine which reporter is the “correct” reporter to cite by looking in

Bluebook Table 1.3. Make a note of the number of asterisks assigned to the
“correct” reporter. See discussion of “correct” reporters on page 34 of this
guide.
You have assigned two asterisks to the South Eastern Reporter, the
“correct” reporter for Georgia according to Table 1.3.
5. Next, locate the passage you wish to cite in the text of the case.
In this example, the passage is shown in bold on the second page of the
case.
6. To identify the page where this passage appears in the print reporter
version, move backward in the case until you find the last page number
with two asterisks. This is the print reporter page number you will use for
your pinpoint cite.
The passage you wish to cite can be found on page 105 of volume 362
of the South Eastern Reporter. A full citation to the passage with a
pinpoint cite is:
Fitzgerald v. Caplan, 362 S.E.2d, 103, 105 (Ga. Ct. App. 1987).
 Caution
It is easy to accidentally pinpoint to the wrong page number by using the
nearest starred page number rather than the page number for the correct
reporter. In the Fitzgerald example, above, *568 is the nearest page number
for the passage you are citing, but that is the page number for the Georgia
Appeals Reports (the “wrong” reporter). To avoid this problem, always
double check your pinpoint page numbers for logic. If the beginning page for
the case in the South Eastern Reporter is page 103, a pinpoint cite to page
568 is not logical.

RulesDecisions
2. Commercial Databases: Unpublished 10.8.1, 18.3.1
Unpublished cases are available through commercial databases but do not
appear in print reporters (with a few exceptions including the Federal Appendix,
discussed below). To cite unpublished cases to a commercial database, follow
these rules:
Basic Rule: Full Citation: Include the following information in a full
citation:
(1) Case name;
(2) The court's docket number;
(3) The database identifier (document number);
(4) A pinpoint cite, preceded by the word “at” and an asterisk (star);
(5) The identity of the jurisdiction and court issuing the decision (if
necessary); and
(6) The date, including the month, day and year of the decision.
 Although a citation to an unpublished case looks very different from a
citation to a print reporter, it contains the same four required pieces of
information: Case name, source, jurisdiction/court, and date. Use the following
information, numbered to correspond to the illustration above, to adapt the
standard citation form for an unpublished decision.
Information is provided in this guide for citations to the two commercial
databases most frequently used by practitioners: Westlaw and LEXIS. To
cite to other commercial databases, follow the rules and examples in
Bluebook Rule 10.8.1.
(1) Case Name: Prepare the same as reported cases, following the rules
discussed in Chapter 2 of this guide.
(2) Docket Number: Also known as the case number, this number is assigned
by the court and is used to track the case through the court system. The
docket number appears in the case caption, usually below the party names.
You may omit (a) an initial digit preceding a colon, or (b) a judge's
initials at the end of the docket number. Before deleting the judge's initials,
make sure that those initials refer to a judge, not a court. For example,
SCT likely refers to a supreme court, not a judge. Approach this option
with caution as it is easy to make a mistake.
(3) Database Identifier: This is a unique identification number assigned by the
commercial database publisher. It is equivalent to the source information for
citations to published cases in print reporters, and consists of three parts:
(a) Year (roughly equivalent to the volume number);
(b) Database name (equivalent to the reporter name), written as
LEXIS, or WL (for Westlaw); and
(c) Document number (roughly equivalent to the beginning page
number).
(4) Pinpoint: As with print reporters, this identifies the precise page where the
 cited material is found. It contains two parts:
(a) The word “at,” separated from the document number by a comma;
and
(b) An asterisk (star) followed by the pinpoint page number. Note
that every unpublished case begins with page 1.
To cite consecutive pages, omit the star in the ending page
number: *259–60, not *259–*60.
(5) Jurisdiction and Court: Follow the rules for published cases described in
Chapter 2 of this guide. If the database identifier clearly conveys the name
of the jurisdiction or court, omit the information from the parenthetical per
Bluebook Rule 10.4.
Westlaw database identifiers do not identify either jurisdiction or
court, while LEXIS does for state court cases only. Compare the
Westlaw and LEXIS examples for the Godfrey case at the
beginning of this section.
(6) Date: Include the month, day, and year the decision was issued. Abbreviate
months according to Bluebook Table 12.

Examples: Full Citations to Unpublished Opinions

Basic Rule: Short Forms: Follow the rules for short form citations discussed
in Chapter 2 of this guide, with the following modifications:
a. Id. Short Form: Include an asterisk before the pinpoint page number, if
any.
 Examples: Id. Id. at *8.
b. Alternate short form: Prepare the same way as published cases, but
substitute the document identifier (year, database name, document
number) for the print reporter's source information. Separate the pinpoint
from the document number with a comma, then include “at,” an asterisk,
and the page number.
Examples:
Westlaw: Godfrey, 2005 WL 757215, at *8.
LEXIS: Godfrey, 2005 N.C. App. LEXIS 704, at *8.

The Federal Appendix

Some Federal appellate court decisions that have been not been selected for
official publication are nevertheless reported in a print reporter, the Federal
Appendix, and are assigned citations in the same manner as any reported
decision. To cite a case reported in the Federal Appendix, follow the rules
for published decisions in Chapter 2 of this chapter. The Table 1.1 entry for
the Federal Appendix is found in the Courts of Appeals entry.
Example: Tillman v. New Line Cinema Corp., 295 F. App'x 840, 842 (7th
Cir. 2008).

3. Authenticated or Official Decisions Rule 18.2.1

A growing number of courts make decisions available on their websites. Cite to
a commercial database if the decision is published there. If the case is only
available on the court's website, follow Rule 18.2.1, appending the URL to the
end of the citation.
B. Statutes Rules 12.5, 18.3, B12.1
Any statute printed in a hardbound print volume is also available from
electronic sources. This Part discusses the following topics:
1. Citing to commercial databases, below;
2. Citing Authenticated or Official versions from a government website,
beginning on page 161;
3. Short forms, beginning on page 161; and
4. Practitioners' alternate form (optional), beginning on page 162.

1. Commercial Databases Rule 12.5, 18.2

Basic Rule: Follow the rules discussed in Chapter 3 of this guide, modifying
the parenthetical information as follows:
(a) Include the name of the database in the date parenthetical. If citing an
unofficial version, place the database name after the publisher's name.
(b) Include the “currency date” instead of the year the code was published.
For state statutes, currency information will usually identify the last
legislative session. See examples below and in Bluebook Rule 12.5.
For federal statutes, this information will usually identify the latest
public law number. If there are exceptions, include those exceptions in
a separate parenthetical. See examples below and in Rule 12.5.
Currency information appears either at the top or bottom of the
database version of the statute.

Examples: Statutory Citations to Commercial Databases

2. Authenticated or Official Versions Rule 18.2.1
Basic Rule: If the document has been retrieved from an authenticated source
or is an official version from a state website, cite the document as though you
are citing a print copy, following the rules in Chapter 3 of this guide, and
using the current year as the code year.

3. Short Forms Rules 12.10(d), 18.8

Basic Rule: Follow the rules for short form citations discussed in Chapter 3
of this guide. For citations to commercial databases, add the name of the
database in a parenthetical at the end of the citation. For citations to
authenticated or official versions, no additional information is needed.
Examples:
Id. § 60B.05 (LEXIS). § 60B.05 (Westlaw).

4. Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional)

The Bluebook form for statutes cited to electronic databases is long,
cumbersome, and does not suit the needs of practitioners. Many practitioners
prefer a more practical solution that conveys the necessary information without
unnecessary detail. There is no one shortcut used by all, but the following are
suggestions for alternate forms.
Before using an alternate form, check with your instructor or
supervisor.
Option A: Omit Redundant Publisher Name. The two
most-used databases, Westlaw and LEXIS, are
owned by West and LexisNexis, respectively.
When citing an unofficial code from these
sources, it should be sufficient to include only
the name of the database.
Option B: Substitute Date for Currency Information.
For practitioners, there is rarely, if ever, a need
to include the currency information; the date
the statute was retrieved from the database is
more useful. The date should be expressed as
the month, day, and year. Abbreviate months
according to Table 12.
Commercial databases update daily,
meaning the statute you cite today may be
revised or repealed, and replaced in the
database tomorrow. For that reason, use the
full date when citing commercial databases
so that, if necessary, the material can be
traced back to a specific day.
Option C: Combined Form. Omit the publisher (Option
A), and use a full date (Option B) for the
shortest citation that includes all necessary
information.
Short Form: Omit the parenthetical name of the database at
the end of the citation.

Examples: Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional)

C. Constitutions Rule 11
Basic Rule: Commercial Database. Follow the rules discussed in Chapter 4
of this guide, but add a parenthetical at the end of the citation that includes
the following information:
(1) The names of the publisher and database; and
(2) The “currentness of the database” as provided by the database. This
information may be expressed as a month, day, and year; month and year;
or may resemble the currency date for statutes, depending on the database
you are using.
Basic Rule: Authenticated or Official Versions. If the document is from an
authenticated source or is an official version from a state website, cite the
document as though you are citing a print copy, following the rules in
Chapter 4 of this guide.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Follow the rules for constitutional short forms
found in Chapter 4 of this guide.
Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional): There is little practical need to
include the parenthetical information for constitutions cited to commercial
databases. Many practitioners omit the parenthetical altogether, or include
only the database name and full date in a parenthetical.

Examples: Constitutions
D. Regulations Rules 14.4, 18.2, 18.8
Federal and state regulations are available from commercial databases and
websites providing authenticated or official versions of the regulation. The
citations differ depending upon which source is cited.
Basic Rule: Commercial Databases. Follow the rules discussed in Chapter 5
of this guide with the following modification: Include the database identifier,
separated from the date parenthetical by a comma. Do not place in
parentheses.
Basic Rule: Authenticated or Official Versions. If the document has been
retrieved from an authenticated source or is an official version from a state
website, cite the document as though you are citing a print copy. Follow the
rules in Chapter 5 of this guide and Rule 18.2.1(a).
Basic Rule: Short Forms: Follow the rules for short form citations discussed
in Chapter 5 of this guide. For citations to authenticated or official versions,
no additional information is needed. For citations to commercial databases,
add the name of the database in a parenthetical at the end of the citation.
Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional): There is little practical need to
include the database information for regulations cited to commercial
databases when the database identifier simply repeats the regulation number.
Many practitioners modify the form to include the name of the database and
date it was retrieved from the database, dropping the parenthetical date in the
middle. The database name may be eliminated from the short form.

Examples: Regulations
E. Procedural and Court Rules Rule 12.9.3
Basic Rule: Commercial Databases. The Bluebook does not provide a form
for citing procedural or court rules to commercial databases. Although rules
are a type of statute, using a statutory citation form with its currency date may
not make sense, or require information that is not available. It is suggested
that the alternate practitioners' form be used instead.
Basic Rule: Authenticated or Official Versions. If the document has been
retrieved from an authenticated source or is an official version from a state
website, cite the document as though you are citing a print copy following the
rules in Chapter 6 of this guide.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Follow the rules for short form citation discussed
in Chapter 6 of this guide. For citations to authenticated or official versions,
no additional information is needed. For citations to commercial databases,
add the name of the database in a parenthetical at the end of the citation.
Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional). Include the name of the database
and the full date the rule was retrieved from the database, placed in
parentheses at the end of the citation. In short forms, omit the database
parenthetical.

Examples: Procedural and Court Rules

F. Secondary Sources
Most secondary sources are only available in print or from commercial
databases. There are unlikely any authenticated or official versions, although if
one exists, it may be cited the same as a print source. If a reliable Internet source
is available, it is noted below. This Part discusses the following secondary
sources:
1. Treatises and books, below;
2. Periodicals, page 167;
3. Restatements, page 168;
4. Dictionaries, page 168;
5. A.L.R. Annotations, page 169; and
6. Encyclopedias, page 170.

A Note About Evolving Commercial Databases

The major commercial publishers have been going through an evolutionary
process during the last few years that will continue into the foreseeable
future. During this process, how information is accessed is changing. In
some situations, the “old” ways of citing to file names or libraries may give
way to individual file numbers, or no number at all. You may need to adapt
some of the forms shown in this section to reflect how the information is
currently provided by the source.

1. Treatises and Books Rules 15.9, 18.2.2, 18.3

Basic Rule: Commercial Database. To cite a treatise or book to a
commercial database, prepare the citation according to the rules in Chapter 7
of this guide. To indicate the database source, add a comma at the end of the
citation followed by the database name and the library or file name, or unique
document identifier number or code; do not place in parentheses.
Basic Rule: Internet. Cite to Internet sources only if the title is not published
 in print form or is not available from a commercial database. The citation
form may vary depending on the publication. Follow rules 15.9(b) and 18.2.2.
Basic Rule: Ebooks. Cite ebooks only if the title is not published in print
form. To cite an ebook, follow rule 15.9(b).
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Cite in the same manner as print versions
discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide.
Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional). Most books cannot be retrieved
from databases as easily as primary sources, thus the Bluebook form should
be used with a library name or document identifier.

Examples: Treatises & Books

2. Periodicals Rules 16.8, 18.3

Basic Rule: Commercial Databases. Follow the rules for periodicals
discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide. Add the unique database identifier or
code to the document following the date parenthetical, separated from the
main citation with a comma; do not place in parentheses.
Basic Rule: Internet. Cite to an Internet source only if the title is not
published in print form or is not available from a commercial database. To
cite an Internet source, see Rule 16.8(b).
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Cite in the same manner as print versions
discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide.
Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional). Include the database name in the
date parenthetical if the document can be retrieved by typing in its citation
(volume, publication, page number). Include the full date the document was
retrieved from the database.
If typing in the citation does not retrieve the document, follow the
Bluebook form.
Examples: Periodicals

3. Restatements Rule 12.9.4

Basic Rule: Commercial Databases. The Bluebook does not provide a form
to cite Restatements to a commercial database. To create a citation, modify
the rules for Restatements discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide, and follow the
rules for statutory citations discussed in Part B.1 of this chapter. Include the
name of the database in the date parenthetical. Use the month, day, and year
the material was retrieved from the database.
Basic Rule: Internet. Restatements are not available from reliable Internet
sources. Cite to a print or database version.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Cite in the same manner as print versions
discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide.

Examples: Restatements

4. Dictionaries Rule 15.8

Basic Rule: Commercial Databases. Follow the rules for citing dictionaries
discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide. Add the name of the database and the
month and day the database was last updated.
Basic Rule: Internet. With the ready availability of dictionaries in print and
from commercial databases, there should be no need to cite a legal dictionary
to an Internet source. To cite non-legal dictionaries to an online source, see
Bluebook rule 15.9(b).
 Basic Rule: Short Forms. Cite in the same manner as print versions
discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide.
Practitioners' Alternate Form: Add an additional parenthetical with the
name of the database and the date the document was retrieved from the
database.

Examples: Dictionaries

5. A.L.R. Annotations Rule 16.8

Basic Rule: Follow the rules discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide. Add the
unique database identifier or code to the document following the date
parenthetical, separated from the main citation with a comma.
Electronic versions of A.L.R.s divide the annotation into sections and
corresponding printed page numbers may not be available. To pinpoint a
specific section, follow the Basic Rule for all citations, above, citing the
beginning page number for the annotation, but using the section number
for the pinpoint. See example below.
Basic Rule: Internet. A.L.R. annotations are not available from reliable
Internet sources. Cite to a print or commercial database version.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Cite in the same manner as print versions
discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide.
Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional). Include the name of the database
in the date parenthetical and include the full date the document was retrieved
from the database.
Examples: A.L.R. Annotations

6. Encyclopedias Rule 15.9

Basic Rule: Commercial Databases. Follow the rules for citing
encyclopedias discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide. Include the name of the
database, separated from the main citation with a comma, followed by a
parenthetical that states “database updated [month and year].” See example
below.
Basic Rule: Internet. Most encyclopedias are not available from reliable
Internet sources. If you believe the source is reliable, cite according to Rule
18.2.2.
Basic Rule: Short Forms. Cite in the same manner as print versions
discussed in Chapter 7 of this guide.
Practitioner's Alternate Form. Replace the date parenthetical with a
parenthetical including the name of the database and the full date the
document was retrieved from the database.

Examples: Encyclopedias
Appendix: Citing Cases from
Commercial Databases

**104 Joseph B. Bergen, Frederick S. Bergen, Savannah, for appellant.

William P. Franklin, Jr., Wendy W. Williamson, Savannah, for appellees.

*567 BANKE, Presiding Judge.

This is an appeal by the plaintiff from a grant of summary judgment to the

defendants in an action to recover for alleged medical malpractice and
intentional infliction of emotional distress.
The evidence, construed most favorably towards the plaintiff as respondent
on motion for summary judgment, may be summarized as follows. Defendant
Gerald E. Caplan, M.D., acting as a member and agent of defendant Radiology
Associates, P.A., performed a series of radiological tests on the plaintiff for the
purpose of investigating the cause of abdominal pains that she was
experiencing. The tests were performed at the request of another physician who
was responsible for the actual treatment of the plaintiff and who is not a party to
this litigation. One of the possible diagnoses being investigated was cancer.

The procedures performed by Dr. Caplan revealed that a portion of the

plaintiff's pancreas was abnormally enlarged, confirming the possibility of
cancer but warranting no definite diagnosis in this regard. In his report to the
plaintiff's treating physician, Dr. Caplan wrote: “Close follow-up evaluation of
the uncinate of the head of the pancreas is recommended although hopefully the
change seen is not a manifestation of a neoplasm.” In preparing an insurance
claim form for submission to the plaintiff's medical insurance carrier, however,
Dr. Caplan inserted or caused to be inserted in the space designated, “Diagnosis
of nature of illness or injury,” the following language: “157.9 Pancreas:
Determine Extent of Malignancy.” Dr. Caplan chose this language in an effort
to fit the plaintiff's insurance claim into one of the pre-ordained diagnostic
categories considered compensable by her insurance carrier, and thereby to
minimize the possibility that the claim would be rejected.

A copy of the insurance claim form subsequently came into the hands of the
plaintiff, who, upon reading it, was led to believe that she had been diagnosed as
having cancer.

She immediately telephoned Dr. Caplan's office to verify this and was assured
by his staff that the language in question had been used solely to expedite
payment of her insurance claim. She was additionally informed that only her
treating physician was in a position to discuss her final diagnosis with her. The
plaintiff did in fact discuss the results of her radiographic tests with her treating
physician **105 and was assured by him that she did not have cancer; however,
the fear and concern which she had experienced upon reading the insurance
form nevertheless did not abate.

The plaintiff does not argue in this appeal that Dr. Caplan's conduct
constituted medical malpractice; however, she does urge in her *568 brief that
he may be held liable in tort for intentional infliction of emotional distress based
on the “negligent misinformation” which he caused to be transmitted to her.

Note the page change for the S.E.2d reporter, above, identified by two
asterisks, and the page change for the Georgia Appeals Reports,
identified below by one asterisk.

It is a contradiction in terms to base a claim for intentional infliction of

emotional distress on mere “negligent misinformation.” A cause of action for
intentional infliction of emotional distress must be predicated on misconduct of
an outrageous or egregious nature, which is “so terrifying or insulting as
naturally to humiliate, embarrass or frighten the plaintiff.” Ga. Power Co. v.
Johnson, 155 Ga. App. 862, 863, 274 S.E.2d 17 (1980). [FN1] Clearly, Dr.
Caplan's conduct in this case does not fall into this category. Indeed, it borders
on the ridiculous to suggest that it was his intention to cause the plaintiff
emotional distress or that he was engaged in some nefarious scheme to make
money at the expense of her mental and emotional well being. Quite obviously,
Dr. Caplan had no intention of terrorizing, harassing, or insulting the plaintiff
but sought merely to avoid problems with her health insurance carrier, for her
benefit as well as his own.

FN1. See, e.g., American Fin. & Loan Corp. v. Coots, 105 Ga.App. 849,
125 S.E.2d 689 (1962) (recovery authorized against bill collector who
terrorized plaintiff and his family at gunpoint); Delta Fin. Co. v. Ganakas,
93 Ga.App. 297, 91 S.E.2d 383 (1956) (recovery allowed against defendant
whose agent threatened small child with arrest in attempt to repossess her
parents' television set); and Stephens v. Waits, 53 Ga.App. 44, 184 S.E. 781
(1936) (recovery allowed against defendants who physically intimidated
plaintiffs as they were attempting to bury family member).

The cases relied upon by the plaintiff are quite distinguishable from the case
before us and provide no support whatever for a recovery in this case. In Greer
v. Medders, 176 Ga.App. 408, 336 S.E.2d 328 (1985), recovery was authorized
against a physician who had verbally abused and insulted a patient and the
patient's wife as the patient lay in a hospital bed attempting to recover from
recent surgery. In Chuy v. Philadelphia Eagles Football Club, 595 F.2d 1265
(3rd Cir.1979), a case which is not, in any event, binding on this court, the
defendant physician inexplicably made a false announcement to the press that
the plaintiff, a professional football player, was suffering from a fatal disease,
knowing such was not the case. Although in Stafford v. Neurological Med., Inc.,
811 F.2d 470 (8th Cir.1987), the defendant physician's alleged misconduct was
virtually identical to that alleged in the present case, the patient there did not
merely suffer emotional distress as a result of the physician's misstatement on
the insurance form, she committed suicide. Consequently, the plaintiff there was
not limited to a recovery for intentional infliction of emotional distress but was
authorized to recover on the basis of mere negligence.

Judgment affirmed.
Index of Bluebook Rules
Whitepages Rules
Rule 1.1, 123
Rule 1.2, 126
Rule 1.3, 129
Rule 1.4, 123, 126, 129
Rule 1.5, 131
Rule 1.5(b), 66
Rule 3, 17, 101, 106
Rule 3.1(c), 24
Rule 3.2(a), 18, 35
Rule 3.2(b), 22
Rule 3.2(c), 23
Rule 3.3, 19, 21
Rule 4, 26, 77, 97, 109, 125
Rule 4.1, 26, 52, 78
Rule 4.1–4.2, 102
Rule 4.2, 27
Rule 5.1, 135
Rule 5.1(a), 136
Rule 5.1(b), 136
Rule 5.2, 137
Rule 5.3, 139
Rule 6.1, 24
Rule 6.2(a), 149
Rule 6.2(b), 151
Rule 6.2(c–d), 151
Rule 8, 143
Rule 10, 30
Rule 10.1.1(vi), 15
Rule 10.2.1, 30, 40
Rule 10.2.1(a), 40, 47
Rule 10.2.1(b), 47
Rule 10.2.1(c), 40
Rule 10.2.1(e), 47
Rule 10.2.1(f), 42
Rule 10.2.1(h), 40
Rule 10.2.1(i), 51
Rule 10.2.1(j), 52
Rule 10.2.2, 30, 40
Rule 10.3, 33
Rule 10.3.1, 58
Rule 10.3.1(a), 77
Rule 10.3.2, 35
Rule 10.3.3, 59
Rule 10.4, 36
Rule 10.5, 39
Rule 10.6, 62
Rule 10.6.1, 62, 64
Rule 10.6.3, 63
Rule 10.6.4, 66
Rule 10.7, 65
Rule 10.8, 155, 156
Rule 10.8.1, 157
Rule 10.9, 52, 53
Rule 11, 163
Rule 11, 81, 82
Rule 12, 68
Rule 12.1–12.3, 70
Rule 12.10, 77, 78, 79
Rule 12.10(d), 161
Rule 12.3, 70
Rule 12.3.1(c), 77
Rule 12.3.1(d), 74
Rule 12.3.2, 75
Rule 12.5, 160
Rule 12.9.1, 88, 90
Rule 12.9.3, 93, 94, 95, 165
Rule 12.9.4, 108, 168
Rule 14.2, 85
Rule 14.4, 164
Rule 15, 99
Rule 15.1, 100
Rule 15.2, 101
Rule 15.3, 101
Rule 15.4, 101, 102
Rule 15.8, 110, 114, 168
Rule 15.9, 166, 170
Rule 15.10, 102, 111, 114
Rule 16, 103
Rule 16.2, 104
Rule 16.3, 104
Rule 16.4, 105, 106
Rule 16.7.6, 112
Rule 16.8, 167, 169
Rule 16.9, 106, 113
Rule 18.2, 160, 164
Rule 18.2.1, 160, 161, 166
Rule 18.3, 155, 156, 160, 166, 167
Rule 18.3.1, 157
Rule 18.8, 161, 164

Bluepages Rules
Rule B1.1, 12, 123
Rule B1.2, 126
Rule B1.3, 131
Rule B2, 6
Rule B5.1, 135
Rule B8, 143, 145, 146, 147
Rule B10, 30
Rule B10.1.1, 30, 47
Rule B10.1.2, 33, 35
Rule B10.1.3, 36, 39, 58
Rule B10.1.4, 155, 156
Rule B10.1.5, 62, 64
Rule B10.1.6, 65
Rule B10.2, 53
Rule B11, 81, 82
Rule B12, 68
Rule B12.1, 70, 160
Rule B12.1.3, 93, 94, 108
Rule B12.1.4, 88, 90
Rule B12.2, 77, 78, 79
Rule B14, 85, 87
Rule B15, 99
Rule B15.1, 110
Rule B15.2, 102
Rule B16, 103
Rule B16.2, 106
Rule B17, 117
Rule B17.1.1, 118
Rule B17.1.2, 21, 119
Rule B17.2, 120
Rule BT2.2, 94
Rule BT2.2, 95
Subject Index
Academic Style, generally: 6–8
Administrative Regulations
See Regulations
American Law Reports (A.L.R.) Annotations
generally: 112–13
electronic source: 169–70
short forms: 113
Books
See Treatises and Books
Capitalization
generally: 143–45
court documents: 145–48
court proceedings: 147
courts: 145–46
document titles: 147
judges & justices: 147–48
parties: 146
Cases
generally: 29–30
case names: see Cases, Names
citing parentheticals: 63–64
concurrences, citing: 62
dissents, citing: 62
electronic sources: 155–60
embedded citations: 15–16, 41
explanatory parentheticals: 131–33
ordering multiple parentheticals: 66
parallel citations: 58–59
public domain citations: 59–61
quoting parentheticals: 63–64
 short forms: see Cases, Short Forms
star paging: 156–57
subsequent history: 65
unpublished cases: 157–59
weight of authority: 64
Cases, Court Information
generally: 36–39
when to omit: 37–38
Cases, Electronic Sources
generally: 155
published cases: 156–57
star paging: 156–57
unpublished cases: 153–55
Cases, Names
generally: 30
abbreviations: 41
acronyms: 42
actions and parties: 31–32
alternate names (d/b/a etc.): 47
businesses and organizations: 40–41
capacity, see descriptive terms
city, town or county as a party: 46
Commissioner, International Revenue Service: 52
descriptive terms & phrases: 47–48, 50
double business designation rule: 40–41
embedded citations: 42
et al.: 32
geographical terms: 42–46
government as a party: 42–46
hyphenated surnames: 31
individuals: 31
Internal Revenue Service (IRS): 52
introductory phrases: 50–51
multiple actions: 32
multiple parties: 31
procedural phrases: 47–50
 state or commonwealth as a party: 44–45
“the” in case names: 41
unions as a party: 51
United States government as a party: 43
Cases, Short Forms
generally: 52
alternate: 53–55
frequent (common) litigants: 54
id.: 26–27, 52–53
parallel citations: 58–59
unpublished cases: 159
Cases, Source Information
generally: 33
beginning page number: 35
first page, citing: 18, 35
multiple pages, citing: 18, 35
parallel citations: 58–59
pinpoint page number: 17–19, 35
reporter, correct reporter to cite: 33–34
reporter name: 35
star paging: 156–57
unpublished cases: 158–59
volume: 35
Cases, Year of Decision: 39
Citation Clauses, generally: 14–15
Citation Placement
see also specific authorities
generally: 10–16
citation clauses, generally: 14–15
citation sentences, generally: 14
embedded citations, generally: 15–16
split citations, generally: 16
when to cite: 10–11
Citation Sentences, generally: 14
“Citing” Parentheticals: 63–64
Comma, use of in numerals: 149–50
Common (Frequent) Litigants: 54
Concurrences, citing: 62
Constitutions:
generally: 81
electronic sources: 163–64
short forms: 82–83
Court Rules
See Procedural and Court Rules
Dictionaries
generally: 110
electronic source: 168–69
short forms: 111
Dissents, citing: 62
Electronic Sources
generally: 153
A.L.R. Annotations: 169–70
alternate practitioners' form, defined: 154
cases: 155–60
constitutions: 163–64
currency date, statutes: 161
dictionaries: 168–69
encyclopedias: 170
periodicals: 167–68
procedural and court rules: 165–66
regulations: 164–65
restatements: 168
star paging: 156–57
statutes: 160–63
treatises and books: 166–67
unpublished decisions: 157–59
Embedded Citations, generally: 15–16
Emphasis Added: 137
Encyclopedias
 generally: 114–15
electronic source: 170
short forms: 114
En Dashes: 17
Endnotes, citing: 23–24
Et al.: 32
Explanatory Parentheticals: 131–32
Federal Appendix: 160
Footnotes, citing: 22–23
Frequent (common) Litigants: 54
Hyphens: 17
Id.
generally: 26–27
See also specific authorities
Internal Revenue Code: 88–89
Italics, typeface convention: 6–8
Large and Small Capitals, use of: 6–7
Law Reviews and Journals
See Periodicals
Litigation Documents and Record Citations
generally: 117
multiple documents with same title: 118–19
parentheses, enclosing in: 121–22
pinpoints: 119–20
short forms: 120–21
title, document: 118–19
Local Rules of Court
See also Procedural and Court Rules
generally: 9
how to find: 9
Medium Neutral Citations
See Public Domain Citations
Multiple Case Parentheticals, ordering: 66
Non–Published Cases
See Unpublished Cases
Numbers and Numerals
generally: 149
ordinals: 151
Ordinals: 151
Pages, citing multiple: 18
Paragraphs, multiple: 21
Parallel Citations: 58–59
Parentheticals
See Cases or Explanatory Parentheticals
Periodicals
generally: 103–04
author(s): 104
electronic source: 167–68
periodical name: 105–06
pinpoints: 106
short forms: 106–07
title: 104–05
volume: 105
year: 106
Pinpoints (Pincites)
See also specific source
generally: 17
endnotes: 23–24
footnotes: 22–23
hyphens and dashes, using: 17
lines: 21–22
pages: 18–19
paragraphs: 21
sections: 19–21
supplements: 24
Practitioners' Style, generally: 6–8
Procedural & Court Rules
generally: 93
electronic sources: 161–62
finding court rules: 9
rules of court, federal: 95–96
rules of court, state: 96–97
rules of evidence, federal: 93–94
rules of evidence, state: 94–95
rules of procedure federal: 93–94
rules of procedure, state: 94–95
short forms: 97–98
Public Domain Citations: 59–61
Quotations
generally: 135
alterations: 137–38
block quotations: 136
ellipses: 139
omissions: 139–41
short quotations: 136–37
Quoting Parentheticals: 63–64
Record Citations
See Litigation Documents and Record Citations
Regulations
generally: 85
administrative, federal: 85–86
administrative, state: 87–88
electronic sources: 164–65
Internal Revenue Code: 88–89
short forms: see specific type of regulation
Treasury: 90–91
Reporters
See Cases, Source Information
Restatements
generally: 108
electronic source: 168
 short forms: 109
Rules of Procedure
See Procedural and Court Rules
Secondary Sources
See specific authority
Sections, citing multiple: 19–20
Sentences, citation, generally: 14
Short Forms
See also specific authorities
generally: 26
alternate short forms, generally: 28
id., generally: 26–27
supra, generally: 28
Signals
generally: 126–27
combining signals: 127
description of individual signals: 127–28
explanatory parentheticals: 131–32
multiple signals in strings: 129–30
short forms with signals: 131
signal types and ranks: 129–30
Single Adjacent Capitals
see Spacing in Citations
Small Capitals, use of: 7–8
Spacing in Citations: 24–25
Split Citations: 16, 55
Star Paging: 156–57
Statutes
generally: 67
alternate short form: 79–80
code name: 70–71
code year: 75–76
electronic sources: 160–63
id.: 78
 multiple sections or subsections: 20–21, 73–74
named statutes: 77
publisher: 74–75
sections: 71–74
short forms: 77–80
subject matter codes: 77
subsections: 20–21, 73–74
supplements: 24, 76
titles or chapters: 71–72
year: 75–76
String Citations:
generally: 123
order of multiple authorities: 124–25
short forms in string citations: 125–26
Subsequent History: 65
Supplements, generally: 24
Supra
see also specific authorities
generally: 27
Symbols
generally: 151–52
creating: 152
dollar signs: 151
paragraph: 151
percent: 151
section: 151
Treasury Regulations: 90–91
Treatises and Books
generally: 99
author(s): 100
electronic source: 166–67
pinpoints: 101
publication information: 101–02
short forms: 102–03
title: 101
 year: 102
Typeface Conventions
generally: 6–8
italics: 6–8
large and small capitals: 7
underlining: 6–8
Underlining, typeface convention: 6–8
Unpublished Cases
see Electronic Sources
Weight of Authority: 64
Contents
Keeping Up to Date
Acknowledgments
1 Getting Started
A. Introduction to Legal Citation and The Bluebook
1. The Purpose of Legal Citation
2. Bluebook Organization
B. Practitioners' Style and Local Rules
1. Typeface Conventions: Practitioners' Style
2. Introduction to Local Rules
C. When to Cite
D. Citation Sentences, Clauses, and Embedded Citations
1. Citation Sentences
2. Citation Clauses
3. Embedded Citations
E. Pinpoint Citations
1. Pages
2. Sections and Subsections
3. Paragraphs
4. Lines
5. Footnotes
6. Endnotes
7. Supplements
F. Spacing Rules for Citation Abbreviations
G. Introduction to Short Form Citations
1. Id.
2. Supra
3. Alternate Short Forms
2 Cases
A. Basic Case Citation Rules
1. Case Name
2. Source Information
3. Court
4. Year
 B. Special Rules for Case Names
1. Businesses and Organizations
2. Governmental Parties (Geographical Terms)
3. Alternate Names
4. Procedural and Descriptive Phrases
5. Unions
6. Commissioner of Internal Revenue
C. Short Form Case Citations
1. Id.
2. Alternate Short Form
D. Parallel Citations
E. Public Domain Citations
F. Parenthetical Information
1. Dissents and Concurrences
2. Quoting or Citing Parentheticals
3. Weight of Authority
G. Subsequent History
H. Ordering Multiple Additions to Citations
3 Statutes
A. Federal and State Statutes
1. Form
2. Basic Statutory Citations
3. Code Name
4. Titles, Chapters, and Section Numbers
5. Publisher
6. Year of Code
B. Additional Information in Statutory Citations
1. Supplements
2. Subject Matter Codes
3. Named Statutes
C. Short Forms: Statutes
1. Id.
2. Alternate Short Form
4 Constitutions
A. Basic Citation Forms
B. Short Form: Constitutions
5 Regulations
A. Federal Administrative Regulations
B. State Administrative Regulations
 C. Internal Revenue Code
D. Treasury Regulations
6 Procedural and Court Rules
A. Rules of Procedure and Evidence
1. Federal Rules of Procedure and Evidence
2. State Rules of Procedure and Evidence
B. Rules of Court
1. Federal Rules of Court
2. State Rules of Court
C. Short Forms: Rules
7 Secondary Sources
A. Treatises and Books
1. Author's Full Name
2. Book Title
3. Pinpoint Page, Section, or Volume
4. Publication Information
5. Year
6. Short Forms: Treatises and Books
B. Periodicals (Law Reviews and Journals)
1. Author's Full Name
2. Article Title
3. Volume
4. Periodical Name
5. Beginning Page
6. Pinpoint Page(s)
7. Year
Short Forms: Periodicals
C. Restatements
Short Forms: Restatements
D. Legal Dictionaries
Short Forms: Dictionaries
E. American Law Reports (A.L.R.) Annotations
Short Forms: A.L.R. Annotations
F. Legal Encyclopedias
Short Forms: Encyclopedias
8 Litigation Documents and Record Citations
A. Litigation Documents and Appellate Record
1. Document Title
2. Pinpoint Citations
 B. Short Forms: Litigation and Record Citations
C. Enclosing Citations in Parentheses
9 Strings, Signals, and Explanatory Parentheticals
A. String Citations
1. String Basics
2. Short Forms in String Citations
B. Signals
1. Signal Basics
2. Using Multiple Signals in a Single String
3. Using Short Forms with Signals
C. Explanatory Parentheticals
10 Quotations
A. Form of Quotations
1. Block Quotations
2. Short Quotations
B. Alterations
C. Omissions
11 Capitalization
A. Capitalization Basics
B. Court Documents and Proceedings
1. Courts
2. Parties to a Legal Action
3. Titles of Court Documents
4. Court Proceedings
5. Judges
12 Numbers, Numerals, Ordinals, and Symbols
A. Numbers and Numerals
B. Ordinals
C. Symbols
13 Electronic Sources
A. Cases
1. Commercial Databases: Published Decisions
2. Commercial Databases: Unpublished Decisions
3. Authenticated or Official Decisions
B. Statutes
1. Commercial Databases
2. Authenticated or Official Versions
3. Short Forms
4. Practitioners' Alternate Form (Optional)
 C. Constitutions
D. Regulations
E. Procedural and Court Rules
F. Secondary Sources
1. Treatises and Books
2. Periodicals
3. Restatements
4. Dictionaries
5. A.L.R. Annotations
6. Encyclopedias
Appendix: Citing Cases from Commercial Databases
Index of Bluebook Rules
Subject Index