Chapter 1: An Overview of Human Development  It is during this stage that the adolescent will

Human Development re- examine his identity and try to find out
 changes that occur from time to time, may it be exactly who he or she is.
psychological, spiritual, and emotional Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation (19 – 40 Years)
 process of growth and change that takes place between  Forming intimate, loving relationships with
birth and maturity other people.
Growth Development  Avoiding can lead to isolation, loneliness,
- improvement - change and sometimes depression
Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation (40 – 65 Years)
- external/physical - internal/mental &
 We give back to society through raising our children,
emotional
being productive at work, and becoming involved in
- development of a - gradual change in community activities and organizations.
person in age, skills, behavior,
 By failing to find a way to contribute, we become
height, weight, etc. habits, etc.
stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage
- focuses on one - focuses on various will lead to the virtue of care.
aspect aspects Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair (65 Years – Up)
- quantitative - qualitative  It is during this time that we contemplate our
improvement improvement accomplishments.
 Feelings of bitterness and despair.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT  suggests that intelligence changes as children grows
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory  explains how a child understands the world; how he/she
 These psychosexual stages capture the main growth thinks, reasons out, remembers, and solve problems
points of a person from infancy to adulthood and focus on
different facets of wants, needs, and desires. Stages of Cognitive Development

Five Stages of Psychosexual Development: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

 knowledge is gain through senses
Stage 1: Oral (First Year of Life)  Goal: Object permanence – knowing that an
a. Oral Aggressive – chewing objects object still exists even if it is hidden
b. Oral Passive – taking up oral activities Pre-Operational Stage (From 2 to 7 years)
 “egocentric”
Stage 2: Anal (Second to Fourth Year)  No reversibility knowledge
a. Anal Retentive – obsessed with cleanliness;  Goal: Symbolic thought
perfectionist Concrete-Operational Stage (8 to 11 years)
b. Anal expulsive – disorganized; messy  “less egocentric”
 Goal: Logical Thought
Stage 3: Phallic (Fourth to Six Year) Formal Operational Stage (Starts to emerges between 11 to
a. Oedipus Complex – males view father as a 15 years)
competition for affection from mother  Reasoning skills
b. Electra Complex – girls view mother as a competition  Goal: Scientific Reasoning
for affection from father - Think in abstract manner
- ability to combine and classify items
Stage 4: Latency (Seventh Year – Onward) - Has capacity for higher order thinking skills
- stage where there are no conflicts
- the child is learning hobbies, developing Successful completion of each stage results in a heavy
friendships, and growing personality:
Stage 5: Genital (Twelfth Year) Stage 1: HOPE Stage 4: Stage 7: CARE
- when an individual begins to have strong sexual COMPETENCY
interest to the opposite sex Stage 2: WILL Stage 5: FIDELITY Stage 8: WISDOM
Stage 3: PURPOSE Stage 6: LOVE
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development
 role of social factors influence development  Distinguish right from wrong
 described the impact of social experience across the
whole lifespan Stages of Moral Reasoning
Preconventional Level
Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development: There is recognition of authority who gives punishment or
reward
Stage 1: Mistrust vs Trust (Birth to 1 Year) Stage 1: “Punishment/Obedience Orientation”
 hopeful, optimistic  Obeying rules to avoid punishment
 fearful Stage 2: Mutual Benefit “Reward Orientation”
Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (2 - 3 Years)  Deciding what is right or wrong is based on what is
 builds self confidence rewarded
 dependent  Reciprocity
Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (3 - 5 Years)
 Develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their Conventional Level
ability to lead others and make decisions. There is understanding that there are rules to follow to be
 Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either accepted and to maintain to order
through criticism or control, children develop a sense Stage 3: Social Approval “Good Boy – Good Girl Orientation”
of guilt.  Deciding what is right or wrong is based on what
Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (6 - 11 Years) others approve or disapprove of
 They begin to feel industrious and feel confident in  Being nice
their ability to achieve goals. Stage 4: Law and Order “Authority Orientation”
 If it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child  Maintaining law and order by following rules
begins to feel inferior. 
Stage 5: Identity vs Identity Diffusion (12 - 18 Years) Post Conventional Level
Stage 5: “Social Contract Orientation” Chapter 3: Wholeness and Balance in Life
 Deciding what is right or wrong is based on laws Wholeness
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles  Wholeness, essentially, is an integral sense of integration.
 Deciding what is right or wrong is based on universal This harmony or feeling of balance is important for self-
principles. esteem and self-actualization.
Human Behavior  Wholeness is a transcendental life goal. It is a lifelong
 the potential and expressed capacity for physical, mental, pursuit. Emeth and Greenhut (1991) wrote that we are all
and social activity during the phases of human life. pilgrims on a journey toward wholeness and fullness of
 refers to the way humans act and interact. It is based on life.
and influenced by several factors, such as genetic make-  Carl Jung (1875-1961) who seriously put forward the
up, culture and individual values and attitudes. concept of wholeness in theory and practice. “Wholeness
is a unifying element of his psychology, attained by way of
an individuation process”
Chapter 2: Self-Discovery and Identity  Gestalt theory holds that psychological distress or mental
Adolescence prob- lems are caused significantly by the split self. Takes
 a crucial part of the period the in development of an a bodily orientation (physical self) integrated with
individual psychological functioning in treating an individual. This
integrated approach brings in the soma (body) and psyche
Middle and Late Adolescence (mind) to come into light.
 it is between the ages 15-21  As explained by Kepner (1987), "an integrated approach
 time of one’s life that is full of excitement and challenges aims to bring together all aspects of the person so that the
person can experience himself or herself as a unitary
Changes and Transitions organism."

Physiological Aspects of Holistic Development: Developing the

 between ages 12-14 Whole Person
 as sexual maturation begins to take place as you grow up, A. Physical Development
 Physical development points to the body and its
Physical functioning. This is the time when you become conscious
 physical characteristics in the body of your body and strive to be in good shape.

Psychological 1. Watch what you eat.

 you become more concerned with your body image.  Nutritious food gives you energy and good health.
The kind of food you eat does not only affect your
health.
Self-Identity  protein for growth, maintenance, and repair of
 The distinctive characteristics of the individual tissues (examples: fish, meat, eggs, dairy products,
 significantly related to one's overall self-evaluation (self- tofu)
esteem) and sense of individuality.  carbohydrates for energy and dietary fibers for
Erik Erikson's Self-Identity digestion (examples: cereal, rice, bread, fruits, and
 each stage holds desired outcomes after going through a vegetables)
specific crisis. Successfully navigating through life  vitamins and minerals for life and growth
experiences leads you to a clear understanding of your (examples: calcium for strong bones, vitamin D for
identity and individuality. absorption of calcium, vitamin B complex for nerves,
Identity versus Confusion vitamin E for healthy skin)
During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and  water to help transport the nutrients throughout the
personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal body and remove waste products.
values, beliefs, and goals.  fats to store energy, provide insulation, and dissolve
certain vitamins.
James Marcia's Development of Self-Identity
 "an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of 2. Keep yourself fit and strong.
drives, abilities, beliefs, and individual history.” He  Exercise.
extended Erikson's theory on self-identity and identified
key elements in achieving a mature identity 3. Avoid abuse of your body.
 As our body works hard, it also needs time to rest.
1. Identity Diffused.
 Low Commitment and Low Exploration B. Cognitive Development
 You have not experienced identity crisis.  Cognitive refers to patterns of thinking which include
 No clear sense of identity reasoning, ability to learn, remembering, and solving
 No thought, no commitment problems. The development of your cognitive skills is
important. Your ability to learn will greatly determine the
2. Foreclosed. height of literacy you can attain and work you can achieve.
 High Commitment and Low Exploration
 Parentally chosen rather than self chosen Remembering
Remembering is a function of the brain that depends on short-
3. Moratorium term or long-term memory. Throop and Castellucci (2011)
 Low Commitment and High Exploration listed ways to improve your memory:
 You are going through identity crisis. 1. Repetition. Going over a material repeatedly. If you keep
 You’ve explored all possibilities, but still aren’t sure repeating something, it increases your chances of
what identity fits you best yet. remembering it.
2. Organization. Organizing things or ideas in your head
4. Identity Achieved helps. You may classify things according to their common
 High Commitment and High Exploration features.
 You know what to pursue in life and have established 3. Mnemonics is a device that aids your memory. Acronyms
goals to direct your plans for the future. and rhymed words are kinds of mnemonics that work.

Critical Thinking
Critical thinking comes from the word kritikos (meaning, You must be able to control your impulses and emotions, and
discerning judgment) and criterion (meaning, standards). show maturity in your behavior.
Hence, critical thinking implies the discerning judgment based
on standards. It requires ability to reason out (logical thinking), Task 11. You must establish career or vocational goals.
infer, analyze, interpret, and explain. You will need to assess your skills, get into the right
educational program, and persevere in achieving your goals.
C. Socio-Emotional Development An important step is to study well.
 Motus anima is said to be the Latin description for
emotions. Indeed, emotions, or feelings as a common INDEPENDENCE AND RESPONSIBILITY AS A MAJOR
word used for it, are kinds of force from within that affect GOAL
us. A. Self-adjustment and Development of Skills
Physiological Component Adjusting to a Maturing Body
Emotions involve bodily arousal. Something goes on in the  One important thing to do is to see your physical self with
brain, in the autonomic nervous system, as well as in the acceptance and give it nurturance. A well-cared for body
endocrine system. helps ensure achievement of optimum health and good
performance in your tasks.
Cognitive Component
This refers to the subjective conscious experience of the Developing Cognitive Skills
person. How you interpret a situation affects your emotions.  Cognition is a very important process in learning. Your
ability to learn or acquire knowledge depends on your
Behavioral Component cognitive skills.
This is the outward expression of emotions as seen in your  Be inquisitive.
facial expressions, body language, and manner of speaking. - Adapt an attitude of wanting to learn more, especially
related to your interests or the work you would like to do in
D. Spiritual Development the future.
 The spiritual dimension is an integral part of our self. The
guidance that comes from a spiritual direction takes a  Brainstorm.
special role in life establishes independence. Along with - Come up with a lot of ideas. Think of many ways to look at
that, it is also the time when an individual begins to ask certain things.
about God and the meaning of life (Muus, 1996).
 Imagine and explore.
- As you entertain various ideas, you allow yourself to
Chapter 4: Independence and Responsibility visualize and explore different ways of thinking.
Developmental Tasks
 Robert J. Havighurst (1900-1991), a distinguished  Create or innovate.
educator, proposed that there are specific things to do that - Use your thoughts in creating some things. Turn your
come with each stage of development. ideas into useful projects or find ways of doing things.
 They are called developmental tasks that need to be
accomplished to enable you to perform other tasks in life.  Engage in problem-solving.
 Developmental tasks are what you need to do in each - Keep your mind at work and further develop its capacity by
developmental stage that will help you adjust to the challenging it.
changes and demands of life.
 Read.
Task 1. You must adjust with the physical changes that - Reading enriches your knowledge.
marked your growth.
Protect your body from physical harm and any form of abuse, Developing Communication Skills
like using alcohol or drugs.  Your communication skills will be valuable for your
independence. It will help you become more effective in
Task 2. You must adjust with your growing intellectual dealing with people. What is communication? From the
abilities and develop critical thinking skills. Latin word "communicare," which means to share,
You do not simply accept explanations. You can analyze and communi- cation is an act of sharing thoughts or
test hypotheses to see if they are true. information. Throop and Castellucci (2011) identified the
elements and patterns of communication.
Task 3. You must adjust to the academic demands in Elements:
school. sender, receiver ,message
Patterns:
Task 4. You must develop your language skills. a. one-way communication (the sender gives the
message, the receiver gets it, and the process is
Task 5. You must establish your personal identity. complete)
b. two-way communication (the sender gives the
Task 6. You must learn to be independent. message, the receiver gets it and responds with
another message)
Task 7. You must establish healthy peer relationships. The means of exchanging messages may be verbal or
Make friends with people who will be good influences to you nonverbal. Verbal communication uses spoken words.
and will inspire you to do your best. Nonverbal communication uses written words, symbols,
gestures, or body language.
Task 8. You must manage your sexuality. Language is a crucial skill that you need to develop at this time
You must engage in responsible sexual behaviors that to be an effective communicator.
incorporate good values and gracious manners. Responsiveness shows your openness in dealing with others.
Assertiveness means "behavior ranging from asking
Task 9. You must adopt good moral standards, personal questions (low assertiveness) to telling others what's expected
values, and beliefs. (high assertiveness)"
Your behaviors then were influenced by the consequences that
parents or authorities have set. Developing Self-control
Task 10. You must learn to control your impulse and  Part of seeking independence is being responsible with
exhibit behavioral maturity. your actions. Responsibility is one of the trademarks of
maturity that manifest in your behavior. One way of
 showing it is by exercising self-control in managing your
behaviors and emotions. You need this skill as you stride Throop and Castellucci (2011) suggested some ways to
to do things independently. resolve conflicts;
 Learn your own signs and triggers.  Make a commitment to resolve the problem.
 Take a different or positive perspective.  Be clear with your intention of resolving the conflict.
 Stick with the facts
 Deal with your anger and control it.
B. Establishing Positive and Healthy Relationships
 Interaction with others is a significant experience that
contributes to the development of an individual Chapter 6: Powers of the Mind
 Constructive relationships are the ones you should a. The Hindbrain
strive to have and keep. This part of the brain is responsible for our instinctive,
 Destructive relationships are characterized by selfish autonomic behavior and serves survival functions.
motives and disregard for the welfare of the partner. These  The medulla controls vital functions like respiration, blood
relationships are to be avoided. circulation, digestion, and heart rate.
 The cerebellum regulates posture, balance, and muscular
Throop and Castellucci (2011) coordination.
Trust has something to do with reliability. It means you can  The pons acts as bridge between the medulla and other
count on each other. parts of the brain; regulates movement, sleep, and
Respect has something to do with valuing. You take someone arousal.
important, and the other holds you important.  The reticular activating system regulates attention,
Empathy has something to do with deep understanding of movement, sleep, waking, and reflexes.
experience.
b. Mid-brain
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), recognized that personal This part is the conduction and switching center of the brain
growth is a basic human desire, proposed a model of hierarchy that enables responses, like muscle movements to happen,
of human needs. and for auditory and visual system processing to transpire.
Physiological Needs Problems with auditory or visual processing may result in
 The physiological needs include those that are vital certain learning disabilities like dyslexia and central auditory
to survival. (nutirition, air, shelter, clothing) processing disorder.
Security and Safety Needs
 The needs for security and safety become primary. c. Forebrain
Social Needs This is in charge of our intellectual activity and consciousness.
 Love, acceptance, and belonging. Personal  The cerebrum acts as "executive center" of the brain
relationships with friends, family, and lovers play an responsible for remembering, learning, and thinking, as
important role. (religious groups, clubs, etc.) well as taking charge of language and emotion.
Esteem Needs  The thalamus relays sensory information.
People who are able to satisfy esteem needs by achieving  The hypothalamus secretes hormones and controls
good self-esteem and the recognition of others tend to feel physiological functions like temperature, hunger, and
confident in their abilities, those who lack self-esteem can thirst.
develop feelings of inferiority.  The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres.
Self-Actualization Needs  The pituitary gland is the master gland that secretes
Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with hormones and controls the endocrine system.
personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others,
and interested in fulfilling their potential. LATERALIZATION OF THE BRAIN
The Two Hemispheres of the Brain
 In general, the left hemisphere controls the right side
of the body. It is responsible for the logical, intellectual
functions necessary for understanding, writing, and
C. Career Planning speaking. The right hemisphere controls the left side
 Identifying Skills and Interests of the body. It takes care of the creative, intuitive, and
 Developing Life Goals emotional aspects.

Chapter 5: Awareness of Different Life Demands Left Brain Functions Right Brain Functions
POSITIVE APPROACHES IN DEALING WITH LIFE
DEMANDS Analytic Thought Art Awareness
Logic Creativity
Challenges in the Family Language Imagination
 Quest for independence Reasoning Intuition
 High expectations Science & Math Insight
 Making career choices Writing Holistic Thought
Number Skills Music Awareness
 Relationship issues
Right Hand Control 3-D Forms
Left Hand Control
Dealing with Family Expectations
 Communicate openly
 Understand your parents
 Be responsible Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

School Demands Factual Intuitive

 School life takes so much of your time and energy. Logical Holistic
 Low self-esteem and high level of anxiety may also make Analytical Spontaneous
it more difficult for you to accomplish tasks. Sequential/Organized Open & Flexible
Controlled
Peer Challenges
 Peer pressure
 Peer conflict
THE WHOLE BRAIN THEORY b. Positive relations
 William Edward "Ned" Herrmann (1922-1999) You have warm, trusting, and satisfying relationships with
developed the whole brain theory, another others.
perspective of looking at the brain.
 Whole brain thinking pursues a holistic approach by c. Autonomy
encouraging you to make use of all thinking abilities You are independent and can resist social pressures.
available to you, rather than focusing or specializing in
one mode of thinking (either left or right brained) to
perform tasks. Hermann developed a standardized
test called Hermann Brain Dominance Instrument d. Environmental mastery
(HBDI) to find out one's preferred thinking style. To You can manage your environment and maximize the
better understand this test, a general description of opportunities available to you that match your values and suit
each thinking style is provided as follows. your personal needs.

a. Analytical e. Purpose in life

 rational You strive to have meaning in your life by setting goals and
 logical having direction and intention for what you do.
 factual
 objective f. Personal growth
 quantitative You commit yourself to develop your potential, to grow and
 focuses in the here-and-now become the best person you can be. You are open to
 takes logical approach in problem-solving experience as you go through different stages of your life.
b. Practical
 Organized COMMON PROBLEMS AMONG ADOLESCENTS
 step-by-step, procedures count
 action-oriented detailed plans are important Problem with Attention/Focusing
 consistent  Aside from your studies, you still have other activities
 practical in solving problems (sports, music/band, outreach, weekend time with friends
and family, part time job, etc.).
c. Relational  Inability to focus may be temporary. It may be due to
 feeling-oriented certain life events or situations.
 intuitive Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder –This is a chronic
 attuned with others' feelings communication is problem in attention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity.
important
 values relationship with others Mood Swings
 nurturing  Mood swings would mean the fast shifting of moods.
 teamwork to solve problems Someone with mood swings tends to be irritable and can
be very unpredictable.
d. Experimental
 creative, artistic
 holistic, integrative Mood Disorders – These are type of mental disorders
 imaginative characterized by emotional disturbances that affect physical,
social, perceptual, and thought processes of an individual
 follows 'gut feel' in solving problems
 likes to try new things
 takes risks Low Self-esteem
 future-oriented  Self-esteem refers to how well you regard yourself. You
think low or poorly of yourself, and such affects your self-
DEVELOPING YOUR CREATIVITY confidence.
Creative thinking
Creative thinking is an expansive way of driving your thoughts Anxiety
to venture into the realm of possibilities. Creativity accesses  It usually happens when we are anticipating something we
different modes of thinking to make a breakthrough. are fearful of, or when faced with difficult situations.
Anxiety Disorders – These are class of disorders and
Associative Thinking marked by extreme worries and apprehension
Associative thinking is a mental technique that lets you explore
an idea by considering all possible areas (ideas, experiences, Depression
images, symbols, etc) related to the topic at hand to get fresh  All of us experience feeling depressed once in a while. It is
insights. normal especially when faced with a lot of problems,
difficulties, or frustrations. It becomes a cause of concern if
Mind-mapping the duration
Mind-mapping is a creative way of exploring ideas through a
Major Depressive Disorder -It is marked by persistent
graphic or visual presentation. It uses words, images, numbers,
sadness, despair, and loss of interest in life activities.
colors, and spatial awareness to expand your brain.

Eating Problems
Chapter 7: Being Well  If it reaches a point of extreme obsession to lose weight,
Carol D. Ryff (1989) considers well-being as multidimensional then it may result in some psychological disorders.
that covers different aspects. It is not only about having  Anorexia nervosa keeps his/her weight as low as
positive emotions like feeling good or happy. It also refers to a possible because of faulty thinking that he/she is fat and
number of positive psychological function ing. They are as would want to be thin as possible. The person cuts down
follows: food intake, vomit food out or exercise excessively.
 Bulimia overeating then purging what has been eaten by
vomiting to avoid gaining weight.
a. Self-acceptance Eating Disorders – This is serious problem in eating a
You accept yourself and have a positive attitude with who you problem. Becoming overly conscious about behavior
are. brought about by excessive concern over weight and
unhealthy eating practices.
 that may have positive or negative effects on the
Substance Abuse adjustment of an individual.
 The use of drugs and alcohol is a serious issue and  "the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to
concern most especially for teenagers like you. monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and use this information to guide
one's thinking and actions"
Chapter 8: Stress Busting in Middle and Late Adolescence
UNDERSTANDING STRESS Goleman's Theory
Stress and Your Body  Daniel Goleman (1995) in his book, Emotional Intelligence
 The word 'stress' refers to pressure, tension, he included the role of social skills in the process of
hardship, emphasis, or importance. establishing meaningful relationships and recognized
 It was Dr. Hans Selye (1907-1982), an meaningful relationships as having a good effect on an
endocrinologist, who made the first scientific study on individual's growth.
"stress" to refer to the body's reaction to perceived 5 domains of emotional intelligence:
threats or tension that affects our body's balance 1. Self-awareness. This is awareness of your emotions:
(homeostasis) knowing what you feel and why you are feeling it.
2. Self-management. This is handling emotions effectively.
Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome 3. Motivation. This is making use of your emotions to
1. The Alarm Phase continue what you are doing to achieve your goals, even in
- You recognize the stressor. It could be a problem, a the face of difficulties.
difficulty, or threat stirring reactions in your body. 4. Empathy. It means understanding and mirroring what
2. The Resistance Phase others are feeling.
- Being able to handle stress or adapt to the situation, you 5. Social skills. Goleman points out that every emotion has
are able to restore a sense of balance once again. Your a function. Generally, emotions help you make
body is still in a state of arousal to resist any effects of connections and establish relationships.
stress in you. 6.
EFFECTIVE WAYS OF MANAGING EMOTIONS
3. The Exhaustion Phase a. Keep your emotions in check.
- If the stressful situation persists and you are no longer b. Take a moment to consider your feelings, especially
able to neither adjust nor hold up, exhaustion sets in that distressing ones.
can seriously affect your body. Burnout, fatigue, c. Handle your anger well.
dysfunction, or health problems can occur. d. Keep positive attitude.

STRESS AND YOUR WAY OF THINKING

Richard Lazarus (1922-2002), developed the theory of
cognitive appraisal which explains how an individual respond to
stress. According to Lazarus, the appraisal or assessment of
the situation involves:
1. Primary Appraisal
- At the onset of a stressful event, you think about its
meaning or importance. In short, you consider its personal
meaning.

2. Secondary Appraisal
- This involves how you cope with the stressful situation.

Other Specific Strategies to Handle Stress

1. Take care of your health.
2. Physical Activities
3. Relaxation Exercises
 Diaphragmatic Breathing or Abdominal Breathing
 Finding Your Inner Smile
 Laughter Therapy
4. Identifying Support Groups

Chapter 9: What is your EQ?

UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONS
What Is Emotion?
 a conscious mental reaction (as anger or fear)
subjectively experienced as a strong feeling usually
directed toward a specific object and typically
accompanied by physiological and behavioral
changes in the body
 a natural instinctive state of mind derived from one's
circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional Quotient
 is awareness of one's emotions and ability to understand
the emotions of others. It involves managing emotions and
applying them to enhance good thinking processes like
reasoning, solving problems, and even handling stress.

Salovey and Mayer's Theory

 Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer (1990) define emotions
as organized responses to internal and external events