Western University

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2016 Undergraduate Awards The Undergraduate Awards

2016

Literary Amplification: Jon Krakauer's Use of

Intertextual References in Into the Wild and Their
Role in The McCandless Phenomenon
Wyatt Merkley
Western University, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/ungradawards_2016

Part of the Literature in English, North America Commons

Recommended Citation
Merkley, Wyatt, "Literary Amplification: Jon Krakauer's Use of Intertextual References in Into the Wild and Their Role in The
McCandless Phenomenon" (2016). 2016 Undergraduate Awards. 23.
https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/ungradawards_2016/23
 “Literary Amplification”

Jon Krakauer's Use of Intertextual References in Into the Wild

And Their Role in the Formation of “The McCandless Phenomenon”

In the summer of 2013 alone, twelve hikers had to be air-rescued off the remote Stampede Trail

in the Northern Alaskan wilderness. The route is not particularly accessible or particularly beautiful,

and it covers twenty-two miles of soggy, bug-infested, beaver-ponds and muskeg. Throughout the year,

powerful rivers of glacial snow-melt cross the path; only in the winter and early spring is it even

remotely safe or easy to follow the trail. In her 2013 essay “Chasing Alexander Supertramp,” Eva

Holland quotes one Alaskan woman who, shaking her head, pronounced “of all the places you could

hike in Alaska…” Yet each year, hundreds of people regularly hike the Stampede Trail. Despite

risking, and occasionally losing, their lives crossing the swollen Teklanika river, they continue trekking

through the bush with an attitude that borders on religious fervor.

The people undertaking this journey are known as pilgrims. Unlike medieval pilgrims travelling

to holy shrines in Rome and Jerusalem, these modern pilgrims travel to Fairbanks Alaska's City

Transit's former Bus 142; once towed into the wilderness to house miners, where the body of

Christopher John McCandless was found in September 1993. The impetus for such pilgrimage comes

from the “Chris McCandless Phenomenon,” a phenomenon largely resulting from Jon Krakauer’s best-

selling account of Christopher McCandless, Into the Wild. Not long after the discovery of McCandless'

body in 1993, Krakauer published his first article, “The Death of an Innocent,” in Outside Magazine.

He spent the next three years enlarging the article, and in 1996, Into the Wild was published. After the

book was released, a small number of non-Alaskans and tourists began to undertake the journey to visit

Bus 142. The number of visitors remained small until Paramount Pictures released Sean Penn’s film

adaptation in 2007. Starring Emile Hirsch as Chris McCandless, the film amplified Krakauer's

romanticized vision of McCandless and made him a household name.

 Originally a mountaineer and journalist for Outside Magazine, Krakauer spends the majority of

Into The Wild attempting to explain the motivations and situation of someone like Chris McCandless,

someone who would flee a seemingly happy home and upbringing, donate respectable life savings to

charity, and go live on the road without any of the comforts of modern society. Many of the bus

pilgrims offer their own interpretations in a spiral bound guest-book left inside the bus by the

McCandless family. One entry, quoted by Eva Holland and addressed directly to McCandless, reads “I

envy the ability you had to put this world aside and live out your dream, something so many of us

lack.” Another quote, by a pilgrim Holland interviewed on the Stampede Trail, hearkens back to the

reclusive ideal of Henry David Thoreau's Walden: “I really associate with Chris not liking the world,

not liking society, and not turning his back on it, exactly, but wanting to pick and choose the parts he

wanted to be involved in.”

Krakauer’s depiction of McCandless in Into the Wild encourages these kinds of comparisons

and frequently makes intertextual references to the works of famous authors such as Jack London,

Mark Twain, Herman Melville, Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, and Robinson Jeffers. All of these

authors had a great effect on the life of McCandless and all of these authors are used by Krakauer to

situate McCandless' story into the canonical literary tradition. This essay seeks to examine how Jon

Krakauer uses these inter-textual references in Into The Wild, specifically in how he uses them to

mythologize Chris McCandless, building a literary character out of a real life person, and also seeks to

explain the role that this process of mythologization has played, and continues to play, in the formation

of the McCandless Phenomenon.

The devout of the McCandless Phenomenon, the Cult of McCandless, is made up of loyal

followers of Chris McCandless' ideals, those who view him as a person who, according Ken Ilgunas,

“had the courage to live a full life before a long one.” These followers usually see the movie and fall in

love with its idealized portrayal of McCandless. Next they read the book and are further inspired.
Finally, the most devout take time to live like Chris. If they are lucky, they make the pilgrimage to

Alaska, and travel to the cult's Mecca—Bus 142. “The most vivid thing that I remember,” says bus

pilgrim Dan Grec, “is that you get inside, and Chris died there, you think it’s going to be like a funeral.

But there’s something going on there that I don’t understand. Some kind of happiness or energy. That’s

why I want to go back – I’d like to spend a week there and just soak it in” (Holland). Grec makes up

the highest tier of McCandless followers, what Eva Holland calls “a true believer— someone who

sought out the bus because he felt a connection to McCandless after reading the book and seeing the

movie. Holland found that within this core group of dedicated pilgrims, many even travel to the bus

multiple times.

The first mention of the term 'pilgrim' in Into The Wild comes in the form of an epigraph taken

from Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn: “There was some books. . . . One was

Pilgrim's Progress, about a man that left his family, it didn't say why. I read considerable from it now

and then. The statements was interesting but tough” (61). To posit that the entire Cult of McCandless

comes out of this statement seems far-fetched on the surface, but is actually quite accurate. The quote

speaks of a man leaving his family for unknown reasons, yet the astute student of literature will

understand that Pilgrim's Progress is not about a simple runaway, but a quest inspired by religious

devotion—a pilgrimage. If McCandless is described as a “pilgrim” with a story like Pilgrim's Progress

as an intertextual reference, his followers must be pilgrims as well. This is only a small example,

however, of how Krakauer controls the reader's understanding of the McCandless narrative through

epigraphs and intertextual references.

Krakauer's Use of Intertextual References

Intertextual references can serve many uses. The standard use is to enhance a text by providing

greater meaning than the writer's own words will allow. The primary source of Krakauer’s references

to other texts is his substantial number of epigraphs. Every chapter starts with at least one, usually two,

epigraphs, taken from texts of Krakauer's choosing. Commenting on Krakauer's first page of epigraphs,
Caroline Hanssen explains that first and foremost they establish Jack London's formative role in

McCandleess’ life. The first quote is simply “Jack London is King” (emphasis McCandless'), which

Krakauer states was found carved into a piece of wood at the site of McCandless' death. The next

epigraph quotes London's White Fang, establishing the location as “the Wild, the savage, frozen-

hearted, Northland Wild” of Alaska. Hanssen argues that the juxtaposition of the two pieces together

“highlights the irony of McCandless' apparent appreciation of an author who's works for at least a

century have warned against man's hubris in nature in general, and accidental death in the subarctic

wilderness in particular” (191). Krakauer's use of intertextual allusions reference not only the literary

tradition of wilderness writings, but also a body of knowledge shared by the author and reader—in this

case knowledge of the irony that Chris McCandless died in a similar manner to one of his favourite

author's protagonists.

Krakauer's intertextual literary references can be sub-divided by function into three types of

reference, each providing the reader with a differing mental image in response to what the quote

depicts. The three types of intertextual references are the “Saint/Seeker” image, the “Adventurer”

image, and the “psychological” image. By far the most commonly used by Krakauer is the

“Saint/Seeker” image. These are the most inspiring for potential Cult of McCandless initiates, and are

the most relevant references to McCandless' inner journey. This category includes pieces like “The

desert is the environment of revelation . . . to the desert go prophets and hermits,” quoted from Paul

Shepard's Man in the Landscape, “chastity is the flowering of man” from Thoreau’s Walden, or “for

children are innocent and love justice, while most of us are wicked and prefer mercy” from G.K.

Chesterton. The next type of intertextual allusion, the “Adventurer” image, includes quotes about “the

dominant primordial beast” from Jack London's Call of the Wild, epic imagery about climbing to

treetops in thunderstorms by John Muir, and grand references like those by Estwick Evans and

Roderick Nash to the glory and freedom of the American wilderness. Krakauer links the first two types

of quotes, noting that “unlike Muir and Thoreau, McCandless went into the wilderness not primarily to
ponder nature or the world but, rather, to explore the inner country of his own soul” (183). Krakauer

argues that not long after arriving in the bush McCandless discovered that “an extended stay in the

wilderness inevitably brings one's attention outward as much as inward”(183). Through allusions like

these, Krakauer insists on reading McCandless according to both an inward spiritual image and an

outward, adventurous, image. He uses two more types of allusions in conjunction with these images—

one obvious, and one more covert. The obvious reference, along the same lines as the Spiritual/Seeker

and the Adventurer, is the “Psychological” image. Krakauer's psychological allusions reference books

and stories that either discuss the psyche of those who die in the wilderness or those who travel to it

with the aim of healing. A prime example of such healing aims is Krakauer’s quotation from Edward

Hoagland's “Up The Black To Chalkytsik” essay, which states “we have in America the “Big Two-

Hearted River” tradition: taking your wounds to the wilderness for a cure, a conversion, a rest, or

whatever . . . if your wounds aren't too bad, it works” (71). Earlier on the same page, Krakauer offers a

“psychological” assessment from Theodore Roszak's “In Search of the Miraculous.” Roszak writes, “it

may, after all, be the bad habit of creative talents to invest themselves in pathological extremes that

yield remarkable insights but no durable way of life for those who cannot translate their psychic

wounds into significant art or thought” (71). This quote insists on a psychological examination of

McCandless, yet it importantly steers clear of any actual diagnoses of McCandless or the people who

endeavour to undertake a similar way of life. Importantly, the quote still hints at a judgment of

McCandless a judgment by Krakauer of how McCandless lived out his final days. This judgment is

explained by the last type of intertextual reference: intratextual allusions to Krakauer's own life.

Krakauer and Intratextual Allusions

Krakauer's presence in the story is that of a narrator, so his narrative intrusions are perhaps

better explained as intratextual allusions than intertextual allusions. The reader understands that they

are reading a book about Chris McCandless and that Krakauer is the text's narrator, yet Krakauer is at

times such an obtrusive narrator, that he is more accurately described as a character in his novel. In the
article “What Everyone is Getting Wrong about Chris McCandless” Alaskan Schoolteacher Ivan Hodes

argues that Krakauer is so obtrusive as a character, that he effectively steals the spotlight from

McCandless.

Into the Wild is not actually a book about Chris McCandless—it’s a book about one

complicated, interesting, troubled guy (Jon Krakauer) trying to understand and process the early

death of another. Krakauer is constantly injecting his own thoughts and ideas into the narrative

—most tellingly, the long narration of his own nearly-fatal ascent of the Stikine Ice Cap. In

certain points, there is a hint of desperation about his inquiry: Krakauer needs to know what

happened, because he looked into the dead face of McCandless and saw his own. He felt

empathy, and needed to understand the circumstances—psychological and physical—that

caused McCandless to die and himself to live and grow grey.

Krakauer spends three chapters of Into the Wild narrating his own experiences. Two describe

his attempt at climbing the “Devil's Thumb” section of the Stikine Ice Cap, the third describes his

personal helicopter journey, with Walt, Billie, and Carine McCandless, to the site of Bus 142. Krakauer

is not the only non-McCandless modern adventurer to make the book, but he does devote far more

attention to his own story than he does to those of others. Hanssen finds that the “indirect comparisons

and selected testimony” of Krakauer and “other modern adventurers who have sought personal

transcendence in the farthest reaches of the American Wilderness, sheds oblique light on what may or

may not have spurred McCandless to strike out”(192). Hanssen fails to appreciate, however, that

Krakauer’s intratextual comparison of his own youthful arrogance atop the Devil's Thumb to

McCandless' directly sets the two up as a literary foils. McCandless's apparent lack of “the requisite

humility” (72) necessary to survive in the wilderness dramatically highlights Krakauer’s abundant

humility, the very quality that keeps him alive.

 Krakauer also apparently possesses the requisite humility to forgive his father of his

wrongdoings, evident in his extended personal reflections. At the request of McCandless’ sister, both

the literary and the movie adaptations of the McCandless story deal delicately with the McCandless’

family home-life. Still, both mediums provide hints that describe a relationship more flawed than

superficial analysis might give reason to expect. One of these hints is Krakauer's digression into his

own home life, specifically the relationship between himself and his father. Krakauer believes himself

and McCandless were “similarly affected by the skewed relationships we had with our fathers” (155) a

notion which Krakauer expands upon in great length. He spends several pages talking about the

pressures his father put on him, arguing that “like Walt McCandless, his [father's] aspirations extended

to his progeny” (147). Krakauer further describes his own raging rebellion against his father's seeming

“oppression” over him. Throughout this section Krakauer builds a crucial difference between himself

and McCandless, that being his own eventual forgiveness of his father. Krakauer describes how he

eventually discovered that his rage had “been supplanted by a rueful sympathy and something not

unlike affection”(148). His capacity to forgive his father establishes a binary literary foil between

Krakauer and McCandless, between the man who eventually “came to appreciate that mountains make

poor receptacles for dreams” and “lived to tell [his] tale” (155) and the boy who died trying to climb

successively higher spiritual mountains. Between the man who “found the power to forgive” (148) and

the boy who would, “with one abrupt, swift action” divorce his parents from his life (64), depicts

McCandless as emotionally deficient. By using intratextual references Krakauer accomplishes more

than building a literary foil between himself and Chris McCandless. Krakauer not only situates himself

within the story of McCandless, he transforms himself into a literary character on par with with writers

such as Thoreau, Twain, and Muir. To accomplish this, Krakauer transforms himself into the frame

narrator of a traditional “hermit's tale.”

The Mythologizing Effect of Krakauer's Intertextual References

According to Coby Dowdell, the “hermit's tale” genre became intensely popular in America in
the 1790s, “attesting to a sustained cultural interest in both male and female hermitic figures during the

post-Revolutionary period” (121). Generically speaking, the hermit's tale is a “highly formulaic genre”

with several characteristic features (130). Among the most important conventions of these tales is the

narration of the hermit's personal story, which Dowdell argues “represents the main thematic thrust of

the hermit’s tale, explaining his or her reasons for withdrawal while under-scoring the central critique

of society that the hermit’s actions point to” (131). The final and most crucial element of the story is

the hermit's gifting of their manuscript to the departing travelers (having invariably written a

manuscript), usually with a request that they be “published for the greater benefit of society” (131).

This portion of the story usually follows the travelers' attempt to bring the hermit back to society, and

the hermit's refusal to accompany them.

While the story of Into the Wild is not exactly a hermit's tale, it does bear a striking resemblance

to the genre and features many its central tropes. McCandless was found in a pristine Alaskan valley,

and his bus (hut) was certainly far enough from society that he never saw a person from the time he

walked into the wilderness. Through his repeated interjections, Krakauer frames McCandless' “reasons

for withdrawal” and his “central critique of society” in ways typical of the hermit’s tale (Dowdell 131).

Hiking down the stampede trail, “two traveling adventurers” discover McCandless’ body (Dowdell

130). Had they found him alive, they might well have stayed, found him hospitable, shared his food,

and convinced him to return to society with them. In the end, however, McCandless' story inevitably

plays out differently than the traditional hermit's tale.

The officials collecting McCandless' body brought back his writings as well, what could be

deemed his 'hermit's manuscript'. Critics of McCandless have called the journal of his one hundred-

thirteen days in the bush “pathetic in the description of anything” (Medred). The journal does indeed

mostly consist of jot-notes of day-to-day happenings and of what food he was able to catch. Perhaps,

however, an alternative view of what constitutes a hermit's manuscript is needed. It seems reasonable

that McCandless' tally of days, when combined with the many scribbled notes in the margins of his
books, and the photographs he took of himself, might constitute a sort of multimedia hermit's

manuscript. McCandless had already written an account of his travels in the years prior to Alaska,

describing the journey of Alexander Supertramp in clipped third-person narration: “He screams and

beats canoe with oar. The oar breaks. Alex has one spare oar. If loses second oar is dead” (Krakauer

36). To several of the people he stayed with on the road, McCandless also expressed a desire to write a

full account of his travels in the future, the completion of which may have offered a more coherent

critique of society and declaration of the goals of his Walden-esque journey into the woods. In the

absence of these texts, the reader is left with Krakauer's interpretations of McCandless' writings. The

literary form adopted by Krakauer shares many of the conventions of the hermit's tale, the chief

difference being McCandless' death before the creation of a manuscript. The hermit's tale is a malleable

genre, and it could be suggested that in writing Into the Wild Krakauer completed both McCandless'

hermit's manuscript and the frame narrative that encloses it. Krakauer's multiple literary intrusions and

his frequent use of the first person situate him as a framing narrator of Chris McCandless’s story, a be-

all and end-all without which the story would be untellable. He tells the reader of his travels into the

woods to McCandless' 'hut', of his reading of McCandless' multimedia manuscript, and of his attempts,

in the classic position of the hermit's frame narrator, to bring McCandless back to society. Krakauer’s

success in launching an industry and cult around the tragic figure suggests that, in a sense, he

succeeded in bringing McCandless back.

In situating himself as a narrator-character in Into the Wild, Krakauer creates one of most the

crucial aspects of the McCandless industry: self involvement. Because of Krakauer's semi-journalistic

writing style, all those who would comment on McCandless' death, no matter how academic they may

attempt to be, fall into the habitual use of several tropes introduced by Krakauer’s text: (i) self-

comparison (to McCandless); (ii) self-authorization (to write on the subject of McCandless); and (iii)

self-righteousness (in that, while they may once been similar to McCandless, they survived). Peter

Christian, the Alaskan Park Ranger and author of what might be called the McCandless Hater’s
manifesto, provides the best example of these tropes in action. Speaking of the “McCandless

Phenomenon,” Christian describes “people, nearly always young men, come to Alaska to challenge

themselves against an unforgiving wilderness landscape where convenience of access and possibility of

rescue are practically nonexistent. I know the personality type because I was one of those young men”

(1). In the first sentence alone, Christian exemplifies the tropes introduced by Krakauer’s text. Type-

casting McCandless, Christian admits that he was once of that type (self-comparison) and argues that

because he was once of this type he is an authority to speak on them (self-authorization). Further into

the essay, Christian fulfills the trope of self-righteousness, delineating himself as superior to

McCandless by arguing:

…essentially, Chris McCandless committed suicide while I apprenticed myself to a career and a

life that I wanted more badly than I can possibly describe in so short an essay. In the end I

believe that the difference between us was that I wanted to live and Chris McCandless wanted

to die (whether he realized it or not). (2)

In this quote Christian begins the McCandless Hater's obsession with writing McCandless off as

“crazy” by their own societal (not medical) standards. The McCandless followers and pilgrims take the

exact opposite approach to this argument, even if they still fall into the same three aforementioned

tropes. Ken Ilgunas, a fellow Alaskan Park Ranger, refuses to endorse Christian's denunciation of

McCandless, instead taking the self-comparison to a far greater degree. Ilgunas argues that “it should

come as no surprise that I am a fan of the book and movie. I think it’s even fair to say that McCandless

and I are, in some sense, kindred spirits. So naturally I can’t help but take Pete’s views personally

because, when he calls McCandless stupid, insane, and suicidal, he's inadvertently calling me these

things, too”. Ilgunas continues the trend of self-authorization, claiming that he is “in a unique position”

and can “speak with some authority on the subject.” Ilgunas even ends his article by conceding to a
gently self-righteous rebuke of McCandless: “McCandless did make several simple mistakes on his

trip, as well as break several wildlife and game restrictions, not to mention putting his family through

incredible pain.” Despite this rebuke, Ilgunas still thoroughly supports McCandless, positioning him as

someone who followed their dreams in an age of insecurities. He treats McCandless like a literary

character instead of a true person, a trend encouraged by Krakauer’s best-selling text.

Chris McCandless as a Literary Character Among Giants

Throughout the narrative of Into the Wild, it is often difficult to decipher where the real

McCandless ends and where Krakauer's depiction begins. Though Krakauer concedes to sometimes

depicting McCandless as a tragic Quixote, the majority of the book romanticizes him. For example,

Krakauer interprets McCandless' final photograph, in which he smiles and holds out his hand to the

camera in a last farewell, as follows: “He is smiling in the picture, and there is no mistaking the look in

his eyes: Chris McCandless was at peace, serene as a monk to God” (199). McCandless is indeed

smiling, but it would be difficult to accurately argue that he was entirely at peace, or that he was indeed

“serene as a monk to God.” Yet Krakauer sees no problem with giving his character of McCandless

thoughts and feelings we can in no way be sure he had.

Krakauer’s mythologization of Chris McCandless into a fictional character proved especially

appealing to readers. Many of the texts that quote Into the Wild invariably adopt Krakauer’s

representation of McCandless as a literary character: “Although by birthright he was more of a Tom

Sawyer, pirate books and all, McCandless daringly pulled off a Huck Finn and lit out for the territory”

(Brandt 189). Many commentators seem unable to disconnect McCandless from the intertextual literary

references in the book about him, arguing that “once inside Krakauer’s narrative one soon discovers

that McCandless was a serious reader, and the influences of London, Twain, Melville, Thoreau,

Tolstoy, Jeffers, and others played significant roles in shaping his beliefs” (Brandt 2). Referring to

McCandless’ reference to London's Call Of The Wild, Jonah Raskin argues that “[McCandless] seems
also to have had in mind John Thornton, the one really heroic human character in The Call of the Wild

(1903), since Thornton, London writes, ‘was unafraid of the wild. With a handful of salt and a rifle he

could plunge into the wilderness and fare wherever he pleased and as long as he pleased’”(199).

The difficulty of disconnecting McCandless from his literary heroes stems from two crucial

points: (i) McCandless did his best to emulate his literary heroes in his everyday life; and (ii) Krakauer

intentionally situates these literary giants in his narrative, bringing the connotation of their stories into

his. By using their books in his epigraphs, Krakauer places McCandless in the same situations as the

“legendary” literary characters and their authors: John Thornton, the man who could survive anywhere

in Jack London; Huckleberry Finn, the peripatetic territory-lighting boy in Mark Twain; Captain Ahab,

the single-minded sailor whose ideals ultimately killed him in Herman Melville; Henry David Thoreau,

the self-styled hermit of Walden Pond; and Leo Tolstoy, who lived “holy” and penniless among the

poor. The inclusion of these characters and authors, alongside both Krakauer and McCandless'

situations, brings an “epic” air to Into the Wild, transforming a tragic story into something more

reminiscent of John Muir’s romp among the treetops in a thunderstorm.

I call the process literary amplification. Without the high-minded literary references and

glorious adventure, Krakauer's narrative is simply the story of a dead backpacker. Krakauer changes

everything by borrowing the height of the literary tradition, as far as adventure, romance, and

wilderness glory go. By intertwining some of the greatest literary adventure stories of all time with his

own narrative, Krakauer effectively amplifies the connotations of McCandless’ story. McCandless may

have liked these passage, but Krakauer uses them to multiply his own imagery, appropriating their

connotations for his own. For example, the passage cited from London’s Call of the Wild is the phrase

“the dominant primordial beast” (31). As Jonah Raskin points out, in London this phrase refers to the

dog Buck, who has just killed the leading dog of the pack. “McCandless tweaks the phrase,” Raskin

observes, “and writes, ‘All hail the Dominant Primordial Beast!’(38), which makes it sound like a

hymn to brute conquest” (199). Just like McCandless turning “the dominant primordial beast” into “All
hail the Dominant Primordial Beast!”, Krakauer turns the real Chris McCandless into an Alexander-

Supertramp-like, mythologized, version of a real person, creating a hymn to a dead saint, rather than to

brute conquest.

The Results: Fictionalization and Image Creation

Reduced to a literary character, Chris McCandless becomes nothing more than a symbol to

those who read the book, albeit a complicated symbol. To the lovers of McCandless, the pilgrims,

followers, and cultists, McCandless is a symbol of someone who follows their dreams, a modern-day

Thoreau who perished tragically after successfully circumventing the perils of our modern, corrupt

society. To those who hate McCandless, the sourdough Alaskans who seek to diminish the fact that he

lived one hundred-thirteen days in the Alaskan bush without proper supplies, who compare him to “the

Man” in “To Build a Fire” and degrade him as crazy with disorders like schizophrenia, bipolar

disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder, McCandless is a symbol of that which they would seek

to distance themselves from: the greenhorn, the unprepared, or the lower caste, unfit to belong in their

“society”. In “The Beatification of Chris McCandless”, Ivan Hodes goes so far as to argue that “people

don’t really care about Chris McCandless, the young man from Virginia who died on the Stampede

Trail; they are invested in Chris McCandless as a symbol. The rancor comes because he symbolizes

different, conflicting things for different people”.

In relation to the Hollywood and literary industry now surrounding his life, Chris McCandless

has become a symbolic object in the psyches of both haters and followers, consumers and moviegoers,

academics and journalists. In this sense, Hodes is certainly correct. McCandless has ceased to be a

human being and now exists only as a symbol. I would posit that none of this process would have taken

place without Into the Wild’s conscientious mythologizing of Krakauer and McCandless. The real Chris

McCandless attempted to live the life of his favourite literary giants and he succeeded, though it cost

him his life. Thoroughly romanticized by Krakauer, Chris McCandless not only lives the life of his

favourite literary characters, he becomes a literary character. By situating him alongside literary giants,
Krakauer ensures that McCandless continues to live today. In other words, Krakauer's use of literary

amplification, his proliferating intertextual references and allusions, creates the symbolized

McCandless, creates a mythologized image separated from the true Chris McCandless. Without

Krakauer’s representation, there would be no Cult of McCandless, no Chris McCandless industry, and

certainly no more talk about the “real” Chris McCandless.

 Works Cited

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(2011): 189–190. Web.

Christian, Peter. “Chris McCandless From An Alaska Park Ranger's Perspective”. nd. 1-2. Web.

Chesterton, G.K.. qtd. Krakauer. Into the Wild. New York: Anchor, 2007. pp. 117.

Dowdell, Coby. “The American Hermit and the British Castaway: Voluntary Retreat and Deliberative

Democracy in Early American Culture”. Early American Literature 46.1 (2011): 121–156.

Web.

Hanssen, Caroline. "You Were Right, Old Hoss; You Were Right": Jack London in Jon Krakauer's into

the Wild”. American Literary Realism 43.3 (2011): 191–197. Web.

Hoagland, Edward. Up The Black to Chalkytsik. qtd. Krakauer. Into the Wild. New York: Anchor,

2007. pp. 70.

Hodes, Ivan. "What Everyone Is Getting Wrong About Chris McCandless." Alaska Commons. N.p., 21

Sept. 2013. Web. 08 Apr. 2016.

Holland, Eva. "Chasing Alexander Supertramp." Atavist. N.p., Dec. 2013. Web. 08 Apr. 2016.

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