VEGAETATIVE ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION IN REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION

Term used for plants
ORGANISMS Eg : Eye in potato (Axillary buds)
Term used for Animals

Bulbil in Agave leaf buds in Bryophyllum

BIRTH NATURAL DEATH
Offset in water hyacinth and
Time Period : Life Span Rhizome of ginger
pistia.
*Note - No individual is immortal except unicellular organism. There is
* Water Hyacinth is a weed that caused "Terror of Bengal"
no natural death in unicellular organism
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction
Organisms give rise to offsprings similar to themselves. 2 parents are involved (1 parent may be involved)

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Formation & later fusion of male and female gametes

single parent gamete formation may take place but no fusion Organisms reach a certain age before they could sexually
reproduce - Juvenile phase in animals /Vegetative phase in plants
clones are formed (offspring are identical to parents) Vegetative phase → Reproductive phase → senescent phase
Budding in Binary fission in Amoeba, *Bamboo species flower after 50-100 years, once in lifetime &
Gemmules in sponge
yeast Paramecium then die.
*Strobilanthus kunthiana flowers once in 12 years.
Buds in
Zoospores in Chlamydomonas Females of placental mammals experience cyclic
Hydra
changes in activities of ovaries, accessory ducts
*Note - In unfavourable condition, amoeba undergoes encystation and hormones in their reproductive phase.
(cyst formation). In favourable conditions, It liberates spores
(sporulation). This is called oestrus cycle in non-primate
mammals and menstrual cycle in primate
mammals

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 Sexual Reproduction Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis process of male and female gamete formation

Pre Fertilisation
Gamete transfer Isogamete Heterogametes
Fertilisation (similar morphology) (morphologically distinct)
eg- Algae eg-Humans
Zygote formation
Post Fertilisation Gamete transfer
Embryogenesis
Pollination - Transfer of pollens from
Plants motile gametes
male anther to female stigma (in
Bisexual or Homothallic or Unisexual or heterothallic or eg-algae, bryophyte
dioecious plants)
monoecious dioecious
Fertilisation
(both male and female reproductive
parts in same flower) eg - Papaya, Date palm Fusion of gametes (syngamy) Zygote (2n)
eg - cucurbits & coconut

*Note - "Hermaphrodite" *Note - If syngamy does not occur, development happens

term is used for bisexual without fertilisation by a process "parthenogenesis"
animals. eg- Earthworm Staminate Pistillate eg-honey bees, rotifers, turkey.
(Male flower) (Female flower)
meiocytes
(gamete mother
cells) (2n)

meiosis

gametes
(n)

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 Fertilisation
External Internal
STRATEGIES FOR
Outside the body of ENHANCEMENT OF FOOD
organism Inside the body of organism
great synchrony needed (female body) PRODUCTION
chance factor (+) non motile egg
eg- algae, fishes, eg- reptiles, birds mammals Animal husbandry
amphibians Agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock
(buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats)
Embryogenesis
(Process of development of embryo)
Cell division Cell differentiation-group of cells 70% livestock population resides in India and China but they
increases no of undergo modifications to form contribute only 25% to farm Products ( Low Productivity )
cells by mitosis specialised tissue and organs
Dairy
Management of animals for milk & its products
Product quality depends on
Selection of good breeds; resistance to
disease
Quality & quantity of food
Hygiene
Animals Poultry
Oviparous eg- Reptiles, Viviparous eg- mammals Class of domesticated fowl used for food & for
birds Proper embryonic care & their eggs; Includes ducks, chicken, turkey, geese.
Lay Eggs protection.

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 Breeding in animals Bee-keeping (Apiculture)
Inbreeding Mating of closely related individuals (same Maintenance of hives of honey bees for
breed for 4 to 6 generation) production of honey, beewax, etc.

superior varieties produce superior progeny (purelines) Common species of honey bees - Apis indica
Inbreeding increases homozygosity Practiced in areas where bee pasteur is
This reduces fertility & productivity - inbreeding depression available (orchids, crops mainly of sunflower,
Brassica, apple & pear)
Outbreeding breeding of unrelated animals
Plant Breeding
Outcrossing Cross - breeding
Purposeful manipulation of plant Classical plant
same breed different breeds species to create desired plant type breeding
(for better yield & disease crossing of pure lines
no common ancestors resistance)
hybrid progeny
(4-6 generations) Modern plant breeding - molecular artificial selection
genetic tools
eg- Hisardale is a new breed
helps to overcome Main steps of plant breeding
desired character
developed by crossing Bikaneri
inbreeding depression
ewes & Marino rams
Collection of variability, collecting diverse alleles for
Interspecific male and female of 2 different related all genes in a given crop (germplasm collection).
Hybridisation species.
Selection of parents; creating desirable combination
to get desired characters (controlled breeding)
Cross hybridisation - produces hybrids
MOET (Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer)
program for herd size improvement
Selecting & testing superior recombinants; careful
Administration of FSH in cow scientific evaluation of progeny
artificial insemination
Super ovulation fertilised eggs (8-32) are recovered
Testing, release & commercialisation.
transferred to surrogate mother 33
 Agriculture - 33% of India's GDP; 62 % employment to
North India; poor sugar
population. Saccharum barberi
content
Green revolution : Major advancements on crop breeding
Sugarcane
genetics made in 1960's
Blue revolution launched in 1985-1990, objective - develop, Saccharum Thick stems, better
manage, promote fisheries to double farmers income. officinarum sugar content

Fisheries Pusa swarnim Resistant to white

Catching, processing or selling of fish, shellfish & other aquatic (Karan rai) rust
Brassica
animals such as prawn, crab, lobster, etc
Pusa gaurav Resistant to aphids
Freshwater fishes - Catla, Rohu and common carp marine marine
fishes - Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel & Pomfrets
Pusa shubhra Resistant to black rot &
Crops Variety Special Note Cauliflower
PusaSnowball K-1 curl blight black rot

High yielding, Resistant to bacterial

Sonalika Cowpea Pusa komal
Disease resistant blight
Kalyan Sona
(semi-dwarf variety)
Wheat
Resistant to chilli
Resistant to leaf & stipe Chilli Pusa Sadabahar mosaic virus, TMV &
Himgiri leaf curl
rust, hill bunt

Pusa sem 2
Developed by IRRI, Resistant to Jassids,
IR-8 Flat bean
Philippines aphids & fruit borer
Rice Pusa sem 3
(Semi
dwarf Taichung Native - I From Taiwan Pusa sawani
Varieties) Okra Shoot & fruit borer
Pusa A-4
Jaya, Ratna India
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 Breeding disease resistant species Single Cell Protein (SCP)

Conventional breeding 1. Selection ; 2. Hybridisation An alternate source of protein for animals & plant
Blue-green-algae (Spirulina) can grow on waste water/
Mutational breeding potato/straw/ molasses and contains starch and is also rich in
proteins,fats,carbs,minerals & vitamins.
1. Genetic variations are created by changing
Methylophilus and Methylotrophus is also a rich source
base sequence
protein
2. by the use of chemicals & radiations
3. (gamma waves) Tissue Culture
4. eg - in mung bean, resistance to yellow
mosaic virus & powdery mildew was induced Any part of plant is grown in a
via mutation propagation
taken (explants) test tube
x 1000
plants
*Note - Resistance to yellow mosiac virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus Application - growing disease-free micro
esculentus) was transferred from wild species resulting in new varieties by using apical meristem propagation
variety of A. esculenthus called Parbhani kranti
*Totipotency- capacity to generate a full plant from explant

Biofortification *Somaclones - each plant is identical to explant

Somatic Hybridisation
Breeding crops with higher level of vitamins & minerals, higher
protein & healthier fats; in order to improve public health Isolating naked protoplasts to form hybrid protoplasts,
further grown to form new plants (somatic hybrids)
In 2000, maize hybrids had 2X amount of amino acids (lysine & Eg - protoplasm of tomato & potato were combined to form
tryptophan) pomato.
Atlas 66, (wheat variety); has a high protein content.
Iron-fortified rice has 5 times iron than other varieties.

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 Removes over 99% particulate matter from exhaust of thermal
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES power plants

Pollution Electrode wires are maintained at several thousand volts,

which produces electrons
Pollution - any undesirable change in
Electrons attach to dust particles Collecting plates attract
physical, chemical & biological characteristics
(providing -ve charge) dust particles
of air, land, water, or soil. Agents - Pollutants
Scrubber removes gases like Sulphur Dioxide
*Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 - to
protect & improve quality of environment Electrostatic Precipitator

Effects on Organisms
Air Pollution and Control
depend on
concentration of pollutants duration of exposure

Acc. to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

particulate size 2.5μm or less in diameter causes
greatest harm to humans

can be catalytic converters

Automobile pollution
controlled by Pt-Pd & Rh catalysts Case Study-Delhi
Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (amended - 1987) - In 1990's Delhi ranked 4th among the 41 most polluted cities in world
noise as pollution, Noise above 150 dB may damage eardrums.
Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was filed in Supreme Court of
Noise can cause India

Sleeplessness Inc. heart rate Diesel public transport CNG (Compressed Natural gas)
Burns efficiently , Cheaper
(Problem - Laying down pipelines)
Altered breathing
Stress
pattern use of unleaded petrol, low sulphur petrol 36
*Euro III norms (equivalent to Bharat Stage III), sulphur be Biochemical Oxygen Demand
controlled at 350 ppm in diesel & 150 ppm in petrol, reducing Amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological
aromatic hydrocarbon by 42% in concerned fuel organisms to break down organic material present in a given
water sample.
TYPE OF CITIES OF Larger nutrients
NORMS
VEHICLE IMPLEMENTATION causes algal
bloom (causing
Bharat Stage WHOLE COUNTRY SINCE fish mortality)
4 WHEELERS
4 APRIL 2017
Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), is an aquatic
Bharat Stage WHOLE COUNTRY SINCE weed and also called "Terror of bengal".
3 WHEELERS
4 APRIL 2017 Heavy metals - elements with density > 5g/cm3
such as mercury, cadmium, copper, lead, etc.
Bharat Stage WHOLE COUNTRY SINCE
2 WHEELERS Biomagnification Eutrophication
4 APRIL 2017
Increase in concentration of natural aging of a lake (by
Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) toxicant at successive trophic nutrient enrichment)
Water Pollution
Act, 1974 levels. Lake gets warmer as
debris pile up.
Dissolved Oxygen Water (DDT = 0·003ppb) Adding waste to lakes
can accelerate
Zooplankton (DDT = 0.04ppm) eutrophication
Conc.

Small fish (DDT = 0.5ppm)

Large fish (DDT = 2 ppm)

BOD
Direction of flow Fish eating birds
(DDT = 25 ppm)
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 Case study - Waste water Treatment. Case study - Plastic Waste

STAGE A Ahmed Khan's company, recycled plastic to make 'Polyblend'

Conventional
Filtering Chlorine Treatment
Sedimentation
which was mixed with bitumin, used to lay roads.

Series of six marshes having appropriate plants, algae, fungi; that This increased the road life by a factor of three
neutralise pollutants
STAGE B By 2002, more than 40 km of roads are laid in Bangalore

* A citizen group Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) Case study - Organic Farming
safeguard this project
*Ecological sanitation Sustainable system of handling human Ramesh Chandra Dagar, Sonipat does bee-keeping, dairy
excreta using composting towers management, water harvesting, composting & agriculture for
There are 'Ecosan' toilets in many areas of Kerala & Sri Lanka his zero-waste farming

dung is used as manure, crop waste as compost

Solid Waste
He has created Haryana kisan welfare club (5000 farmer
Sanitary landfills were adopted as a substitute to open-burning members)
dumps (here waste is dumped & covered with dirt every day)
Waste generated should be categorized as-

bio- recyclable non- electronic

degradable biodegradable waste
Hazardous
waste

Hospital Waste 38
 Case study - Radioactive Waste Ozone Depletion
Accidental leakage - Three mile Island & layer found in stratosphere hv
Chernobyl shield UV rays from sun
O2 2O
<200nm
CFC's (Chlorofluoro carbons)
Causes mutations at a very fast rate (also a O + O2 O3
cause Ozone degradation.
carcinogen)

High doses are lethal.

Green House Effect

Some IR radiations from sun pass through the atmosphere, but most
are absorbed and reemitted. The gases trap(absorb) this heat,
causing to warm the Earth's surface

El Nino effect - Rise in temp.

causes deterious change in where R represents
environment, causing odd Cl• from a CFC or
climatic changes (melting of NO from nitrogen
polar ice Caps etc) oxides; R• is
regenerated as this
Deforestation (rate) tropics > temperate is a catalyic cycle
and Effects National Forest Policy (1988) of India
recommended 33% forest cover for Depletion particularly ever Antarctic region (forming
Enhanced CO2
plains & 67% for hills. ozone hole)
conc.
Slash & burn agriculture (Jhum UV-B is absorbed by earth (causing mutations & DNA
habitat loss
cultivation) also causes deforestation damage)
biodiversity loss
Montreal Protocol (Canada) in 1987 - control over
soil erosion
Ozone depletion
(desertification)
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 Case study

In 1731, Bishnoi community protected trees from cutting by hugging

them. Amrita devi was killed in this incident.

GOI Instituted Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award for

individuals who show extraordinary courage for protection of
nature.

Chipko Movement (Garhwal Himalaya), 1974, women protected

trees.

G0I has introduced Joint Forest Management (JFM), 1980 to help

Communities manage forests.

Save Trees

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