Human Health and Disease

DESIGNED

By

Edustudy point
Health: It can be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
• Health is affected by three factors- Genetic disorders, Infections and Life style.
• The factors which are responsible for maintaining good health are Balanced diet, Personal
hygiene, Regular exercise, meditation and yoga.

Diseases: The conditions in which one or more organs of the body are not working properly,
characterized by various signs and symptoms are called diseases. The organisms which cause
diseases are called pathogens.

Diseases can be broadly classified into two types-

1) Infectious diseases: Infectious diseases are those which are transmitted from an
infected person to another healthy person.

2) Non-infectious diseases: Non-infectious diseases are those which are not

transmitted from an infected person to another person.

Infectious diseases includes-

❖ Bacterial diseases: caused by bacteria.

➢ Typhoid: Caused by Salmonella typhi.
• Affects small intestine and then migrates to other parts of the body through blood.

• Transmitted by contaminated food and water.

• Symptoms- Sustained high fever (39° to 40°C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation,
headache and loss of appetite, intestinal perforation and death may occur in severe
cases.

• Typhoid fever is confirmed by Widal test.

➢ Pneumonia: Caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae.

• Affects alveoli of lungs.

• Transmitted by dropelts released by infected person, sharing glasses and utensils.

• Common symptoms are fever, chills, cough and headache and in severe cases lips and
finger nails turn gray to bluish colour.

❖ Fungal disease:
➢ Ringworm: Caused by Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton.
 • Affects skin, nails, folds of skin, groin.

• Transmitted by sharing towel, clothes, or even comb with infected person.

• Appearance of dry skin, scaly lesions in nails and scalp with intense itching are some
of the common symptoms.

• Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow.

❖ Viral diseases
➢ Common cold: Caused by Rhino virus.
• Affects nose and respiratory organs.

• Transmitted by direct inhalation of droplets from cough and sneeze of infected

person, through contaminated objects like pen, books, cups etc.

• Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, cough are common
symptoms.

❖ Protozoan diseases
➢ Malaria: Caused by Plasmodium.
• Affects liver and RBC.

• Transmits by biting of female anopheles mosquito which acts as a vector.

• High fever occurring on alternate days, chill, vomiting are the common symptoms.

• Malarial parasite requires two hosts to complete their life cycle- Human & Anopheles
mosquito.

➢ Amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery): Caused by Entamoebahistolytica.

• Affects large intestine of man.

• Transmitted by house flies which as mechanical carrier and food contaminated with
cysts of Entamoeba.

• Constipation, abdominal pain, cramps, stools with mucous and blood clots are common
symptoms.

❖ Helminth diseases
➢ Ascariasis: Caused by Ascarislumbricoides.
 • Affects intestine of man.

• Transmitted by contaminated water, vegetable fruits etc.

• Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia, blockage of intestinal passage are
common symptoms.

➢ Filariasis or elephantiasis: Caused by Wuchereriabancrofti and Wuchereriamalayi.

• Affects lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs, genital organs.

• Transmitted by biting of infected female culex mosquito.

• Chronic inflammation of the organs where they live, abnormal

swellings of the lower limbs, scrotum, penis are common
symptoms.
Fig. elephantiasis

Prevention and control of diseases: Maintenance of hygiene is very important for of

prevention and control of diseases.

• Measures for hygiene include keeping the body clean; consumption of clean drinking water,
food, vegetables, fruits, proper disposal of waste and excreta; periodic cleaning and
disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools and tanks.
• In case of air borne diseases, close contact with the infected person and his belongings
should be avoided.
• For vector borne diseases such as malaria and filariasis, the measures to control diseases
are-

▪ Control or eliminate the vectors and their breeding places.

▪ Avoiding stagnation of water in and around residential areas.

▪ Use of mosquito nets.

▪ Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.

▪ Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps, etc.

▪ Doors and windows should be provided with wire mesh to prevent the entry of
mosquitoes.

• The use of vaccines and immunization programmes has enabled to control diseases like
smallpox, diphtheria, polio, pneumonia, tetanus etc.
Immunity: The overall ability of the body to fight against disease causing microorganisms
with the help of immune system is called immunity. It is of two types-

1) Innate immunity: The immunity which occurs by birth is called innate immunity.
• Innate immunity is non-specific type of defense.
• Innate immunity consists of four types of various barriers which prevent the entry of
microorganisms into the body.

a) Physical barriers- Skin on our body.

b) Physiological barriers- Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes

c) Cellular barriers– Certain types of leukocytes (WBC)

d) Cytokine barriers- Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which

protect non-infected cells from further viral infection.

2) Acquired immunity: The immunity which develops during lifetime by exposure to

suitable foreign agents like microorganisms is called acquired immunity.
• Acquired immunity is pathogen specific and it is characterized by memory.
• When the body first encounters a pathogen it produces a response which takes long
time to develop and of low intensity called as primary immune response.
• When the body encounters the same pathogen it produces highly intensified and quick
response called as secondary immune response.
• The primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with the help of two special
types of lymphocytes present in our blood,
a) B-lymphocytes: The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in response to
pathogens into our blood to fight with them called as antibodies
b) T-lymphocytes: The T-cells themselves do not produce antibodies but help B cells
to produce them

➢ Structure of antibody: Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two long
chains and two short chains arranged in a Y shaped
structure.
• Two long chains are called heavy chains and two short
chains are called light chains, hence an antibody is
represented as H2L2.
• Antibodies are also called as immunoglobulins (Ig).
• Different types of antibodies are produced in our
bodies which are IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG.
Fig. an antibody molecule
➢ Types of immunity: Based on the type of immune cell acting against the antigens,
immunity can be classified into two types-

1) Humoral immunity- the immunity which is mediated by antibodies produced by B-

lymphocytes is called humoral immunity.

2) Cell-mediated immunity- The immunity which is mediated by T- lymphocytes by

directly attaching themselves to the antigens is called cell mediated immunity.

• Based on the nature of antibodies, immunity is divided into two types-

1) Active immunity- When a host is exposed to antigens, antibodies are produced in

the host body, this type of immunity is called active immunity.

Example- antibody produced when any microorganism enters the body.

2) Passive immunity- When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the
body against foreign agents this type of immunity is called passive immunity.

Example- The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial days
of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant.

➢ Vaccination and immunization: Vaccination is the process of introduction of vaccines

into the body to produce antibodies against the antigens to neutralize the effect of
pathogens during actual infection.
• Vaccines are the dead or weakened pathogens introduced into the body.
• The dead or weakened pathogen leads to the production of antibodies which neutralizes
the pathogenic agents during actual infection with the same pathogen.
• Immunization is the process where performed antibodies against the toxin are
introduced into the body.

Example- performed antibody injection against snake venom.

➢ Allergy: The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in
the environment is called allergy.
• The substances to which immune response is produced are called allergens.
Examples: mites in dust, pollens, animal dander etc.
• Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from mast cells.
• The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type.
• Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and
difficulty in breathing.
➢ Auto immunity: Due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cell
which results in damage to the body and is called auto-immune disease.
• Rheumatoid arthritis is an auto-immune disease.

➢ Immune system in the body: Immune system consists of Lymphoid organs, Lymphoid
tissues, cells and Antibodies
❖ Lymphoid organs: The organs where origin and/or maturation and proliferation of
lymphocytes occur are called lymphoid organs. Lymphoid organs are of two types-
1) Primary lymphoid organs: The primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow and thymus
where immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
• The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including
lymphocytes are produced.
• The thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the breastbone.
• Spleen, tonsil, lymph node, Peyer’s patches of small intestine and appendix are
secondary lymphoid organs where proliferation of
lymphocytes take place.

2) Secondary lymphoid organs: The secondary lymphoid

organs provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes
with the antigen, which then proliferate to become
effector cells.
• The spleen is a large bean shaped organ mainly contains
lymphocytes and phagocytes which acts as a filter of the
blood by trapping blood-borne microorganisms and has a
large reservoir of erythrocytes.
• The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at
Fig. Diagrammatic representation
different points along the lymphatic system. of Lymph nodes
• Lymph nodes serve to trap the antigens and these
antigens trapped are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes and cause the
immune response.

❖ Lymphoid tissue: Lymphoid tissue are located within the lining of the respiratory,
digestive and urogenital tracts.
• Lymphoid tissues are also called mucosal associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) which
constitutes about 50 per cent of the lymphoid tissue in human body.
AIDS: The term AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.

• The disease is acquired during life time.

• AIDS is caused by human immune deficiency virus (HIV).s
• HIV is a retrovirus having RNA as the genetic material.
• Mode of transmission-

▪ Sexual contact with infected persons.

▪ By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.

▪ By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers.

▪ From infected mother to her child through placenta.

• Life cycle of HIV-

▪ After getting into the body the virus enters into macrophages or T-helper cells.

▪ The viral RNA genome replicated to form viral DNA with the enzyme called reverse
transcriptase.

▪ The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host cell’s DNA and directs the infected
cells to produce virus particles and the macrophages continue to produce virus.

▪ Viruses released from macrophages attack T-helper cells and cause a progressive
reduction in the number of T-helper cells and due to which the person starts
suffering from infections with several other microorganisms.

• Diagnosed by ELISA (enzyme linked immune-sorbent assay).

• Treated with anti-retroviral drugs but that is only partially effective.
• Prevention of AIDS-

▪ To follow safe blood transfusion.

▪ To use disposable needles.

▪ To distribute free condoms.

▪ To prevent drug abuse.

Cancer: Cancer is the uncontrolled cell division leading to the formation of a mass of cells
called as a tumor. Tumors are of two types: benign and malignant.

1) Benign tumors: Benign tumors normally remain confined to their original location and
do not spread to other parts of the body.
 2) Malignant tumors: Malignant tumors are a mass of proliferating cells called
neoplastic or tumor cells. Malignant tumors grow very rapidly and invade and ultimately
damage surrounding tissues.
• The property by which cancer cells moves to distant places from their origin by blood and
invade the normal cells and make them cancerous is called as metastasis

➢ Causes of cancer: Transformation of normal cells into cancerous cells may be induced
by physical, chemical or biological agents called as carcinogens.

• Physical carcinogens- ionizing radiation like X-rays, gamma rays and non-ionizing
radiations like UV radiation of sun.

• Chemical carcinogens- tobacco smoke and some other chemicals.

• Biological carcinogens- Cancer causing viruses are called oncogenic viruses have genes
called viral oncogenes.

Cellular oncogenes or proto-oncogenes in normal cells, when get activated lead to

oncogenic transformation of normal cells.

➢ Detection of cancer: Biopsy and histo-pathological study of the tissues.

• Radiography by using X-rays, CT (computed tomography).

• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging).

• Use of antibodies against cancer-specific antigens.

➢ Treatment of cancer:

• Surgery

• Radiation therapy. Fig. cancer cells

• Chemotherapy

• Biological response modifiers- alpha-interferon which activate the immune system and
help in destroying the tumor.
Drugs and alcohol abuse: The drugs which are commonly abused are opioids,
cannabinoids and coca alkaloids.

❖ Opoids: Opioids are the drugs which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our
central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.

• Heroin commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine which is a white,

odourless, bitter crystalline compound and is obtained by acetylation of morphine
extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaversomniferum

• Heroin is a depressant and slows down body functions.

❖ Cannabinoids: Cannabinoids interact with cannabinoid receptors present principally in

the brain.

• Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the plant Cannabis
sativa.

• The flower tops, leaves and the resin of cannabis plant are used in various
combinations to produce marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.

• Effects on cardiovascular system of the body.

❖ Coca alkaloid: Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum
coca.

• Coca alkaloid interferes with the transport of the neuro-transmitter dopamine.

• Cocaine, commonly called as coke or crack.

• It has a potent stimulating action on central nervous system, producing a sense of

euphoria and increased energy.

• Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.

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❖ Tobacco: Tobacco contains nicotine, an alkaloid.

• Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood
circulation, both of which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.

• Smoking of tobacco is associated with increased incidence of cancers of lung, urinary

bladder, throat, oral cavity, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric
ulcer etc.
➢ Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol Abuse: Adolescence means both ‘a period’ and ‘a
process’ during which a child becomes mature in terms of his/her attitudes and beliefs
for effective participation in society.
• 12-18 years of age may be thought of as adolescence period.
• Adolescence is accompanied by several biological and behavioural changes.
• Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation, constitute common
causes, which motivate youngsters towards drug and alcohol use.<<

➢ Addiction and Dependence: Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain

effects–such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well-being – associated with drugs
and alcohol.
• With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors present in our body
increases and consequently the receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs or
alcohol leading to greater intake and addiction.
• Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant
withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued.
• Withdrawal syndrome is characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.

➢ Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse: Immediate effects are reckless behavior,

vandalism and violence.
• Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart
failure or cerebral hemorrhage.
• Those who take drugs intravenously can get infected with AIDS, hepatitis B.
• The chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages nervous system and cause liver cirrhosis.
• The use of drugs and alcohol during pregnancy is also known to adversely affect the
foetus.
• Use of anabolic steroids in females can cause masculinisation, increased aggressiveness,
mood swings, depression, abnormal menstrual cycles, excessive hair, growth on the face
and body, enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
• In males anabolic steroids can cause acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings,
depression, reduction of size of the testicles, decreased sperm production, potential
for kidney and liver dysfunction, breast enlargement, premature baldness, enlargement
of the prostate gland.

➢ Prevention and Control: The measures useful for prevention and control of alcohol
and drugs abuse among adolescents.
• Avoid undue peer pressure on children.

• Children should be educated and counseled to bear problems and stress in life.

• The child should seek help from parents and elders.

• Affected individuals should seek medical help of qualified psychologists, psychiatrists,

and deaddiction and rehabilitation programmes.

KHATAM