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Viva
6
Social
StudieS
History-Geography Civics

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Teachers' Support
Download Support Material from
VIVA EDUCATION
www.vivadigital.in
 Name. ienCe

Social
Studies
History-Geography-Civics
Book 6

History& Civics Geography

Shrutakirti S. Rajan Tilottama Mallik

Series Editors
Uttara Chakraborty
Jayitha Kundu

VIVAEDUCATIONN
Mumbai Chennai Kolkata Bengaluru Hyderabad Kochi Guwahati
Naw Delhi
 Detailed Contents
Extract and corresponding questions Multiple-choice Questions
Picture-based Questions
Answer Orally
Fill in the Blanks Fact Files

True or False Short Answers NCERT SomeTextbook

Long Answers Very Long Answers
Value-based Questions
Questions
Projects and Activities
Search and Surf Brainstorm
one or few
Certain been provided with additional features like web charts, match the
chapters have following, give
words for the following, and differentiate between terms.

History
Projects and Activities
Chapter Objectives
History and its importance Finding information about famous
1. Introduction to
History archaeologists
Prehistory
.Research project on tracing your
Chronology: BCE and CE
family line
.Geographical factors and history
. Literary and archaeological sources

2. The Earliest .Evolution of man Map work

People .Sites .Group presentation on rock art
.The Stone Age .Project on the people of the Stone

.Rock Art Age

.Case Study: Hunsgi Valley
3. The First Farmers .The Neolithic Age Map work
and Herders Life ofthe Neolithic people .Presentation on invention of wheel
Chalcolithic Age Group discussion and project on the
.Case Studies: Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Daojali Neolithic people
Hading
4. The Indus Valley .The earliest civilizations Map work
Civilization .The Indus Valley Civilization .Group presentation or project on any
Main Features of the Indus Valley Civilization one of the ancient civilizations

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization Individual chart-making on Kalibangan

.Case Studies: Lothal, Dholavira

5. The Vedic Age The Aryans and the Vedic Age

Map work
.The four main Vedas .Individual presentation on
.The Early and Later Vedic Age similarities and differences between
the Vedic age and the
.
Understanding culture through graves and burials Harappan Age
.Case Study: Inamgaon Individual project on Megalithic
burial site at Brahmagiri
6. Janapadas and The Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
Map work
Mahajanapadas Development of Mahajanapadas-republics and
monarchies .Group projects on the given topics
.Individual chart-making on
.Important aspects of Janapadas and
Mahajanapadas Pataliputra
.Case Studies: Magadha, .Research project on knowing modern
Vaji names of ancient
places
 Read and discuss stories from the
7. Development of Emergence of new religions
New Religious Jataka Tales
Ideas
.TheUpanishads
.Teachings, literature and spread of Buddhism
and Jainism

8. The Mauryan .The Mauryas and some important Mauryan Map work
Empire kings .Individual project report on

Ashoka and his dhamma and edicts Alexander the Great

Revenue collection, Mauryan administration and Individual presentation on

Chandragupta and Bindusara
occupation
Mauryan art and architecture .Class discussion on Ashokas
dhamma and Buddhism
.Decline of the Mauryan empire

9. Life in Towns and Second urbanization Map work

Individual project report on Arikamedu
Villages Sources of second urbanization
.Features of second urbanization .Group discussion and presentation on
important ancient towns and cities
.Emergence of urban centres
.Comparing today's trade relations
.Case Study: Arikamedu
and imports/exports with the trade in
the past and preparing a presentation

10. The Post-Mauryan .Sangam Literature Map work

Period Kingdoms in the North .Group presentation on either Fa-Hien
or Hiuen Tsang
.The Silk Route and its importance
.Group project report on either a
.Spread of Buddhism South Indian or a North Indian
.The beginning of Bhakti kingdom from ancient India

11. New Empires and The Gupta dynasty Map work

.Group presentation on either
Kingdoms Harshavardhana

and South Chalukya or Pallava dynasty

.Important kingdoms in the Deccan
India Individual project report on the
main Gupta rulers

.Some major developments in the fields of Individual project on a Tamil epic

12. Culture and
literature, science, art, architecture and painting .Group presentation on either rock-
Science
in the ancient period cut or free-standing temples
Some important books written duringthis period Individual chart-making on Ajanta
.Some famous scientists and their work murals
Some important buildings that were built during
this period
 Geography
Projects and Activities
Chapter Objectives
of
1. Earth and the .How the universe came into existence Individual presentation on images
important constellations
Solar System Stars
.Collecting information and making a
.The solar system chart about a dwarf planet
.Other celestial bodies
4 The Globe .Shape and size of the Earth .Individual project on noting latitudes
and longitudes of capitals of any
Latitudes and The globe - grid system
four countries of the world
Longitudes
Latitudes - heat zones
Longitudes time zones
International date line

Motions of the .Difference between rotation and revolution .Individual research project about
3
Earth
.Rotation and its effects places and weather conditions there
Revolution and its effects Individual record of the timings of
sunrise and sunset in a city
Summer solstice and winter solstice
Spring and autumn equinox

4. Maps and Map Different types of maps Group project of making a plan of
Reading Components of a map the classroom
.Scale, directions and symbols .Individual project of making
a sketch of a locality
Sketch and plan using
conventional symbols
5. Domains of the The important domains of the Earth
Earth
.Map work
Lithosphere - continents and the hydrosphere
Individual presentation on the
The composition and continents and oceans
structure of the
atmosphere Making a chart on the realms of the
The biosphere Earth
6. Major Landforms The three important landforms of the Earth
of the Earth
.Map work
Types of mountains, plateaus and plains Individual presentation on the three
Significance of mountains, plateaus and plains major landforms
Group project and class discussion
on the Himalayas or Mount
Fuji
.Research about people and life in
mountains and plains
7. India-Location Location and extent of India Map work
and Features Political divisions of India
.Project work on the northern mountains
Physical features of India
.Group presentation on physical
features of India
8. India-Climate, .Thefactors affecting India's climate
Vegetation and Map work
The various seasons of India
Wildlife .The different types of
.Group presentations on wildlife
natural vegetation in India parks and national sanctuaries
The importance of
forests Individual articles on Vanamahotsava
.The need to protect forests and Chipko movement
.The importance of
wildlife and the need to protect
 Civics
Chapter Objectives Projects and Activities

1. Understanding Meaning of the term diversity Group presentation on the diverse

Diversity Impact of diversity features of a particular state

Forms of diversities in India Individual project on different
Concept of unity in diversity languages in our country

2. Prejudice and Prejudice and stereotype Class discussion on common

Discrimination Defining discrimination stereotypes
Types of prejudices and discrimination Making a poster on 'Equality and
Constitution and diversity Justice

3 Government The government, functions, levels, organs .Group presentation and discussion
and types on forms of government
Universal adult franchise, suffragette, .Individual project report on
anti-apartheid Nelson Mandela
.Significance of democracy
4. Key Elements Key elements of a democratic form of Individual project report on recent
of a Democratic government social movements in our country
Government .Ways in which people participate in the .Writing an article on the steps taken
democratic process by the government for the welfare
.Conflict resolution, equality and justice in and benefit of girls and women
democracy
5. Panchayati Raj .Introduction to Panchayati Raj Organizing a mock Gram Sabha in
.Three levels of the Panchayati Raj and their class
functions Field trip to a nearby village
.Role played by women in the Panchayati Raj

6. Urban .Introduction to Municipal Corporation .Class discussion and preparation of a

Administration .Composition, Functions and Sources of income list of questions to be asked from the
of Municipal Corporation mayor of your city
.Case Study: Expressing Grievances .Individual project on various functionss
of the municipal corporation
7. Rural Role of the police and the patwari .Field trip to a local police station
Administration .District and judicial administration to find out about the common
.The Law of Inheritance complaints filed there, and steps
taken by the police to maintain law
.Case Studies: Role of the Police, Maintenance of
and order
Land Records

8. Rural Livelihood Meaning of livelihood and types of occupations .Individual project report on Amul
Different types or levels of farmers Group presentation on rural
.Other sources of livelihood livelihoods in different states
.Case Studies: Agricultural Labourers and
Landless Peasants, Small or Middle Level
Farmers, Rich Farmers

9. Urban Livelihood Types of Urban Workers Class debate

Migration Interview workers belonging to
.Case Studies: Hawkers or Vendors, Daily-Wage different categories and create a
Workers, Permanent Workers comparison chart
 Contents
History
1. Introduction 3
2.
to
History 11
The Earliest
3.
People
The First Farmers and Herders 20
4. The Indus Valley Civilization 28
5-The Vedic Age 39
6. Janapadas and 51
Mahajanapadas
7. Development of New Religious Ideas 60
8 The Mauryan Empire 69
9. Life in Towns and Villages 78
10. The Post-Mauryan Period 86
11. New Empires and Kingdoms 96
12. Culture and Science 106

Geography
1. Earth and the Solar System 117
2The Globe Latitudes and Longitudes 126
3Motions of the Earth 135
4. Maps and Map Reading 142
5. Domains of the Earth 150
6. Major Landforms of the Earth 161
7. India-Location and Features 168
8. IndiaClimate, Vegetation and Wildlife 179

Civics
Understanding Diversity 193
2. Prejudice and Discrimination 199
Government 205
4. Key Elements of a Democratic Government 213
6 Panchayati Raj 219
6. Urban Administration 226
7. Rural Administration 232
8. Rural Livelihood
238
9. Urban Livelihood
245

Learning Outcomes: A quick Extract: Articles related to Search and Surf: Provides Meanwhile (in History): Traces
outline of the main topics the chapter with questions tools for research and self- the
covered in the chapter. based on them.
| contemporary scenario in
assessment. other countries.

Brainstorm: Extra questions Fact File: Provides additional

related to the text for analysis of information to enhance the
information. understanding of the topic.
Features of
Social Studies
Answer Orally: In-text questions that Picture-based Question: A visual
test the understanding of what was quiz
test the knowledge of the child and to
to
learnt immediately before.
encourage and develop research skills.
Exercises: Questions provided at Footnotes: The meaning and definition
the end of the text to test the Recap: Amemory tool providing
ofcertain words; allows for at-a-glance the salient
understanding of the subject matter. reading. points covered in the
text
 HISTORY
1. Introduction to History

2. The Earliest People 11

3. The First Farmers and Herders 20

4. The Indus Valley Civilization 28

5. The Vedic Age 39

6. Janapadas and Mahajanapadas 51

7. Development of New Religious Ideas 60

8. The Mauryan Empire 69

9. Life in Towns and Villages 78

10. The Post-Mauryan Period 86

11. New Empires and Kingdoms 96

12. Culture and Science 106

 lndia

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The mighty ibrary of the Nalanda University was known as Dharma Gunjwhich meant the "Mountain
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isan In
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 CHAPTER

01 Introduction to History
Learning Outcomes
Defining history and the importance of studying the past
Prehistory
Chronology: BCE and CE
Geographical factors and history
Literary and archaeological sources and their significance

History and Prehistory Prehistory refers to the period for which we have
The term history has been derived from the no written records. Historians and archaeologists
Greek word historia, which means inquiry or draw conclusions about this period by studying
research) History is the study of the past. It can things like fossils, tools and weapons, bones and
be defined as a systematic record or study of cave shelters.
past events in chronological order (the order in There are many instances, such as
the discovery
which it happened). We know the dates of these
offire and theinvention ofthewheel thatoccurred
events since they were recorded by the people
in the prehistoric period.) We have no idea of
of those times. when exactly these developments took place.

Extract
A Fossil Trade
Poachers have been operating in Mongolia and other dinosaur-rich countries like China and
Argentina, for years. They usually move around on motorcycles carrying crude digging tools. When
they are sure that they can go unobserved, they steal whatever valuable artefacts and fossils
they can find. These finds usually belong to palaeontolog1sts and archaeologists who spend years
identifying these sites
The looters then sell the fossils to middlemen who arrange for them to be smuggled out of the
country to Europe, America, Japan and other parts of the world where they are sold at auction
houses, antique fairs, fossil shows, or over the internet.
In 2005, police in Australia seized $6 million worth of tossls, all illegally imported from China.
Based on the above passage, answer the tollowing questions.
1. Name two dinosaur-rich countries.
2. Who steals the valuable artefacts from archaeological sites?
3. Where are these fossils sold?
Adapted from: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/scienceldinosaurs/10411253/The-trade-in-stolen-dinosaur-fossils.html

3
Why is Study of the Past Important? Before Common Era (sc)
The study of the past is important to know The birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of
more about our ancestors and the society of Christianity, is the reference point from which
those times-how they lived, what they ate, dates are counted. The dates before the birth of
what they wore, their beliefs and faiths, their Christ are referred to as Bc (Before Christ) or BCE
arts and crafts, etc. In this sense, history can be (Before the Common Era). The dates are counted
termed as an adventure, a journey into another backwards in BCE. The bigger the number when
world or age, when life was different. History the date is BCE, the earlier it happened. For
gives us information about our country and example, 100 BCE comes before 99 BCE.
other countries of the world with their past
and culture. Culture is a way of living of a Common Era (cE)
society which includes codes of manners, dress,
The years after Christ's birth are referred to
language, religion, rituals, law, etc.
as CE (Common Era) or AD (Anno Domini)
History helps us in many ways: which in Latin means the year of the Lord, i.e.,
.To understand people and societies Christ. These years are counted forward. Hence,
To understand change and how the society we
99 CE COmes before 100 CE.
live in came to be
Provides moral understanding Timeline
Gives us identity
In order to depict historical events in
Teaches us how to research and analyse
chronological order, historians use the timeline.
evidence
Records the changes that have taken place It looks like a long bar showing the events of
over a period of time the past and their dates.
Present day

HHHHH+H 500 1000 1500 2000

BCE 30O00 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
1 CE
Birth of Jesus Christ

Fig. 1.1: Timeline

Geographical Factors
Brainstorm
Collect information about your grandparents'
childhood Geographical factors play an important role
life. Notice how life has
and compare it with your own

childhood to yours.
in shaping the history of a
country or region.
changed from their he Indian subcontinent, consisting of India
and its neighbouring countries, has distinct
Chronology geographical features.
Chronology is the way events are arranged in or
An important feature of the Indian subcontinent
according to the order of time. Knowledge of the
past in the correct order gives us an idea of what is the vast fertile plains of rivers Indus and Ganga.

first and what later. Historians, The first human settlements came
happened came
up here. Some
or people who study the past, use chronology as of the earliest cities flourished on the
banks
the first step towards understanding historical of river Indus and its tributaries. Later, cities
events. were set up along the banks of river
Ganga and
smaller rivers that flow into a larger river
its tributaries. Many kingdoms
emerged in this region during the
Hindukush
ancient period. The Himalayan
mountain range in the north
Helma
Khybar
Jhelu
arakoramn
ndus
Chenab eas
acted as a barrier between India
Bolan R a
SiwalikHills
and Central Asia. The passes in Sutlej Gha9

the mountains were routes of Indus

aputra

contact. In the south, the Deccan Makran Chamba Ganga

roHills

Plateau or the southern peninsula Rann of Kutch

SO
Damodaar
was divided into smaller
ndhya Chhota Nagpur

regions
by mountains, river valleys and
Narmaca

Mahanadi
plateaus. We can see in the Godavari
Deccan
map in Fig. 1.2 that parts of the ewnshna

subcontinent were defended by Westen Ghats-

Rennar
natural barriers. Tungabhadra

Causes of Cultural Diversity Metres Adv

2000
1000
People travelled from one part 300
Not to scale
of the subcontinent to the other
Fig. 1.2: Physical Map of Ancient India
Some travelled in search of
livelihood, while others travelled
Search and Surf
for trade. Religious leaders travelled to spread
For how long has the Earth existed and since how long
their teachings and messages and rulers marched have the humans lived on it?
in with armies to conquer areas and expand their
empires. Many people travelled to discover new Sources of History
places. Just as people travelled within the country,
We can learn about the events of the past from
people from outside the border also travelled to many sources. These are literary, archaeological
India. and oral sources.
All this led to sharing and exchange of ideas, refer to written accounts from
Literary sources

traditions, and cultures, which further

customs the past. These sources provide information
enriched the cultural traditions of the Indian of the social, political, economic and cultural
subcontinent. This resulted in the development conditions of the time period during which they
of a unique culture, characterized by its great were written.

diversity. Archaeological sources refer to objects from the

past that have survived till now. This includes
monuments, coins, paintings, sculptures, pottery,
Answer Orally
jewellery, etc. These information
objects give
1. What is meant by the term history'? about the level of development of the society,
2. What is chronology? expertise of the craftsmen, trade links and other
3. Name the following things.
(a) Years after the birth of Christ. Oral sources refer to information that is passed
we have
(b) The period for which
no
down through the years by word of mouth.
written records. can include songs, stories, myths, legends, etc.
 monasteries and libraries. These manuscripts
Sources of History
give information on a wide range of subjects
like medicine, science, religious practices and
beliefs. In north India, manuscripts were
written
in Sanskrit, Pali or Prakrit, while in the south,
Literary sources Oral sources
Tamil was used.
Archaeological
sources
Literary sources can be classified into indigenous
and foreign sources/works.

Objects like Songs, myths, Indigenous works include works of Indian

paintings, stories, etc. writers.
Foreign Indigenous coins,
sources sOurces
pottery and Foreign works include texts by foreigners
jewellery who visited India at some time or the other,
and recorded their experiences. Writings of
Texts of foreign Works of lIndian
travellers like travellers like Megasthenes and Fa-Hien come
writers
Megasthenes under this category.
and Fa-Hien
Indigeneous literary sources can further be
divided into sacred and secular literature.
Sacred Secular Writings on religious themes are referred to
literature literature
as sacred or religious literature. The Vedas,
the epics-Ramayana and Mahabharata, the
Ramayana, Panchatantra, Buddhist Tripitakas and the Jain Angas are
Mahabharata, etc. Arthashastra, etc. some examples of sacred literature.
Writings which are not religious in nature
Thus, for a complete understanding of history, are termed as secular literature. This includes
it is important to study all three-literary, poetry, drama, works on grammar, science,
archaeological and oral sources. politics, etc. Arthashastra by
Kautilya,
Abhijnanasakuntalam_ by Kalidasa and folk
Literary Sources
tales such as Panchatantra are some
examples
Literary sources refer to of secular literature.
the written records of the
past. Paper was introduced Fact File
around the 13th century Megasthenes was the Greek envoy who came
in India. Before its
to India during the time of Chandragupta
introduction, documents Maurya, the founder of Mauryan
were written on palm Empire.
Fa-Hien was a Chinese
pilgrimt who came to
leaves and barks of birch
India to study Buddhism. He came
trees (bhojapatra). These Fig. 1.3: Manuscript during
the reign of Chandragupta II, one of the
documents are called manuscripts because they important kings of the Guptas
were written by hand (this comes from the Latin
Both Megasthenes and Fa-Hien have left
word manu which means hand). While insects,
written accounts which are used to
time and fire have destroyed many manuscripts, study the
time periods in which they came to India.
some of them are still preserved in temples,

written by hand, before the arrival of printing

any document
their country in another country with a rank below an ambassador
an official who represents
someone who travels to a holy place that is important in their religion

6
In order to read and understand manuscripts, the about how people lived in the past, the level of
historians have to learn the languages and scripts development of the society and so on.
used in the records. Some ancient
languages Archaeologists also study grains, plant remains
and scripts, such as Prakrit and Brahmi, are no
and bones of animals found at the excavated
longer in use. There are some ancient scripts
sites. These help in giving information about
which are still not known to us. The
Harappan food and livelihood.
script is an example of a script that historians
still unable Temples, forts, palaces and other grand
are to decipher. structures that were built are referred to as
monuments. The study of these monuments
Search and Surf gives us information about the condition of the
Name some more secular literature texts.
Who were Kautilya and Kalidasa? During the reign of
time when they were built, the artistic skill of
which king and dynasty did they live? that time, he religion promoted by those who
had them built, etc. The Sanchi Stupa and the
Ashokan pillars are examples of some ancient
EBrainstorm Indian monuments. Cave paintings and other
Manuscripts are hundreds of years old. If you were given artwork are also studied for a similar purpose.
one to study, what precautions would you take while
.Through a study of the coins, we can get
handling such a delicate object?
information about the name of the king who
issued the coins, the extent of his empire,
Archaeological Sources the period of his reign, etc. Coins give us
The study of the material remains of the past is information about the social and economic
known as archaeology and a person who studies conditions of the times. They also give
these remains is known as an archaeologist. information about trade links. For example,
Material remains often lie buried under the Roman coins found in India tell us that there
ground and the archaeologists have to excavate were trade relations between our ancestors
or dig them out. and the Romans. The study of coins is called
numismatics.
Inscriptions were an important means of
recording information during the past. These
are writings engraved or carved on relatively
hard surfaces such as stone tablets, pillars,
metal plates, etc. Sometimes kings got their
orders and instructions inscribed so that
people could see, read and obey them. Kings
also often recorded their victories in battles
in them. Inscriptions give us information
about the names of the kings, the extent of
their empire, the script in use at that time and Fig. 1.4: Some ancient coinss
many other things. The study of inscriptions
is called epigraphy. Brainstorm
The archaeological source material includes Study a present-day coin and write all the information
things like tools and weapons, pottery, that you can get from it. Next, take an old coin and
note down the information that you can see. Compare
paintings, sculpture, jewellery, coins, buildings
the information from the two coins.
and seals. These sources give us information
 R Answer Orally
1. What are the two main sources for
studying the past?
2. What are literary sources?
3. What are archaeological sources?
4. Define numismatics.

1. ldentify the monument. Meanwhile

2. Where is it located? Deciphering or decoding scripts
3. Why is it considered important? is never an easy task for
4. Write two characteristics of this monument. historians and archaeologists.
One of the most famous stories
of decipherments is that of
Conclusion the Rosetta Stone which was
Literary, archaeological and oral sources provide discovered in Egypt, a country in Rosetta Stone

information about the past. For a complete and North Africa. In 1799, the French, discovered
accurate understanding of past events, historians the Rosetta Stone, an ancient Egyptian object
have to consider all the available sources. which had essentially the same text written in
Learning about the past is like an adventure, as it three different scripts, Egyptian Hieroglyphics,
gets reconstructed bit by bit, from the available Demotic (a simple Egyptian script) and Greek.
In 1822, the Egyptian Hieroglyphic script
source material. So historians and archaeologists
was finally deciphered by a French scholar,
are like detectives, who use. all the available
Jean François Champollion.
sources, like clues, to find out about our past.

RECAP
History is the study of the past. It can be defined as a systematic record or study of past events in
chronological order.
.The birth of Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity, is the reference point from which dates are counted.
The dates Christ
before the birth of are referred to as Bc (Before Christ) or BCE (Before the Common Era).
.The years after Christ's birth are referred to as AD (Anno Domini) or CE (Common Era).
.Geographical factors play an important role in shaping the history of a place.
.Sources which help us to get an understanding of the past can be classified as literary, archaeological and
oral sources.
Literary sources refer to written accounts from the past. These can be classified into indigenous and
foreign sources. Literary sources can be further divided into sacred and secular literature.
Archaeological sources refer to objects such as monuments, coins, pottery, jewellery, paintings, tools,
weapons, etc. from the past that have survived till now.
Oral sources refer to information like stories, songs,
myths, etc. transferred from period to period by
word of mouth.
,Manuscripts are the handwritten texts and documents. They were written on palm leaves and barks of
birch trees before paper began to be used.

secret symbols or letters in a code or in ancient texts

to succeed in reading

8
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three rooms occupied by the pontiff are furnished with a simplicity
which would be inconceivable in the abode of any other sovereign
prince. The furniture is confined to the merest necessaries of life;
strange contrast to Lambeth and Fulham! The apartment consists of
the bare Green Saloon; the Red Saloon, containing a throne flanked
by benches; and the bedroom, with yellow draperies, a large writing
table, and a few pictures by old masters. The Papal life is a lonely
one, as the dread of an accusation of nepotism has prevented any of
the later Popes from having any of their family with them, and
etiquette always obliges them to dine, etc., alone. Pius IX. seldom
saw his family, but Leo XIII. is often visited twice a day by his
relations—“La Sainte Famille,” as they are generally called.
No one, whatever the difference of creed, can look upon this
building, inhabited by the venerable men who have borne so
important a part in the history of Christianity and of Europe, without
the deepest interest....
The windows of the Egyptian Museum look upon the inner
Garden of the Vatican, which may be reached by a door at the end
of the long gallery of the Museo Chiaramonti, before ascending to
the Torso. The garden which is thus entered, called Giardino della
Pigna, is in fact merely the second great quadrangle of the Vatican,
planted, under Pius IX., with shrubs and flowers, now a desolate
wilderness—its lovely garden having been destroyed by the present
Vatican authorities to make way for a monumental column to the
Council of 1870. Several interesting relics are preserved here. In the
centre is the Pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, found in
1709 on the Monte Citorio. The column was a simple memorial pillar
of granite, erected by the two adopted sons of the Emperor, Marcus
Aurelius and Lucius Verus. It was broken up to mend the obelisk of
Psammeticus I. at the Monte Citorio. Among the reliefs of the
pedestal is one of a winged genius guiding Antoninus and Faustina
to Olympus. The modern pillar and statue are erections of Leo XIII.
In front of the great semicircular niche of Bramante, at the end of
the court-garden, is the famous Pigna, a gigantic fir-cone, which is
said once to have crowned the summit of the Mausoleum of Hadrian.
Thence it was first removed to the front of the old basilica of S.
Peter’s, where it was used for a fountain. In the fresco of the old S.
Peter’s at S. Martino al Monte the pigna is introduced, but it is there
placed in the centre of the nave, a position it never occupied. It
bears the name of the bronze-founder who cast it—“P. Cincivs. P. L.
Calvivs. fecit.” Dante saw it at S. Peter’s, and compares it to a giant’s
head (it is eleven feet high) which he saw through the mist in the
last circle of hell.

“La faccia mi parea longa e grossa

Come la pina di S. Pietro in Roma.”
Inf. xxxi. 58.

On either side of the pigna are two lovely bronze peacocks,

which are said to have stood on either side of the entrance of
Hadrian’s Mausoleum.
A flight of steps leads from this court to the narrow Terrace of
the Navicella, in front of the palace, so called from a bronze ship
with which its fountain is decorated. The visitor should beware of the
tricksome waterworks upon this terrace.
Beyond the courtyard is the entrance to the larger garden, which
may be reached in a carriage by the courts at the back of S. Peter’s.
Admittance is difficult to obtain, as the garden is constantly used by
the Pope. Pius IX. used to ride here upon his white mule. It is a
most delightful retreat for the hot days of May and June, and before
that time its woods are carpeted with wild violets and anemones. No
one who has not visited them can form any idea of the beauty of
these ancient groves, interspersed with fountains and statues, but
otherwise left to nature, and forming a fragment of sylvan scenery
quite unassociated with the English idea of a garden....
The Sixteenth Century was the golden age for the Vatican. Then
the splendid court of Leo X. was the centre of artistic and literary
life, and the witty and pleasure-loving Pope made these gardens the
scene of his banquets and concerts; and, in a circle to which ladies
were admitted, as in a secular court, listened to the recitations of
the poets who sprang up under his protection, beneath the shadow
of their woods.

Walks in Rome (13th ed., London, 1896).

 THE CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS.
JOHN RUSKIN.

IT is the admitted privilege of a custode who loves his cathedral to

depreciate, in its comparison, all the other cathedrals of his country
that resemble, and all the edifices on the globe that differ from it.
But I love too many cathedrals—though I have never had the
happiness of becoming the custode of even one—to permit myself
the easy and faithful exercise of the privilege in question; and I must
vindicate my candour and my judgment in the outset, by confessing
that the Cathedral of Amiens has nothing to boast of in the way of
towers,—that its central flèche is merely the pretty caprice of a
village carpenter,—that the total structure is in dignity inferior to
Chartres, in sublimity to Beauvais, and in decorative splendour to
Rheims, and in loveliness of figure sculpture to Bourges. It has
nothing like the artful pointing and moulding of the arcades of
Salisbury—nothing of the might of Durham; no Dædalian inlaying
like Florence, no glow of mythic fantasy like Verona. And yet, in all,
and more than these, ways, outshone or overpowered, the Cathedral
of Amiens deserves the name given it by M. Viollet le Duc—
“The Parthenon of Gothic Architecture.”...
Whatever you wish to see, or are forced to leave unseen at
Amiens, if the overwhelming responsibilities of your existence, and
the inevitable necessities of precipitate locomotion in their fulfilment,
have left you so much as one quarter of an hour, not out of breath—
for the contemplation of the capital of Picardy, give it wholly to the
cathedral choir. Aisles and porches, lancet windows and roses, you
can see elsewhere as well as here—but such carpenter’s work you
cannot. It is late,—fully developed flamboyant just past the Fifteenth
Century—and has some Flemish stolidity mixed with the playing
French fire of it; but wood-carving was the Picard’s joy from his
youth up, and, so far as I know, there is nothing else so beautiful cut
out of the goodly trees of the world.
THE CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS.
 Sweet and young-grained wood it is: oak, trained and chosen for
such work, sound now as four hundred years since. Under the
carver’s hand it seems to cut like clay, to fold like silk, to grow like
living branches, to leap like living flame. Canopy crowning canopy,
pinnacle piercing pinnacle—it shoots and wreathes itself into an
enchanted glade, inextricable, imperishable, fuller of leafage than
16
any forest, and fuller of story than any book.
I have never been able to make up my mind which was really
the best way of approaching the cathedral for the first time....
I think the best is to walk from the Hôtel de France or the Place
de Perigord, up the street of Three Pebbles, towards the railway
station—stopping a little as you go, so as to get into a cheerful
temper, and buying some bon-bons or tarts for the children in one of
those charming patissier’s shops on the left. Just past them, ask for
the theatre; and just past that, you will find, also on the left, three
open arches, through which you can turn passing the Palais de
Justice, and go straight up to the south transept, which has really
something about it to please everybody. It is simple and severe at
the bottom, and daintily traceried and pinnacled at the top, and yet
seems all of a piece—though it isn’t—and everybody must like the
taper and transparent fret-work of the flèche above, which seems to
bend in the west wind,—though it doesn’t—at least, the bending is a
long habit, gradually yielded into, with gaining grace and
submissiveness, during the last three hundred years. And coming
quite up to the porch, everybody must like the pretty French
Madonna in the middle of it, with her head a little aside, and her
nimbus switched a little aside too, like a becoming bonnet. A
Madonna in decadence she is, though, for all, or rather by reason of
all, her prettiness and her gay soubrette’s smile; and she has no
business there, either, for this is Saint Honoré’s porch, not her’s; and
grim and grey Saint Honoré used to stand there to receive you,—he
is banished now to the north porch where nobody ever goes in. This
was done long ago in the Fourteenth Century days when the people
first began to find Christianity too serious, and devised a merrier
faith for France, and would have bright glancing soubrette Madonnas
everywhere, letting their own dark-eyed Joan of Arc be burnt for a
witch. And thenceforward things went their merry way, straight on,
ça allait, ça ira to the merriest days of the guillotine.
But they could still carve in the Fourteenth Century and the
Madonna and her hawthorn-blossom lintel are worth your looking at,
—much more the field above, of sculpture as delicate and more
calm, which tells you Saint Honoré’s own story, little talked of now in
his Parisian faubourg....
A Gothic cathedral has, almost always, these five great
entrances; which may be easily, if at first attentively, recognized
under the titles of the Central door (or porch), the Northern door,
the Southern door, the North door, and the South door. But when we
use the terms right and left, we ought always to use them as in
going out of the cathedral, or walking down the nave,—the entire
north side and aisles of the building being its right side, and the
south its left,—these terms being only used well and authoritatively,
when they have reference either to the image of Christ on the apse
or on the rood, or else to the central statue, whether of Christ, the
Virgin, or a saint in the west front. At Amiens, this central statue, on
the “trumeau” or supporting and dividing pillar of the central porch,
is of Christ Immanuel,—God with us. On His right hand and His left,
occupying the entire walls of the central porch, are the apostles and
the four greater prophets. The twelve minor prophets stand side by
side on the front, three on each of its great piers.
The northern porch is dedicated to St. Firman, the first Christian
missionary to Amiens.
The southern porch to the Virgin.
But these are both treated as withdrawn behind the great
foundation of Christ and the Prophets; and their narrow recesses
partly conceal their sculpture until you enter them. What you have
first to think of, and read, is the scripture of the great central porch
and the façade itself.
 You have then in the centre of the front, the image of Christ
Himself, receiving you: “I am the Way, the truth and the life.” And
the order of the attendant powers may be best understood by
thinking of them as placed on Christ’s right and left hand: this being
also the order which the builder adopts in his Scripture history on
the façade—so that it is to be read from left to right—i. e. from
Christ’s left to Christ’s right, as He sees it. Thus, therefore, following
the order of the great statues: first in the central porch, there are six
apostles on Christ’s right hand, and six on His left. On His left hand,
next Him, Peter; then in receding order, Andrew, James, John,
Matthew, Simon; on His right hand, next Him, Paul; and in receding
order, James the Bishop, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, and Jude.
These opposite ranks of the Apostles occupy what may be called the
apse or curved bay of the porch, and form a nearly semicircular
group, clearly visible as we approach But on the sides of the porch,
outside the lines of apostles, and not clearly seen till we enter the
porch are the four greater prophets. On Christ’s left, Isaiah and
Jeremiah, on His right, Ezekiel and Daniel.
Then in front, along the whole façade—read in order from
Christ’s left to His right—come the series of the twelve minor
prophets, three to each of the four piers of the temple, beginning at
the south angle with Hosea, and ending with Malachi.
As you look full at the façade in front, the statues which fill the
minor porches are either obscured in their narrower recesses or
withdrawn behind each other so as to be unseen. And the entire
mass of the front is seen, literally, as built on the foundation of the
Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the chief corner-
stone. Literally that; for the receding Porch is a deep “angulus” and
its mid-pillar is the “Head of the Corner.”
Built on the foundation of the Apostles and Prophets, that is to
say of the Prophets who foretold Christ, and the Apostles who
declared Him. Though Moses was an Apostle of God, he is not here
—though Elijah was a Prophet of God, he is not here. The voice of
the entire building is that of the Heaven at the Transfiguration. “This
is my beloved Son, hear ye Him.”
There is yet another and a greater prophet still, who, as it seems
at first, is not here. Shall the people enter the gates of the temple,
singing “Hosanna to the Son of David;” and see no image of his
father, then?—Christ Himself declare, “I am the root and offspring of
David;” and yet the Root have no sign near it of its Earth?
Not so. David and his Son are together. David is the pedestal of
the Christ.
We will begin our examination of the Temple front, therefore
with this goodly pedestal stone. The statue of David is only two-
thirds life-size, occupying the niche in front of the pedestal. He holds
his sceptre in his right hand, the scroll in his left. King and Prophet,
type of all Divinely right doing, and right claiming, and right
proclaiming, kinghood forever.
The pedestal of which this statue forms the fronting or western
sculpture, is square, and on the two sides of it are two flowers in
vases, on its north side the lily, and on its south the rose. And the
entire monolith is one of the noblest pieces of Christian sculpture in
the world.
Above this pedestal comes a minor one, bearing in front of it a
tendril of vine, which completes the floral symbolism of the whole.
The plant which I have called a lily is not the Fleur de Lys, nor the
Madonna’s, but an ideal one with bells like the crown Imperial
(Shakespeare’s type of “lilies of all kinds”), representing the mode of
growth of the lily of the valley, which could not be sculptured so
large in its literal form without appearing monstrous, and is exactly
expressed in this tablet—as it fulfils, together with the rose and vine,
its companions, the triple saying of Christ, “I am the Rose of Sharon,
and the Lily of the Valley.” “I am the true Vine.”
On the side of the upper stone are supporters of a different
character. Supporters,—not captives nor victims; the Cockatrice and
Adder. Representing the most active evil principles of the earth, as in
their utmost malignity; still Pedestals of Christ, and even in their
deadly life, accomplishing His final will.
Both creatures are represented accurately in the mediæval
traditional form, the cockatrice half dragon, half cock; the deaf adder
laying one ear against the ground and stopping the other with her
tail.
The first represents the infidelity of Pride. The cockatrice—king
serpent or highest serpent—saying that he is God, and will be God.
The second, the infidelity of Death. The adder (nieder or nether
snake) saying that he is mud and will be mud.
Lastly, and above all, set under the feet of the statue of Christ
Himself, are the lion and dragon; the images of Carnal sin, or Human
sin, as distinguished from the Spiritual and Intellectual sin of Pride,
by which the angels also fell.

The Bible of Amiens (Our Fathers Have Told Us), (Sunnyside,

Orpington, Kent, 1884).
 THE MOSQUE OF SANTA SOFIA.
EDMONDO DE AMICIS.

THE external aspect has nothing worthy of note. The only objects
that attract the eye are the four high white minarets that rise at the
four corners of the edifice, upon pedestals as big as houses. The
famous cupola looks small. It appears impossible that it can be the
same dome that swells into the blue air, like the head of a Titan, and
is seen from Pera, from the Bosphorus, from the Sea of Marmora,
and from the hills of Asia. It is a flattened dome, flanked by two half
domes, covered with lead, and perforated with a wreath of windows,
supported upon four walls painted in stripes of pink and white,
sustained in their turn by enormous bastions, around which rise
confusedly a number of small mean buildings, baths, schools,
mausoleums, hospitals, etc., which hide the architectural forms of
the basilica. You see nothing but a heavy, irregular mass, of a faded
colour, naked as a fortress, and not to all appearance large enough
to hold within it the immense nave of Santa Sofia’s church. Of the
ancient basilica nothing is really visible but the dome, which has lost
the silvery splendour that once made it visible, according to the
Greeks, from the summit of Olympus. All the rest is Mussulman. One
summit was built by Mahomet the Conqueror, one by Selim II., the
other two by Amurath III. Of the same Amurath are the buttresses
built at the end of the Sixteenth Century to support the walls shaken
by an earthquake, and the enormous crescent in bronze planted
upon the top of the dome, of which the gilding alone cost fifty
thousand ducats.
 THE MOSQUE OF SANTA-SOFIA.

On every side the mosque overwhelms and masks the church, of

which the head only is free, though over that also the four imperial
minarets keep watch and ward. On the eastern side there is a door
ornamented by six columns of porphyry and marble; at the southern
side another door by which you enter a court, surrounded by low,
irregular buildings, in the midst of which bubbles a fountain for
ablution, covered by an arched roof with eight columns. Looked at
from without, Santa Sofia can scarcely be distinguished from the
other mosques of Stamboul, unless by its inferior lightness and
whiteness; much less would it pass for the “greatest temple in the
world after Saint Peter’s.” ...
Between the four enormous pilasters which form a square in the
middle of the basilica, rise, to the right and left as you enter, eight
marvellous columns of green breccia from which spring the most
graceful arches, sculptured with foliage, forming an elegant portico
on either side of the nave, and sustaining at a great height two vast
galleries, which present two more ranges of columns and sculptured
arches. A third gallery which communicates with the two first, runs
along the entire side where the entrance is, and opens upon the
nave with three great arches, sustained by twin columns. Other
minor galleries, supported by porphyry columns, cross the four
temples posted at the extremity of the nave and sustain other
columns bearing tribunes. This is the basilica. The mosque is, as it
were, planted in its bosom and attached to its walls. The Mirab, or
niche which indicates the direction of Mecca, is cut in one of the
pilasters of the apse. To the right of it and high up is hung one of
the four carpets which Mahomet used in prayer. Upon the corner of
the apse, nearest the Mirab, at the top of a very steep little
staircase, flanked by two balustrades of marble sculptured with
exquisite delicacy, under an odd conical roof, between two triumphal
standards of Mahomet Second, is the pulpit where the Ratib goes up
to read the Koran, with a drawn scimetar in his hand, to indicate that
Santa Sofia is a mosque acquired by conquest. Opposite the pulpit is
the tribune of the Sultan, closed with a gilded lattice. Other pulpits
or platforms, furnished with balustrades sculptured in open work,
and ornamented with small marble columns and arabesque arches,
extend here and there along the walls, or project towards the centre
of the nave. To the right and left of the entrance, are two enormous
alabaster urns, brought from the ruins of Pergamo, by Amurath III.
Upon the pilasters, at a great height are suspended immense green
disks, with inscriptions from the Koran in letters of gold. Underneath,
attached to the walls, are large cartouches of porphyry inscribed
with the names of Allah, Mahomet, and the first four Caliphs. In the
angles formed by the four arches that sustain the cupola, may still
be seen the gigantic wings of four mosaic cherubim, whose faces are
concealed by gilded rosettes. From the vaults of the domes depend
innumerable thick silken cords, to which are attached ostrich eggs,
bronze lamps, and globes of crystal. Here and there are seen
lecterns, inlaid with mother-of-pearl and copper, with manuscript
Korans upon them. The pavement is covered with carpets and mats.
The walls are bare, whitish, yellowish, or dark grey, still ornamented
here and there with faded mosaics. The general aspect is gloomy
and sad.
The chief marvel of the mosque is the great dome. Looked at
from the nave below, it seems indeed, as Madame de Staël said of
the dome of Saint Peter’s, like an abyss suspended over one’s head.
It is immensely high, has an enormous circumference, and its depth
is only one-sixth of its diameter; which makes it appear still larger. At
its base a gallery encircles it, and above the gallery there is a row of
forty arched windows. In the top is written the sentence pronounced
by Mahomet Second, as he sat on his horse in front of the high altar
on the day of the taking of Constantinople: “Allah is the light of
heaven and of earth;” and some of the letters, which are white upon
a black ground, are nine yards long. As every one knows, this aërial
prodigy could not be constructed with the usual materials; and it
was built of pumice-stone that floats on water, and with bricks from
the island of Rhodes, five of which scarcely weigh as much as one
ordinary brick....
When you have visited the nave and the dome, you have only
begun to see Santa Sofia. For example, whoever has a shade of
historic curiosity may dedicate an hour to the columns. Here are the
spoils of all the temples in the world. The columns of green breccia
which support the two great galleries, were presented to Justinian
by the magistrates of Ephesus, and belonged to the Temple of Diana
that was burned by Erostratus. The eight porphyry columns that
stand two and two between the pilasters belonged to the Temple of
the Sun built by Aurelian at Balbek. Other columns are from the
Temple of Jove at Cizicum, from the Temple of Helios of Palmyra,
from the temples of Thebes, Athens, Rome, the Troad, the Ciclades,
and from Alexandria; and they present an infinite variety of sizes and
colours. Among the columns, the balustrades, the pedestals, and the
slabs which remain of the ancient lining of the walls, may be seen
marbles from all the ruins of the Archipelago; from Asia Minor, from
Africa and from Gaul. The marble of the Bosphorus, white spotted
with black, contrasts with the black Celtic marble veined with white;
the green marble of Laconia is reflected in the azure marble of
Lybia; the speckled porphyry of Egypt, the starred granite of
Thessaly, the red and white striped stone of Jassy, mingle their
colours with the purple of the Phrygian marble, the rose of that of
Synada, the gold of the marble of Mauritania, and the snow of the
marble of Paros....
From above can be embraced at once with the eye and mind all
the life of the mosque. There are to be seen Turks on their knees,
with their foreheads touching the pavement; others erect like
statues with their hands before their faces, as if they were studying
the lines in their palms; some seated cross-legged at the base of
columns, as if they were reposing under the shadow of trees; a
veiled woman on her knees in a solitary corner; old men seated
before the lecterns, reading the Koran; an imaum hearing a group of
boys reciting sacred verses; and here and there, under the distant
arcades and in the galleries, imaum, ratib, muezzin, servants of the
mosque in strange costumes, coming and going silently as if they did
not touch the pavement. The vague harmony formed by the low,
monotonous voices of those reading or praying, those thousand
strange lamps, that clear and equal light, that deserted apse, those
vast silent galleries, that immensity, those memories, that peace,
leave in the soul an impression of mystery and grandeur which
words cannot express, nor time efface.

Constantinople (London, 1878, translation by C. Tilton).

 WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY.

IT is said that the line in Heber’s “Palestine” which describes the rise
of Solomon’s temple originally ran—
“Like the green grass, the noiseless fabric grew;”
and that, at Sir Walter Scott’s suggestion, it was altered to its
present form—
“Like some tall palm, the noiseless fabric sprung.”
Whether we adopt the humbler or the grander image, the
comparison of the growth of a fine building to that of a natural
product is full of instruction. But the growth of an historical edifice
like Westminster Abbey needs a more complex figure to do justice to
its formation: a venerable oak, with gnarled and hollow trunk, and
spreading roots, and decaying bark, and twisted branches, and
green shoots; or a coral reef extending itself with constantly new
accretions, creek after creek, and islet after islet. One after another,
a fresh nucleus of life is formed, a new combination produced, a
larger ramification thrown out. In this respect Westminster Abbey
stands alone amongst the edifices of the world. There are, it may
be, some which surpass it in beauty or grandeur; there are others,
certainly, which surpass it in depth and sublimity of association; but
there is none which has been entwined by so many continuous
threads with the history of a whole nation....
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY.

If the original foundation of the Abbey can be traced back to

Sebert, the name, probably, must have been given in recollection of
the great Roman sanctuary, whence Augustine, the first missionary,
had come. And Sebert was believed to have dedicated his church to
St. Peter in the Isle of Thorns, in order to balance the compliment he
had paid to St. Paul on Ludgate Hill: a reappearance, in another
form, of the counterbalancing claims of the rights of Diana and
Apollo—the earliest stage of that rivalry which afterwards expressed
itself in the proverb of “robbing Peter to pay Paul.”
This thin thread of tradition, which connected the ruinous pile in
the river-island with the Roman reminiscences of Augustine, was
twisted firm and fast round the resolve of Edward; and by the
concentration of his mind on this one subject was raised the first
distinct idea of an Abbey, which the Kings of England should regard
as their peculiar treasure....
 The Abbey had been fifteen years in building. The King had
spent upon it one-tenth of the property of the kingdom. It was to be
a marvel of its kind. As in its origin it bore the traces of the fantastic
childish character of the King and of the age, in its architecture it
bore the stamp of the peculiar position which Edward occupied in
English history between Saxon and Norman. By birth he was a
Saxon, but in all else he was a foreigner. Accordingly, the Church at
Westminster was a wide sweeping innovation on all that had been
seen before. “Destroying the old building,” he says in his Charter, “I
have built up a new one from the very foundation.” Its fame as “a
new style of composition” lingered in the minds of men for
generations. It was the first cruciform church in England, from which
all the rest of like shape were copied—an expression of the
increasing hold which the idea of the Crucifixion in the Tenth Century
had laid on the imagination of Europe. Its massive roof and pillars
formed a contrast with the rude rafters and beams of the common
Saxon churches. Its very size—occupying, as it did, almost the whole
area of the present building—was in itself portentous. The deep
foundations, of large square blocks of grey stone, were duly laid.
The east end was rounded into an apse. A tower rose in the centre
crowned by a cupola of wood. At the western end were erected two
smaller towers, with five large bells. The hard strong stones were
richly sculptured. The windows were filled with stained glass. The
roof was covered with lead. The cloisters, chapter-house, refectory,
dormitory, the infirmary, with its spacious chapel, if not completed
by Edward, were all begun, and finished in the next generation on
the same plan. This structure, venerable as it would be if it had
lasted to our time, has almost entirely vanished. Possibly one vast
dark arch in the southern transept—certainly the substructures of
the dormitory, with their huge pillars, “grand and regal at the bases
and capitals”—the massive low-browed passage leading from the
great cloister to Little Dean’s Yard—and some portions of the
refectory and of the infirmary chapel, remain as specimens of the
work which astonished the last age of the Anglo-Saxon and the first
age of the Norman monarchy....
 In the earliest and nearly the only representation which exists of
the Confessor’s building—that in the Bayeux Tapestry—there is the
figure of a man on the roof, with one hand resting on the tower of
the Palace of Westminster, and with the other grasping the
weathercock of the Abbey. The probable intention of this figure is to
indicate the close contiguity of the two buildings. If so, it is the
natural architectural expression of a truth valuable everywhere, but
especially dear to Englishmen. The close incorporation of the Palace
and the Abbey from its earliest days is a likeness of the whole
English Constitution—a combination of things sacred and things
common—a union of the regal, legal, lay element of the nation with
its religious, clerical, ecclesiastical tendencies, such as can be found
hardly elsewhere in Christendom. The Abbey is secular because it is
sacred, and sacred because it is secular. It is secular in the common
English sense, because it is “sæcular” in the far higher French and
Latin sense: a “sæcular” edifice, a “sæcular” institution—an edifice
and an institution which has grown with the growth of ages, which
has been furrowed with the scars and cares of each succeeding
century.

A million wrinkles carve its skin;

A thousand winters snow’d upon its breast,
From cheek, and throat, and chin.

The vast political pageants of which it has been the theatre, the dust
of the most worldly laid side by side with the dust of the most
saintly, the wrangles of divines or statesmen which have disturbed
its sacred peace, the clash of arms which has pursued fugitive
warriors and princes into the shades of its sanctuary—even the
traces of Westminster boys who have played in its cloisters and
inscribed their names on its walls—belong to the story of the Abbey
no less than its venerable beauty, its solemn services, and its lofty
aspirations....
 The Chapel of Henry VII. is indeed well called by his name, for it
breathes of himself through every part. It is the most signal example
of the contrast between his closeness in life, and his “magnificence
in the structures he had left to posterity”—King’s College Chapel, the
Savoy, Westminster. Its very style was believed to have been a
reminiscence of his exile, being “learned in France,” by himself and
his companion Fox. His pride in its grandeur was commemorated by
the ship, vast for those times, which he built, “of equal cost with his
Chapel,” “which afterwards, in the reign of Queen Mary, sank in the
sea and vanished in a moment.”
It was to be his chantry as well as his tomb, for he was
determined not to be behind the Lancastrian princes in devotion;
and this unusual anxiety for the sake of a soul not too heavenward
in its affections expended itself in the immense apparatus of services
which he provided. Almost a second Abbey was needed to contain
the new establishment of monks, who were to sing in their stalls “as
long as the world shall endure.” Almost a second Shrine, surrounded
by its blazing tapers, and shining like gold with its glittering bronze,
was to contain his remains.
To the Virgin Mary, to whom the chapel was dedicated he had a
special devotion. Her “in all his necessities he had made his
continual refuge;” and her figure, accordingly, looks down upon his
grave from the east end, between the apostolic patrons of the
Abbey, Peter and Paul, with “the holy company of heaven—that is to
say, angels, archangels, patriarchs, prophets, apostles, evangelists,
martyrs, confessors and virgins,” to “whose singular mediation and
prayers he also trusted,” including the royal saints of Britain, St.
Edward, St. Edmund, St. Oswald, St. Margaret of Scotland, who
stand, as he directed, sculptured, tier above tier, on every side of the
Chapel; some retained from the ancient Lady Chapel; the greater
part the work of his own age. Around his tomb stand his
“accustomed Avours or guardian saints” to whom “he calls and
cries”—“St. Michael, St. John the Baptist, St. John the Evangelist, St.
George, St. Anthony, St. Edward, St. Vincent, St. Anne, St. Mary
Magdalene, and St. Barbara,” each with their peculiar emblems,—“so
to aid, succour, and defend him, that the ancient and ghostly enemy,
nor none other evil or damnable spirit, have no power to invade him,
nor with their wickedness to annoy him, but with holy prayers to be
intercessors to his Maker and Redeemer.” These were the adjurations
of the last mediæval King, as the Chapel was the climax of the latest
mediæval architecture. In the very urgency of the King’s anxiety for
the perpetuity of these funeral ceremonies, we seem to discern an
unconscious presentiment lest their days were numbered.
But, although in this sense the Chapel hangs on tenaciously to
the skirts of the ancient Abbey and the ancient Church, yet that
solemn architectural pause between the two—which arrests the most
careless observer, and renders it a separate structure, a foundation
“adjoining the Abbey” rather than forming part of it—corresponds
with marvellous fidelity to the pause and break in English history of
which Henry VII.’s reign is the expression. It is the close of the
Middle Ages: the apple of Granada in its ornaments shows that the
last Crusade was over; its flowing draperies and classical attitudes
indicate that the Renaissance had already begun. It is the end of the
Wars of the Roses, combining Henry’s right of conquest with his
fragile claim of hereditary descent. On the one hand, it is the
glorification of the victory of Bosworth. The angels, at the four
corners of the tomb, held or hold the likeness of the crown which he
won on that famous day. In the stained-glass we see the same
crown hanging on the green bush in the fields of Leicestershire. On
the other hand, like the Chapel of King’s College at Cambridge, it
asserts everywhere the memory of the “holy Henry’s shade”; the
Red Rose of Lancaster appears in every pane of glass: and in every
corner is the Portcullis—the “Alters securitas,” as he termed it, with
an allusion to its own meaning, and the double safeguard of his
succession—which he derived through John of Gaunt from the
Beaufort Castle in Anjou, inherited from Blanche of Navarre by
Edmund Crouchback; whilst Edward IV. and Elizabeth of York are
commemorated by intertwining these Lancastrian symbols with the
Greyhound of Cecilia Neville, wife of Richard, Duke of York, with the
Rose in the Sun, which scattered the mists at Barnet, and the Falcon
on the Fetterlock, by which the first Duke of York expressed to his
descendants that “he was locked up from the hope of the kingdom,
but advising them to be quiet and silent, as God knoweth what may
come to pass.”
It is also the revival of the ancient, Celtic, British element in the
English monarchy, after centuries of eclipse. It is a strange and
striking thought, as we mount the steps of Henry VII.’s Chapel, that
we enter there a mausoleum of princes, whose boast it was to be
descended, not from the Confessor or the Conqueror, but from
Arthur and Llewellyn; and that round about the tomb, side by side
with the emblems of the great English Houses, is to be seen the Red
Dragon of the last British king, Cadwallader—“the dragon of the
great Pendragonship” of Wales, thrust forward by the Tudor king in
every direction, to supplant the hated White Boar of his departed
enemy—the fulfilment, in another sense than the old Welsh bards
had dreamt, of their prediction that the progeny of Cadwallader
should reign again....
We have seen how, by a gradual but certain instinct, the main
groups have formed themselves round particular centres of death:
how the Kings ranged themselves round the Confessor; how the
Prince and Courtiers clung to the skirts of Kings; how out of the
graves of the Courtiers were developed the graves of the Heroes;
how Chatham became the centre of the Statesmen, Chaucer of the
Poets, Purcell of the Musicians, Casaubon of the Scholars, Newton of
the Men of Science: how, even in the exceptional details, natural
affinities may be traced; how Addison was buried apart from his
brethren in letters, in the royal shades of Henry VII.’s Chapel,
because he clung to the vault of his own loved Montague; how
Ussher lay beside his earliest instructor, Sir James Fullerton, and
Garrick at the foot of Shakespeare, and Spelman opposite his
revered Camden, and South close to his master Busby, and
Stephenson to his fellow-craftsman Telford, and Grattan to his hero
Fox, and Macaulay beneath the statue of his favourite Addison.
 These special attractions towards particular graves and
monuments may interfere with the general uniformity of the Abbey,
but they make us feel that it is not a mere dead museum, that its
cold stones are warmed with the life-blood of human affections and
personal partiality. It is said that the celebrated French sculptor of
the monument of Peter the Great at St. Petersburg, after showing its
superiority in detail to the famous equestrian statue of Marcus
Aurelius at Rome, ended by the candid avowal, “Et cependant cette
mauvaise bête est vivante, et la mienne est morte.” Perhaps we may
be allowed to reverse the saying, and when we contrast the
irregularities of Westminster Abbey with the uniform congruity of
Salisbury or the Valhalla, may reflect, “Cette belle bête est morte,
mais la mienne est vivante.”

Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey (London, 1866).

 THE PARTHENON.
JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS.

FROM whatever point the plain of Athens with its semicircle of

greater and lesser hills may be surveyed, it always presents a picture
of dignified and lustrous beauty. The Acropolis is the centre of this
landscape, splendid as a work of art with its crown of temples; and
the sea, surmounted by the long low hills of the Morea, is the
boundary to which the eye is irresistibly led. Mountains and islands
and plain alike are made of limestone, hardening here and there into
marble, broken into delicate and varied forms, and sprinkled with a
vegetation of low shrubs and brushwood so sparse and slight that
the naked rock in every direction meets the light. This rock is grey
and colourless; viewed in the twilight of a misty day, it shows the
dull, tame uniformity of bone. Without the sun it is asleep and
sorrowful. But by reason of this very deadness, the limestone of
Athenian landscape is always ready to take the colours of the air and
sun. In noonday it smiles with silvery lustre, fold upon fold of the
indented hills and islands melting from the brightness of the sea into
the untempered brilliance of the sky. At dawn and sunset the same
rocks array themselves with a celestial robe of rainbow-woven hues:
islands, sea, and mountains, far and near, burn with saffron, violet,
and rose, with the tints of beryl and topaz, sapphire and almandine
and amethyst, each in due order and at proper distances. The fabled
dolphin in its death could not have showed a more brilliant
succession of splendours waning into splendours through the whole
chord of prismatic colours. This sensitiveness of the Attic limestone
to every modification of the sky’s light gives a peculiar spirituality to
the landscape....
 THE PARTHENON.

Seen from a distance, the Acropolis presents nearly the same

appearance as it offered to Spartan guardsmen when they paced the
ramparts of Deceleia. Nature around is unaltered. Except that more
villages, enclosed with olive-groves and vineyards, were sprinkled
over those bare hills in classic days, no essential change in the
landscape has taken place, no transformation, for example, of equal
magnitude with that which converted the Campagna of Rome from a
plain of cities to a poisonous solitude. All through the centuries
which divide us from the age of Hadrian—centuries unfilled, as far as
Athens is concerned, with memorable deeds or national activity—the
Acropolis has stood uncovered to the sun. The tones of the marble
of Pentelicus have daily grown more golden; decay has here and
there invaded frieze and capital; war too has done its work,
shattering the Parthenon in 1687 by the explosion of a powder-
magazine, and the Propylæa in 1656 by a similar accident, and
seaming the colonnades that still remain with cannon-balls in 1827.
Yet in spite of time and violence the Acropolis survives, a miracle of
beauty: like an everlasting flower, through all that lapse of years it
has spread its coronal of marbles to the air, unheeded. And now,
more than ever, its temples seem to be incorporate with the rock
they crown. The slabs of column and basement have grown together
by long pressure or molecular adhesion into a coherent whole. Nor
have weeds or creeping ivy invaded the glittering fragments that
strew the sacred hill. The sun’s kiss alone has caused a change from
white to amber-hued or russet. Meanwhile, the exquisite adaptation
of Greek building to Greek landscape has been enhanced rather than
impaired by that “unimaginable touch of time,” which has broken the
regularity of outline, softened the chisel-work of the sculptor, and
confounded the painter’s fretwork in one tint of glowing gold. The
Parthenon, the Erechtheum, and the Propylæa have become one
with the hill on which they cluster, as needful to the scenery around
them as the everlasting mountains, as sympathetic as the rest of
nature to the successions of morning and evening, which waken
them to passionate life by the magic touch of colour....
In like manner, when moonlight, falling aslant upon the
Propylæa, restores the marble masonry to its original whiteness, and
the shattered heaps of ruined colonnades are veiled in shadow, and
every form seems larger, grander, and more perfect than by day, it is
well to sit on the lowest steps, and looking upwards, to remember
what processions passed along this way bearing the sacred peplus to
Athene. The Panathenaic pomp, which Pheidias and his pupils carved
upon the friezes of the Parthenon, took place once in five years, on
one of the last days of July. All the citizens joined in the honour paid
to their patroness. Old men bearing olive branches, young men
clothed in bronze, chapleted youths singing the praise of Pallas in
prosodial hymns, maidens carrying holy vessels, aliens bending
beneath the weight of urns, servants of the temple leading oxen
crowned with fillets, troops of horsemen reining in impetuous
steeds: all these pass before us in the frieze of Pheidias. But to our
imagination must be left what he has refrained from sculpturing, the
chariot formed like a ship, in which the most illustrious nobles of
Athens sat, splendidly arrayed, beneath the crocus-coloured curtain
or peplus outspread upon a mast. Some concealed machinery
caused this car to move; but whether it passed through the
Propylæa, and entered the Acropolis, admits of doubt. It is, however,
certain that the procession which ascended those steep slabs, and
before whom the vast gates of the Propylæa swang open with the
clangour of resounding bronze, included not only the citizens of
Athens and their attendant aliens, but also troops of cavalry and
chariots; for the mark of chariot-wheels can still be traced upon the
rock. The ascent is so abrupt that this multitude moved but slowly.
Splendid indeed, beyond any pomp of modern ceremonial, must
have been the spectacle of the well-ordered procession, advancing
through those giant colonnades to the sound of flutes and solemn
chants—the shrill clear voices of boys in antiphonal chorus rising
above the confused murmurs of such a crowd, the chafing of horses’
hoofs upon the stone, and the lowing of bewildered oxen. To realise
by fancy the many-coloured radiance of the temples, and the rich
dresses of the votaries illuminated by that sharp light of a Greek
sun, which defines outline and shadow and gives value to the
faintest hue, would be impossible. All we can know for positive about
the chromatic decoration of the Greeks is, that whiteness artificially
subdued to the tone of ivory prevailed throughout the stonework of
the buildings, while blue and red and green in distinct, yet
interwoven patterns, added richness to the fretwork and the
sculpture of pediment and frieze. The sacramental robes of the
worshippers accorded doubtless with this harmony, wherein colour
was subordinate to light, and light was toned to softness.
Musing thus upon the staircase of the Propylæa, we may say
with truth that all our modern art is but child’s play to that of the
Greeks. Very soul-subduing is the gloom of a cathedral like the
Milanese Duomo, when the incense rises in blue clouds athwart the
bands of sunlight falling from the dome, and the crying of choirs
upborne on the wings of organ music fills the whole vast space with
a mystery of melody. Yet such ceremonial pomps as this are but as
dreams and shapes of visions, when compared with the clearly
defined splendours of a Greek procession through marble peristyles
in open air beneath the sun and sky. That spectacle combined the
harmonies of perfect human forms in movement with the divine
shapes of statues, the radiance of carefully selected vestments with
hues inwrought upon pure marble. The rhythms and melodies of the
Doric mood were sympathetic to the proportions of the Doric
colonnades. The grove of pillars through which the pageant passed
grew from the living rock into shapes of beauty, fulfilling by the
inbreathed spirit of man Nature’s blind yearning after absolute
completion. The sun himself—not thwarted by artificial gloom, or
tricked with alien colours of stained glass—was made to minister in
all his strength to a pomp, the pride of which was a display of form
in manifold magnificence. The ritual of the Greeks was the ritual of a
race at one with Nature, glorying in its affiliation to the mighty
mother of all life, and striving to add by human art the coping-stone
and final touch to her achievement.

Sketches in Italy and Greece (London, 1874).

 THE CATHEDRAL OF ROUEN.
THOMAS FROGNALL DIBDIN.

THE approach to Rouen is indeed magnificent. I speak of the

immediate approach; after you reach the top of a considerable rise,
and are stopped by the barriers, you then look down a straight,
broad, and strongly paved road, lined with a double row of trees on
each side. As the foliage was not thickly set, we could discern,
through the delicately clothed branches the tapering spire of the
Cathedral and the more picturesque tower of the Abbaye St. Ouen—
with hanging gardens and white houses to the left—covering a richly
cultivated ridge of hills, which sink as it were into the Boulevards
and which is called the Faubourg Cauchoise. To the right, through
the trees, you see the river Seine (here of no despicable depth or
breadth) covered with boats and vessels in motion: the voice of
commerce and the stir of industry cheering and animating you as
you approach the town. I was told that almost every vessel which I
saw (some of them two hundred and even of three hundred tons
burthen) was filled with brandy and wine. The lamps are suspended
from the centre of long ropes, across the road; and the whole scene
is of a truly novel and imposing character. But how shall I convey to
you an idea of what I experienced, as, turning to the left, and
leaving the broader streets which flank the quay, I began to enter
the penetralia of this truly antiquated town? What narrow streets,
what overhanging houses, what bizarre, capricious ornaments! What
a mixture of modern with ancient art! What fragments, or rather
what ruins of old delicately-built Gothic churches! What signs of
former and of modern devastation! What fountains, gutters, groups
of never-ceasing men, women and children, all occupied, and all
apparently happy! The Rue de la Grosse Horloge (so called from a