Critical reflection, transformative learning, and reflective practice are

valued and encouraged at the preservice level of teacher education.

Reflective experiences may change the way student teachers think
about teaching and learning.

Encouraging Critical Reflection

in Preservice Teacher
Education: A Narrative of a
Personal Learning Journey
Christine van Halen-Faber

The concept of “person” functions centrally and significantly in life today.

Including the “person” in common concepts adds value to them. For example,
if we change such terms as knowledge, relevance, responsibility, and voice into per-
sonal knowledge, personal relevance, personal responsibility, and personal voice, each
concept shifts from a value-neutral position to a value-laden one. In education,
we recognize that a constructivist view of teaching and learning places an
emphasis on the person of the learner. Closely connected to the person of the
learner, reflectiveness functions centrally as a link in the learning process. A
learner whose learning is personal and reflective exists happily within the frame-
work of the constructivist view of teaching and learning. It is not surprising that
for educators who embrace the constructivist paradigm, terms such as critical
reflection, transformative learning, and reflective practice are familiar.
This chapter explores the concept of reflectiveness as found in critical
reflection, transformative learning, and reflective practice in the teaching and
learning at the preservice level of teacher education.

Critical Reflection, Transformative Learning,

and Reflective Practice
Critical reflection may be described as the type of thinking that serves to chal-
lenge notions of prior learning. Considered an important element in exemplary
teaching, critical reflection occurs when patterns of a person’s beliefs, goals, or

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION, no. 74, Summer 1997 © Jossey-Bass Publishers 51
52 TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING IN ACTION

expectations are put to the test by means of thoughtful questioning. Reflective

experiences at the preservice level in teacher education are intended to bring
about changes in the established beliefs held by student teachers. Over time,
these experiences may also lead to change in the way students think about
teaching and learning.
Intentionally thoughtful teachers consider themselves lifelong learners for
whom teaching experiences and learning experiences are so tightly interwo-
ven as to be one. Critical reflection and transformative learning are the tenets
of reflective practice. For intentionally thoughtful teachers, reflecting on trans-
formative learning leads to reflective practice, and becomes a means by which
they reflect on the practice of reflecting. Reflective practice is a turning back
on oneself to consider, questioningly, the validity and principles of the prac-
tice (Lather, 1991).
The framework describing the teacher as a lifelong learner who is engaged
in reflective practice is informed by a spirit of inquiry. Fostering a spirit of
inquiry characterized by critical reflection assists adult learners in identifying
the connection between the nature of knowing and the nature of learning. It
allows them to become researchers of their own learning. In the preservice set-
ting, student teachers are encouraged to begin to view themselves as researchers.
They try not only to understand themselves as learners but also to understand
better their students and their students’ perspectives. Student teachers who view
themselves as lifelong learners gradually move away from a repertoire of peda-
gogical techniques toward the thoughtfully responsive and reflective way of
teaching that is generally found in more experienced teachers (Williams, 1992).

Narrative as Reflective Practice

Teachers and student teachers communicate their knowing and learning in
many different ways. The power of the narrative as a medium for communi-
cation has been heralded by many researchers. Connelly and Clandinin (1994)
have encouraged teachers to tell their stories, only to realize that often the
telling of a new story was actually a retelling of a story from the past. With each
story retold, the narrator grows and develops. Simultaneously, the new stories
become richer and deeper as the spiral of experience winds its way through
time and space. New meaning arises out of old experiences. Does this mean
that our ever-deepening understanding of our own voice over time results in
stories better told? When applied to the setting of teaching and learning, does
this imply that teaching is storytelling? Are teachers narrators of knowledge?
Are students listeners to stories?
Discovering new meaning arising out of old stories points to the connec-
tion between critical reflection and narrative. Journals, diaries, and logbooks
are a forum for reflection (see Chapter Three for another illustration of this
process). “Reflecting deeply on our own experiences and those of our students,
we discover that explicating and exploring dilemmas is of itself a way of know-
ing” (Swartz, 1994, p. 101). In the teacher education setting, writing-to-learn
 ENCOURAGING CRITICAL REFLECTION 53

as a means of reflective practice is used to facilitate the change from a student

perspective to a teacher perspective (Tomkiewicz, 1991). Courses are designed
so that student teachers see themselves evolving from passively receptive stu-
dents to thinking, rational, intuitive, and decision-making teachers. Commu-
nicating one’s change from having the perspective of a student to that of a
teacher by means of sharing one’s learning story illustrates the use of narrative
as reflective practice.

Action Research as Reflective Practice

As an educator-researcher, I was involved in action research, examining the use
of practice-teaching logbooks as a narrative of learning and a means of critical
reflection (van Halen-Faber, 1996). Reflecting on the research, I was somewhat
amused by the thought that I had spent many hours analyzing thousands of lines
of student logbook entries. I had intentionally subjected my students’ reflections
to content, intuitive, and thematic analyses that in turn gave rise to critical ques-
tions. I, in my role as researcher, had valued critical reflection in preservice
teacher education. What about my students in all of this? Despite our lengthy
discussions, our interactive feedback, our shared interest and excitement in the
research project, were my students passive pawns of a scholarly process? Had
my work emphasized the importance of valuing critical reflection more than
encouraging it? How could I shift the emphasis from my role as researcher of my
students’ learning to the students’ role as researchers of their own learning?
In an attempt to address these and similar questions, I decided to use my
research experience as a springboard for a further transformation of my own
learning. I used the research findings as a basis to help shape a new course to
assist student teachers in finding their voice as they narrate the transformations
in their lifelong quest to be intentionally reflective practitioners. This action
research, which led to the design of a new course of studies, serves as an exam-
ple of reflective practice.

Reflective Practice in Action

When designing a new course of study around the central concepts of critical
reflection, transformative learning, and reflective practice, I identified as a pri-
mary objective the increased involvement of my students as researchers of their
own learning. Equally important was allowing student teachers the freedom to
find their voice as learners.
I work at Covenant Canadian Reformed Teachers’ College in Hamilton,
Ontario. This private college provides preservice teacher education to students
who intend to teach in Christian schools. The setting of a small private college
proved to be excellent for experimenting with a newly designed course. The
interest students show in the research of one of their instructors, the positive
support of fellow faculty members, and the small class size are three of the fac-
tors that work in favor of implementing such a course.
54 TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING IN ACTION

Course Description
A survey of the course clusters offered at Covenant College suggested that the
Teaching Workshop cluster was one place where a new course on encouraging
reflective practice would fit. The goal of the Teaching Workshop courses is to
link the theoretical underpinnings of teaching and the students’ own practice-
teaching experiences. Focusing on interactive theory and practice influences
teaching skills, instructional strategies, and classroom management techniques.
Trust and Narrative as Fundamental Principles. I designed “Teaching
Workshop 331: Reflective Practice” so as to optimize the opportunities for
reflective practice. Central to the design of the course are two fundamental prin-
ciples. First, the course recognizes the importance of trust in the development
of personal knowledge, personal relevance, personal responsibility, and personal
voice. Only when learners trust each other and, even more important, them-
selves can reflective practice lead to transformative action. Second, there is the
principle recognizing narrative as giving voice to the learning that is taking
place. When combined, these two principles provide a powerful thrust in a
course designed to encourage students not only to engage in critical reflection
but also to use reflective experiences to bring about a change in perspective.
Course Structure. The course structure provides opportunities for stu-
dent teachers to engage in reading, analyzing, and discussing stories describ-
ing teaching and learning in action. It contains four distinct parts.
First, student teachers listen to stories told by experienced teachers. Initially,
I use brief excerpts of stories in which experienced teachers share an anecdote.
For example, classroom discussions of selections featured under the heading
“Our Own Stories” in The Reading Teacher allow student teachers the security of
telling stories told by others. Along similar lines and in an effort to reach stu-
dents who prefer a more visual mode of learning, the course uses brief selec-
tions from videotapes of classroom teachers talking about their experiences.
Throughout the follow-up discussions, student teachers are encouraged to iden-
tify the what (content), the how (process), and the why (premise) found in the
teaching-learning narrative.
Second, student teachers reflect on the stories told by experienced
teachers. The next focus of the course is the development of reasoning skills
as another aspect of critical reflection. Students explore terms such as con-
tent, process, and premise reflection (Cranton, 1994) using writings in which
teacher-researchers not only describe their work but also communicate how
their work served to change them as educator-learners. The writings of Nan-
cie Atwell (1987, 1991) function well as a means of searching to come to a
deeper understanding; students grapple with such questions as “What, how,
and why is this person writing about her work? What does her learning
about teaching tell us? How does her learning about teaching help us in our
learning about teaching?” Along similar lines, albeit with an emphasis on
distinguishing personal and professional knowledge, student teachers are
asked to read a “based-on-a-true-story” novel written by or about teachers.
 ENCOURAGING CRITICAL REFLECTION 55

In a follow-up discussion, each student teacher summarizes the content of

the novel and identifies specific elements to illustrate what teachers tell
about themselves as they write about their learners. Up to this point in the
course, all activities are designed to minimize personal risk. Student teach-
ers read, analyze, and talk about the work done by others. Throughout the
discussions, students’ level of trust increases, and they come to appreciate
the medium of narrative.
Third, student teachers write and speak about their own practice.
Based on a practice-teaching assignment, students are asked to describe a
critical incident—a specific event that stands out as an especially good or
bad experience. In addition to describing the occurrence in some detail, stu-
dents are asked to identify what insights they gained from the experience.
They are then invited to share their incident with the rest of the group. (It
was interesting to note the students’ reactions to this assignment. Several
interpreted the term critical incident in the negative sense, and were reluc-
tant to share what they considered to be failures with their peers. Perhaps
critical incidents ought to be renamed significant incidents in order to pre-
vent this interpretation.)
The course initiates a further level of sharing personal practice-teaching
experiences when student teachers are asked to review their practice-teaching
logbooks in preparation for an in-class discussion of their learning. At
Covenant College, student teachers submit a practice-teaching logbook to the
supervising faculty member as part of a practice-teaching portfolio. Faculty
members use the logbook as a basis for a follow-up discussion with individual
student teachers. To assist students in viewing the logbooks as a narrative of
experience and in using them as a basis for critical reflection, I ask students to
give voice to learning while telling their stories and identifying themes that
occurred throughout the course of the logbook. We define terms such as
reflecting-on-action and reflecting-in-action (Schön, 1990), and I encourage stu-
dent teachers to apply these terms to their own learning. At this stage in the
course, students feel quite comfortable about risking a discussion about per-
sonal practice-teaching experiences. The trust relationship developed over the
past months creates a safe environment in which sharing is a relatively non-
threatening experience for most students. (By this time in the course, my first
class was meeting at a different place in the building: we had traded in the
tables and chairs in a typical lecture room setting for the couches and chairs
in the informal yet private student lounge. Even the physical environment sup-
ported trust building and storytelling.)
Fourth, students prepare a personal reflective essay in which they sum-
marize and synthesize their thoughts on what it means to describe one’s own
learning journey in becoming an intentionally thoughtful teacher. Instructions
for this final assignment are kept to a minimum in order not to stifle student
thinking. I encourage students to consider the various forms of critical reflec-
tion and to use their practice-teaching logbook entries as a guidebook or road
map along the learning journey.
56 TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING IN ACTION

Reflective Practice: An Illustration

Considering the importance of personal knowledge, personal relevance, per-
sonal responsibility, and personal voice when promoting reflective practice that
leads to transformative action, it seems appropriate to conclude this chapter
by sharing some excerpts taken from the personal reflective essays submitted
by five students. I thank Jolanda, Laura, Gredina, Amanda, and Jody for their
willingness to allow me to incorporate their work.
The excerpts I have chosen are intended to illustrate how student teach-
ers who are encouraged to engage in inquiry and critical reflection connect the
nature of knowing to the nature of learning. Further, the excerpts are intended
to illustrate the use of reflective experiences in bringing about a change in per-
spective and a change in the way of thinking about teaching and learning in
preparation for the teaching task.
The narratives in the form of reflective essays submitted by the five stu-
dents are unique in character and approach, yet there are three general themes.
First, students intentionally use narrative in learning. Second, students may
unintentionally use narrative in learning. Third, student teachers recognize the
use of narrative as a record of change.
Intentional Use of Narrative in Learning. Some students concur that
writing about their learning helps them examine their own development. They
identify narrative writing as a valid medium for learning. For some learners, espe-
cially those for whom writing is a natural way of processing thought, the very
process of writing about their learning is a rewarding experience. Amanda writes:

At the College, I was encouraged to be reflective in my practice teaching. This

was made concrete in the logbooks we had to keep. I do not find it difficult to
write logbooks, because I have kept a personal journal off and on for many years.
I used to think a lot of things through by writing; writing down my thoughts
helped me sort out what I was thinking.

For Amanda, writing functions as a vehicle to bridge thought and communi-

cation. She also concedes that reflecting on one’s practice is one thing, yet writ-
ing about those same events is quite another story. Illustrating this, she writes:

I write easily about lessons that go well, especially when I have those exciting
“Aha!” moments. In contrast, I find it difficult to write about lessons that went
poorly. It’s almost like a defense mechanism—I don’t want to think about it,
because I know exactly what I did wrong, and I feel foolish for not having fore-
seen the pitfalls. My reflections in those instances are in the form of mental
notes; I know in my head what I should have done differently, but I find it too
deflating to write about it all.

In the context of a positive experience, the narrative describing reflection-

on-action is experienced as celebration. When an experience has been difficult
 ENCOURAGING CRITICAL REFLECTION 57

or negative, writing as reflection-on-action introduces an element of tension as

the student relives the pain of a negative experience.
Unintentional Use of Narrative in Learning. Some students use writing
as a means of reflection without a full awareness of what they are doing. For
example, in her writing Laura suggests that she has used reflective practice at an
intuitive level. The course on reflective practice has helped her identify her prac-
tice more explicitly, and in discussing the term reflective practitioner, she writes:

I can honestly say that it hasn’t been until the past year that I’ve really learned
what that term means. During this teaching workshop course, we’ve dealt with
reflection on action and reflection in action; and during my recent practicums,
I’ve been able to put these terms to use. It has only been during my recent
practicums that I think I have become aware of reflecting in action, but I think
I’ve always reflected on action. I think you could say that now I see my logbook
with a “different eye.”

Gredina puts similar thoughts in a slightly different way when she defines
her understanding of what it means to be a reflective practitioner. In describ-
ing how reflection transforms one’s learning, she links decision making to con-
sequences and to taking responsibility for actions:

I have always been a reflective practitioner. For me, it has always meant taking
responsibility for my actions. When my actions have consequences, to accept
those consequences. This would affect my decision-making process beforehand
and my evaluation of my action afterwards.

In this example, reflective action that may lead to change occurs primarily as
a mental activity rather than as a written narrative experience. Once Gredina
has dealt with an issue, the process becomes a matter of the past. For her, writ-
ing becomes a way of keeping track, of not forgetting, of putting matters on
hold for a later time. Entries in a logbook, journal, or diary function as a
“things I must remember” list. Gredina writes:

It’s not often that I write down my reflections. It’s all “in my head” activity. I
don’t remember things after I have settled them. Usually I don’t have the time
to think about them anymore, so I don’t for a while. That’s one of the reasons
for writing in my journal. I like to be able to recall my conclusions, so I put some
details on paper to help me remember.

Narrative as a Record of Change. In examining their own writing, sev-

eral students comment on the changes they observe in their own outlook over
time. Reflective action is linked to learning progress, and a course activity that
requires students to reread early logbook entries becomes an enjoyable event.
Rereading old entries with new eyes encourages students to celebrate their
learning journey. In this context, Jolanda writes:
58 TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING IN ACTION

I think reflectiveness depends a lot on my personality. I had a good time read-

ing these early journals. I can see I was concerned about routines, the little things
that make lessons flow smoothly. In my first Practicum I would record what I
would be doing each lesson. At that stage I was concerned about the “stuff” I had
to teach, and not as much concerned about the students sitting in front of me.

Although she concedes that writing works well for her, she suggests that
other modes of communication could work just as well. She summarizes her
thoughts on reflection and learning as follows:

I find that this paper has helped me clarify my thoughts on what it means to be
a reflective learner. I find a narrative style works well for me, but I also enjoy
talking about my learning.

Jody agrees, saying that it is helpful to describe personal and professional

growth not only by means of logbooks but also in other ways. She especially
appreciates using others’ experiences as starting points for personal reflection.
Jody writes:

The scenarios that we were given were terrific! I felt that they were really true to
life and gave us insight into the daily concerns of real teachers. . . . the discus-
sions allowed us to evaluate our own strategies for that particular scenario. They
really made me see that thoroughly thinking a problem through and discussing
it with your peers really assists you in being reflective.

Jody also supports the idea that for some student teachers, reflective prac-
tice does not come naturally but needs to be introduced methodically and
practiced explicitly. She alludes to the value of carefully designed activities that
may generate a reflective response on the part of the learner, and observes:

I get inspired by reading narratives and other people’s stories. They offer a lot of
encouragement that is useful for especially a beginning teacher. Some people are
born reflective. For me it was something I had to learn. Some people become
better at reflecting with assistance.

Reflecting on Teaching Workshop 331:

Reflective Practice
Traveling the newly charted waters of Teaching Workshop 331: Reflective Prac-
tice proved to be an exciting learning journey for student teachers and instruc-
tor alike. A setting of acceptance and trust allowed participants to share
thoughts and experiences as well as suggestions for further explorations. Future
course refinements will include an examination of the use of personal teaching
metaphors over the course of a term. Students will be encouraged to trace and
describe the changes in such metaphors as yet another way to develop and
 ENCOURAGING CRITICAL REFLECTION 59

share the narrative of their learning experience (Bullough and Gitlin, 1995).
Explicitly combining writing and dialogue is another alternative for tracking
learning. With this method, the use of response or dialogue journals between
student teachers may serve well as a means of telling and sharing our stories.
Student teachers’ increased awareness of their own learning also increases
the degree of self-confidence in their ability to function as independent, self-
motivated, and self-directed learners. The observation that “student teachers
differ in the degree to which they prefer to learn via reflection” (Korthagen,
1988, p. 42) suggests that those who are guided by internal direction and who
display an internal orientation show a strong preference for learning by reflec-
tion. It is interesting to note that student teachers who are guided by internal
direction throughout their preservice education often continue to develop as
independent, self-motivated, and self-directed beginning teachers who use crit-
ical reflection as a means of looking back in order to look ahead.
Encouraging critical reflection as a primary course objective further vali-
dates the use of narrative as a way of making the voices of student teachers
heard. Telling stories as a medium for communication in an action research
approach forms a channel that links the knowing of the one who tells the story
with the knowing of the one who hears the narrative.
Critical reflection that leads to transformative action is a powerful con-
firmation of personal growth and development. Recognizing landmarks along
a personal learning journey serves to confirm one’s direction. In a preservice
teacher education program, a course intentionally designed to value and
encourage critical reflection as a way of linking theory and practice by stu-
dent teachers is but one means of assisting student teachers to move from a
student teacher perspective to a beginning teacher perspective. Reflective
practice in a setting where learners trust themselves and each other leads to
giving voice to the learning that is taking place. Acknowledging the impor-
tance of personal knowledge, personal relevance, personal responsibility, and
personal voice results in reflective practice, which ultimately leads to trans-
formative action. Reflective practice in action makes for an exciting personal
learning journey.

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CHRISTINE VAN HALEN-FABER is a lecturer at Covenant Canadian Reformed Teach-

ers’ College in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.