SENSES

CHAPTER 9
SENSES
Are the means by which the brain receives information about
the environment and the body.

Sensation
The process initiated by stimulating sensory receptors.

PERCEPTION
conscious awareness of stimuli received by sensory neurons
 Types of Senses

General senses
Receptors over large part of body that sense touch, pressure, pain,
temperature, and itch.
They are divided into two groups:
Somatic senses provide information about body and environment
Visceral senses provide information about internal organs,
primarily involving pain and pressure.

Special senses
smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance
 Sensory Receptors

Are sensory nerve endings or specialized cells

respond to stimuli by developing action potentials.
Several types of receptors are associated with both
the general and the special senses, and each
responds to a different type of stimulus.
 Types of Receptors

Mechanoreceptors
respond to mechanical stimuli, such as the bending or stretching of
receptors

Chemoreceptors
respond to chemicals.

Photoreceptors
respond to light
 Types of Receptors

Thermoreceptors:
respond to temperature changes

Nociceptors:
respond to stimuli that result in the sensation of pain
GENERAL SENSES
 General Senses

The general senses have sensory receptors that are widely

distributed throughout the body.
The general senses include the senses of
1. touch
2. pressure
3. pain
4. temperature
5. vibration
6. itch
7. proprioception- which is the sense of movement and position of
the body and limbs
 Free Nerve Endings

Are distributed throughout almost all

parts of the body. Some free nerve endings
respond to painful stimuli, some to
temperature, some to itch, and some to
movement.
 Touch Receptors

Are structurally more complex than

free nerve endings.
 Types of Touch Receptors

Merkel's disk
Detect light touch and superficial pressure

Hair follicle receptors

Detect light touch

Meissner corpuscle
Very specific in localizing tactile sensations
 Types of Touch Receptors

Ruffini corpuscle
Deep tactile receptors
Detects continuous pressure in skin

Pacinian corpuscle
Associated with tendons and joints
Detect deep pressure, vibration, position
Figure 9.2 Sensory Receptors in the Skin
 Righting Reflex

Allows us to maintain posture and balance without

constantly thinking about it .
 PAIN

An unpleasant perceptual and emotional experience

Two types of pain sensation:

1. Localized, sharp, pricking, or cutting pain resulting from rapidly
conducted action potentials
2. Diffuse, burning, or aching pain resulting from action potentials
that are propagated more slowly.
 Pain Control

Local anesthesia
suppresses action potentials from pain receptors in local areas of
the body through the injection of chemical anesthetics near a
sensory receptor or nerve.
General anesthesia
a treatment where chemical anesthetics that affect the reticular
activating system are administered.
 Referred Pain

Is perceived to originate in a
region of the body that is not the
source of the pain stimulus.
Figure 9.3 Areas of Referred Pain on the Body Surface
SPECIAL SENSES
Olfaction

sense of smell
occurs in response to odorants
that enters the nasal cavity
receptors are located in nasal
cavity and hard palate
there are at least 400
functional olfactory receptors
in humans
we can detect 10,000 different
smells
 Olfaction

Olfactory neurons are bipolar neurons within the

olfactory epithelium, which lines the superior part of
the nasal cavity

The mucus keeps the nasal epithelium moist, traps and

dissolves airborne molecules, and facilitates the
removal of molecules and particles from the nasal
epithelium.
 Olfaction

Airborne odorants become dissolved in the mucus on the

surface of the epithelium and bind to receptor molecules on the
membranes of the specialized cilia of the olfactory neurons.
The binding of the odorant to the receptor initiates action
potentials, which are then conducted to the olfactory cortex of
the cerebrum by sensory neurons.
Once an odorant has bound to its receptor, that receptor is
desensitized and does not respond to another odor molecule for
some time, which helps with adaptation to a particular odor.
 Neuronal Pathways for
Olfaction
1. The neuronal pathways of olfaction carry action potentials
from the olfactory neurons to the areas of the cerebrum
that allow for perception and interpretation of the stimuli
2. Axons from olfactory neurons form the olfactory nerves
(cranial nerve I), which pass through foramina of the
cribriform plate and enter the olfactory bulb.
3. There the olfactory neurons synapse with interneurons that
relay action potentials to the brain through the olfactory
tracts.
 Neuronal Pathways for
Olfaction

4. Each olfactory tract terminates in an area of the brain

called the olfactory cortex, located within the temporal and
frontal lobes.
5. Within the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex are feedback
loops that tend to inhibit transmission of action potentials
resulting from prolonged exposure to a given odor. This
feedback, plus the temporary decreased sensitivity at the level
of the receptors, results in adaptation to a given odorant.
Figure 9.4 Olfactory Epithelium and Olfactory Bulb
 Taste

Taste buds
sensory structures that detect taste

located on papillae on the surface of tongue

also distributed throughout other areas of the

mouth and pharynx
 Taste

Each taste bud consists of two types of cells

Specialized epithelial cells form the exterior supporting
capsule of each taste bud, and the interior consists of
about 40 taste cells.
Each taste cell contains hairlike processes, called taste
hairs, that extend through a tiny opening in the
surrounding stratified epithelium, called a taste pore.
Figure 9.5 Tongue
 Types of Tastes

1. Sweet

2. Sour

3. Salty

4. Bitter

5. Umami/savory
 Neuronal Pathways for Taste
Taste sensations are carried to the brain by three cranial
nerves:
Facial nerve (VII)
transmits taste sensations from the anterior two-thirds of
the tongue.
Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
carries taste sensations from the posterior one-third.
Vagus nerve (X)
carries some taste sensations from the root of the tongue.
 Neuronal Pathways for Taste

1. Axons from these three cranial nerves synapse in

the gustatory (taste) portion of brainstem nuclei.
2. Axons of neurons in these brainstem nuclei extend
to and synapse with interneurons in the
thalamus.
3. Axons from neurons in the thalamus project to the
taste area in the insula of the cerebrum
 Vision

Accessory Structures
Eyebrow:
protects from sweat
shade from sun
Eyelid/Eyelashes:
protects from foreign objects
lubricates by blinking
 The Eye and Accessory Structures

Conjunctiva
thin membrane that covers inner
surface of eyelid
Lacrimal Gland
produces tears
Extrinsic eye muscles
held move eyeball
 Anatomy of the Eye

hollow, fluid filled sphere

composed of 3 layers (tunics)
divided into chambers
 Layers of the Eye

1. Fibrous Tunic Layer

2. Vascular Tunic
3. Nervous Tunic
 Fibrous Tunic

outermost tunic
Sclera:
firm, white outer part
helps maintain eye shape, provides attachment sites,
protects internal structures
Cornea:
transparent structure that covers iris and pupil
allows light to enter and focuses light
 Vascular Tunic

middle tunic that contains blood supply

Choroid- black part (melanin), delivers O₂ and nutrients
to retina
Ciliary body helps hold lens in place
Suspensory ligaments help to hold lens in place
 Vascular Tunic
Lens
flexible disk
focuses light onto retina
Iris
colored part
surrounds and regulates pupil
Pupil
regulates amount of light enetering
lots of light= constricted
liitle light=dilated
 Nervous Tunic

innermost tunic and consist of retina

Retina
covers posterior 5/6 of eye
contains 2 layers
Pigmented retina
outer layer
keeps light from reflecting back in eye
 Nervous Tunic

Sensory retina
contains photoreceptors (Rods and Cones)
contains interneurons
 Nervous Tunic

Rods
photoreceptors sensitive to light
20 times more rods than cones
can function in dim light
Cones
photoreceptor provide color vision
3 types blue, green, red
 Posterior Region of Retina

Macula
small spot near center of retina
Fovea centralis
center of macula
the light is focused when looking directly at an
object
only cones
ability to discriminate fine images
 Posterior Region of Retina

Optic disk
white spot medial to macula
blood vessels enter eye and spread over retina
no photoreceptors
called blind spot
 Chambers of the Eye

Anterior Chamber
located between cornea and lens
filled with Aqueous Humor (watery)
Aqueous humor helps maintain pressure, refracts
light, and provide nutrients to inner surface of eye
Posterior Chamber
located behind anterior chamber
contains aqueous humor
 Chambers of the Eye

Vitreous Chamber
located in retina region
filled with vitreous humor: jelly-like substance
vitreous humor helps maintain pressure, holds lens
and retina in place, refracts light
 Functions of the Eye

The eye functions much like a camera

The iris allows light into the eye, which is focused
by the cornea, lens, and humors onto the retina.
The light striking the retina produces action
potentials that are relayed to the brain.
Light refraction and image focusing are two
important processes in establishing vision.
 Functions of the Eye

Light Refraction
Bending of light
Focal point:
point where light rays converge
occurs anterior to retina
object is inverted
 Focusing Images on Retina

Accommodation
Lens become less rounded and image can be
focused on retina
Enables eye to focus on images closer than 20
feet
 Pigments and Pigment Protein

Rhodopsin
photosensitive pigment in rod cells
Opsin
colorless protein in rhodopsin
Retinal
yellow pigment in rhodopsin
requires vitamin A
 Effects of Light on Rhodopsin

1. Light strikes rod cell

2. Retinal changes shape
3. Opsin changes shape
4. Retinal dissociates from opsin
5. Change rhodopsin shape stimulates response in rod cell
which results in vision
6. Retinal detaches from opsin
7. ATP required to reattach retinal to opsin and return
rhodopsin to original shape.
 Neuronal Pathways for Vision

1. Each eye has an area from which it collects light.

This area is referred to as the visual field. Each field
is divided into the temporal part and the nasal part.
2. After passing through the cornea and lens, light from
each half of the visual field projects to the opposite
side of the retina, stimulating photoreceptors. Action
potentials are conducted along the optic nerve.
 Neuronal Pathways for Vision
3. The optic nerve leaves the eye and exits the orbit through the optic
foramen to enter the cranial cavity. Just inside the cranial cavity, the
two optic nerves connect to each other at the optic chiasm (KAI-azm;
crossing). Though it may appear that all the fibers of the optic nerves
cross over and extend to the opposite side of the brain, that is not
completely accurate. Each side of the brain receives signals from each
eye. Axons from the nasal (medial) part of each retina cross through
the optic chiasm and project to the opposite side of the brain. Axons
from the temporal (lateral) part of each retina pass through the optic
nerves and project to the brain on the same side of the body without
crossing.
 Neuronal Pathways for Vision
4. Beyond the optic chiasm, the route of the ganglionic axons is
through the two optic tracts. Most of the optic tract axons terminate
in the thalamus
5. Neurons from the thalamus form the fibers of the optic radiations,
which project to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum. The visual cortex is the area of the cerebrum where vision is
perceived.
6. The right part of each visual field projects to the left side of the
brain, and the left side of each visual field projects to the right side of
the brain.
 Visual Defects

Color Blindness
absence or deficient cones
primarily in males
Glaucoma
increased pressure in eye
can lead to blindness
Chart to Determine Color Blindness
Chart to Determine Color Blindness
 Visual Defects

Presbyopia:
lens become less elastic
reading glasses required
Diplopia
AKA Double vision
Misalignment of the two eyes
Due to weakness of the muscles
 The Ear

The organs of hearing and balance are located in the ears.

Each ear is divided into three areas:
1. the external ear
2. the middle ear
3. the inner ear
 The Ear

Auricle/Pinna
fleshy part on outside
External auditory meatus
canal that leads to eardrum
Tympanic membrane
eardrum
thin membrane that separates external from the middle
ear
sound waves reaching the TM cause it to vibrate
 Middle Ear

Air filled chamber with ossicles

Malleus (hammer)
bone attached to tympanic membrane
Incus (anvil)
bone that connects malleus to stapes
Stapes (stirrup)
bone located at base of oval window
 Middle Ear

Oval window
separates middle and inner ear
Eustachian or auditory tube:
opens into pharynx
equalizes air pressure between outside air
and middle ear
 Inner Ear

Set of fluid filled chambers

Bony labyrinth
tunnels filled with fluid
3 regions: cochlea, vestibule, semicircular
canals
Membranous labyrinth
inside bony labyrinth
 Inner Ear

Endolymph:
clear fluid in membranous labyrinth
Perilymph
fluid between membranous and bony labyrinth
Cochlea
snail-shell shaped structure
where hearing takes place
has three channels
 Channels of Cochlea

Scala vestibuli
extends from the oval window to the apex of
cochlea; filled with perilymph
Scala tympani
extend in parallel; filled with perilymph
Cochlea duct
formed by the space between vestibular and
basilar membrane; filled with endolymph
 The Inner Ear

Vestibular membrane
wall of membranous labyrinth that lines scala
vestibuli
Basilar membrane
wall of membranous labyrinth that lines scala
tympani
 The Inner Ear

Spiral organ/Organ of Corti

in cochlear duct
contains hair cells
Tectorial membrane:
in cochlea
vibrates against hair cells
 Two Categories of Hearing
Impairment

Conduction deafness
• results from mechanical deficiencies

Sensorineural hearing loss

• caused by deficiencies in the spiral organ or
nerves
 Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

• The senses of hearing and balance are both

transmitted by the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII).
• This nerve functions as two separate nerves,
carrying information from two separate but closely
related structures. The cochlear nerve is the portion
of the vestibulocochlear nerve involved in hearing;
the vestibular nerve is involved in balance.
 Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

1. The cochlear nerve sends axons to the cochlear

nucleus in the brainstem.
2. Neurons in the cochlear nucleus project to other
areas of the brainstem and to the inferior colliculus in
the midbrain. Neurons from the inferior colliculus also
project to the superior colliculus, where reflexes that
turn the head and eyes in response to loud sounds are
initiated.
 Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

3. From the inferior colliculus, fibers project

to the thalamus.

4. Neurons of the thalamus project to auditory

cortex in the temporal lobe of each cerebral
hemisphere.
 Balance

The sense of balance, or equilibrium, has two components:

Static equilibrium
associated with the vestibule and is involved in
evaluating the position of the head relative to gravity.
Dynamic equilibrium
associated with the semicircular canals and is involved
in evaluating changes in the direction and rate of head
movements.
 Balance

Vestibule
inner ear
divided into two chambers: (1) the utricle and (2) the
saccule
Maculae
specialized patches of epithelium called the which are
surrounded by endolymph
contain hair cells
 Balance

Otolithic membrane
gelatinous mass where the tips of the microvilli of hair
cells are embedded in

Otoliths
particles composed of protein and calcium carbonate
 Balance

The weighted gelatinous mass moves in response to

gravity, bending the hair cell microvilli and initiating
action potentials in the associated neurons
The action potentials from these neurons are carried
by axons of the vestibular portion of the
vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) to the brain, where they
are interpreted as a change in the position of the
head.
 Balance

Semicircular canals
involved in dynamic equilibrium
placed at nearly right angles to one another, enabling
a person to detect movements in essentially any
direction

Ampulla
base of semicircular canal
 Balance

Within each ampulla, the epithelium is specialized to

form a crista ampullaris
Each crista consists of a ridge of epithelium with a
curved, gelatinous mass, the cupula, suspended over
the crest
The hairlike microvilli of the crista hair cells are
embedded in the cupula
 Neuronal Pathways for Balance

Axons forming the vestibular portion of the

vestibulocochlear nerve project to the vestibular
nucleus in the brainstem.

Axons run from this nucleus to numerous areas of the

CNS, such as the cerebellum and cerebral cortex.
 Neuronal Pathways for Balance

In sobriety tests, people are asked to close their eyes

while their balance is evaluated because alcohol
affects the proprioceptive and vestibular components
of balance to a greater extent than the visual
component of balance.