13.

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ANCIENT AND
MEDIEVAL INDIAN
POLITICAL THOUGHT

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT

B.A. (HONS.) POLITICAL SCIENCE – DSC-8
B.A. (PROGRAMME) – DSC (MINOR PAPER)
SEMESTER-III
As per the UGCF - 2022 and National Education Policy 2020

DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION
CAMPUS OF OPEN LEARNING, SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING CAMPUS OF OPEN LEARNING, SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought

Editorial Board
Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout
Dr. Shambhu Nath Dubey
Dr. Mangal Deo

Content Writers
Dr. Surae Soren, Dr. Zahidul Deewan, Kajal
Ms. Anvita, Revathy V Menon, Anirudh Yadav, Dr. Nishant Kumar,
Prof. Tapan Biswal, Prashant Barthwal, Satya Prakash,
Dr. Gurdeep Kaur, Dr. Shashikant

Academic Coordinator
Deekshant Awasthi

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ISBN: 978-81-19417-70-4

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Printed by:
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© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought

Reviewer
Dr. Shivu Kumar

This Study Material is duly recommended and approved in Academic Council

meeting held on 11/08/2023 Vide item no. 1015 and subsequently Executive
Council Meeting held on 25/08/2023 vide item no. 1267.

 All units have been written fresh according to the NEP course structure except
Units 1, 5, 6, and 11. These four units were taken from CBCS study material and
reframed according to NEP.
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Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought

SYLLABUS
Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought
Syllabus Mapping

UNIT – I Foundations of Indian Political Thought Lesson 1: An Overview on Sources of Indian

• An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought Political Thought
• Cultural and Territorial conception of India ( Pages 3-30)
• Distinctive Features of Indian Political Thought Lesson 2: Cultural and Territorial Concept of India
and Distinctive Features of Indian Political Thought
( Pages 31-50)

Unit II: Manu: Lesson 3: Manusmriti: Relevance of the Study

• Authenticity of Manu smriti (Talking Point) in the Present Context
• Social Laws and Conception of Justice (Pages 53-86)

Unit III: Brihaspati: Statecraft, Justice, Inter-state Relations Lesson 4: Brihaspati – Statecraft, Justice, and
Inter-state Relations
(Pages 89-107)

Unit IV: Shukra/Usana Lesson 5: Talking Point: Debate on the Authenticity

• Talking Point: Debate on the authenticity of Shukra-Niti of Shukra-niti and The Concept of Kingship and
• The Concept of Kingship and Statecraft in Shukra-Niti Statecraft In Shukra-niti
(Pages 111-128)

Unit V: Kautilya: Theory of State Lesson 6: Kautilya: Theory of State

( Pages 131-156)

Unit VI: Aggannasutta (DighaNikaya): Theory of Kingship Lesson 7: Aggañña Sutta (Digha Nikaya):
Theory Of Kingship
(Pages 159-181)

Unit VII: Tiruvalluvar: Ethical Life and Politics Lesson 8: Thiruvalluvar–Ethical Life and Politics
(Pages 185-212)

Unit VIII: Basavanna Lesson 9: Basavanna

(Pages 215-235)

Unit IX: Adi Shankracharya: Advaita Lesson 10: Adi Shankaracharya: Advaita
(Pages 239-257)

Unit X: Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism Lesson 11: Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism
(Pages 261-283)

Unit XI: Abul Fazl: Monarchy Essential/recommended readings Lesson 12: Abul Fazal: Monarchy
(Pages 287-305)

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought

CONTENTS
Unit I: Foundations of Indian Political Thought

Lesson 1 An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought 3-30

Lesson 2 Cultural and Territorial Concept of India and Distinctive Features

of Indian Political Thought 31-50

Unit II: Manu

Lesson 3 Manusmriti: Relevance of the Study in the Present Context 53-86

Unit III: Brihaspati – Statecraft, Justice, and Inter-State Relations

Lesson 4 Brihaspati – Statecraft, Justice, and Inter-State Relations 89-107

Unit IV: Shukra/Usana

Lesson 5 Talking Point: Debate on the Authenticity of Shukra-Niti and

the Concept of Kingship and Statecraft in Shukra-Niti 111-128

Unit V: Kautilya: Theory of State

Lesson 6 Kautilya: Theory of State 131-156

Unit VI: Aggañña Sutta (Digha Nikaya): Theory of Kingship

Lesson 7 Aggañña Sutta (Digha Nikaya): Theory of Kingship 159-181

Unit VII: Thiruvalluvar–Ethical Life and Politics

Lesson 8 Thiruvalluvar–Ethical Life and Politics 185-212

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought

Unit VIII: Basavanna

Lesson 9 Basavanna 215-235

Unit IX: Adi Shankaracharya: Advaita

Lesson 10 Adi Shankaracharya: Advaita 239-257

Unit X: Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism

Lesson 11 Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism 261-283

Unit XI: Abul Fazal: Monarchy

Lesson 12 Abul Fazal: Monarchy 287-305

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
UNIT I: FOUNDATIONS OF INDIAN POLITICAL
THOUGHT

LESSON 1 AN OVERVIEW ON SOURCES OF INDIAN

POLITICAL THOUGHT

LESSON 2 CULTURAL AND TERRITORIAL CONCEPT

OF INDIA AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF
INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought

LESSON 1 NOTES

AN OVERVIEW ON SOURCES OF INDIAN

POLITICAL THOUGHT
Dr. Surae Soren
Assistant Professor,
Department of Political Science, DU

Structure
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Basic Premises of Indian Political Thought
1.3.1 Basic Premises of Indian Political Thought: Political Ideas in the
Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Arthashastra
1.4 Nyaya School of Thought
1.5 Charvaka School of Thought
1.6 Self
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References/Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Understand the rich, vivid, and popular traditions of India.
 Believe in the valuable practices emanating from civilisations.
 Understand the epistemological or ‘Gyanmimansha’ traditions of Indian political
thought, which view the intrinsic nature of the subject of cognition and often
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NOTES
1.2 INTRODUCTION

We know that Indian political thought has a rich, vivid, and deep tradition of eulogising
values, beliefs, and practices emanating from a lustrous civilisation since very ancient
times. The thinking process and subsequent practices which developed in India are
unique, unparalleled, unquestionable, and unfathomable in the entire world. The Indian
thinking tradition has given the world a rich source of knowledge relating to enquiries
into the existence of the God, purpose of human life, the unfathomable mysteries of
outer space, the minute existent particle of earth, and even the universal value system.
So rich is the Indian political thought tradition that it has earned enormous respect in
the world and gathered several followers since ages. India, which had been a land of
hermits, philosophers, and preaches has guided humanity since ancient ages. Whenever
the world had faced crises and deviated from the path of humanity, India had shown
the world right path. This was true during ancient times and even in modern times.
To understand the deep-rooted Indian political thought which can be often
complex at times, it is necessary to understand its epistemic foundations so that clarity
may emerge and the present generation may benefit from it. In understanding the
knowledge tradition, epistemology plays a very important role. The word epistemology
has been taken from the Greek lexicon, where ‘episteme’ means knowledge and ‘logos’
means reason. Therefore, Epistemology is a science of knowledge or a field of
understanding knowledge. Epistemology studies the origin scope and frontier of
knowledge and it arose from a strong human need to learn about anything, whether it
was in the immediate vicinity, such as objects, or something that could not be seen but
could be perceived, such as a supernatural power or entity. Epistemology which in
India is called as ‘Gyanmimansha’ is also about cognition, which focuses on three
vital issues: the object, which is cognised, the subject which cognises the object, and
the tools of cognition like perception. The epistemological understanding of Indian
political thought which views the intrinsic nature of the subject of cognition often delves
into metaphysics or religion. Therefore, the Indian epistemology not only explains the
basis of everyday common experience but by focusing on cognition, it also explains

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An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought

the real nature of subject. Thus, epistemology in Indian political thought often depicts NOTES
a knowledge form where the subject-object distinction may break down (Soni,
Jayandra, 2003).

1.3 BASIC PREMISES OF INDIAN POLITICAL

THOUGHT

Knowledge as Pramana

Knowledge is a kind of cognition which is acquired through the right methods. Thereby,
cognition is a phenomenon of consciousness which produces a belief system that is
verifiable and genuine. In Indian political thought, cognition is always produced in a
right manner. So, despite different theories of truth, knowledge not only reveals the
truth but also emerges out of it. Knowledge cannot be acquired by whims and fancies
or by sudden mishaps; neither it can be produced by mere speculation as the right
methodology has not been followed. In the epistemology of Indian political thought,
the knowledge source or the ‘pramana’ becomes important as it is method of verifiable
cognition determination. It is a means of accurate and valid knowledge.
In epistemology of Indian political thought, the means of knowledge or pramana
which has emerged as a significant area of thought are pratyaksa (perception),
anumana (inference), upamana (comparison), sabda (verbal testimony), arthapatti
(presumption), sambhava (implication) and aitihya (tradition). The Mimamsa School
has played a significant role in underlying the development of knowledge in Indian
tradition. The scholars of Mimamsa School have played important role in establishing
epistemology in Indian knowledge tradition. In this context, Kumarila and Prabhakara
have rejected sambhava (implication) and aitihya (tradition) as valid forms of
knowledge. Kumarila has accepted six pramanas which are pratyaksa (perception),
anumana (inference), upamana (comparison), sabda (verbal testimony), arthapatti
(presumption) and anupalabdhi (non apprehension). Prabhakara has though rejected
anupalabdhi (non apprehension) as a valid source of pramana.
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NOTES Pratyaksa (Perception)

Pratyaksa or perception talks about the knowledge which is present and can be
perceived through eyes or whose presence is visible before eyes. Pratyaksa or
perception is therefore considered as one of the most important forms of pramana.
Pratyaksa is a type of cognition in which the most important aspect is the contact
between senses and the object of perception. Thus, pratyaksa is knowledge about
the existence of worldly phenomena through sense organs and experience of internal
human cognition like happiness and sadness through mental abilities (Phillips, Stephen:
2019).

Anumana (Inference)

The word anumana is derived from two words ‘anu’ meaning after and ‘mana’ meaning
knowledge. Therefore, anumana means ‘after knowledge’ or ‘seeker of knowledge
based on proof.’ Therefore, the knowledge obtained by anumana is not direct but
indirect and has been inferred. For example, when smoke is observed on a distant hill,
it is immediately inferred that there is fire, because smoke and fire are associated and
there is previous knowledge about it. So, in anumana three features are important.
They are ‘Sadhya’ (what is to be proved, i.e., fire), ‘Hetu’ (cause of inference, i.e.,
smoke), and ‘Paksa’ (which causes side or cause doubt, i.e., hill) (Ibid.).

Sabda (Verbal Testimony)

Sabda or verbal testimony is the authoritative speech of a trustworthy person. It is the

hearing of words though ears and believing it, as it emanates from a person whose
integrity is unquestionable. A major part of knowledge has been imparted to humans
through verbal usage of words by other people. So, sabda or words are extremely
important in the development of cognitive ability of a person. Sabda or testimony has
been well established as an important form of pramana. Also, the scriptural testimony
develops cognition about objects which are not in contact of sense but are being
developed by knowledge of words.

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Upamana (Comparison) NOTES

Upamana means ‘comparison’ or ‘resemblance’. It produces a valid source of

cognition by means of analogy. Upamana refers to comparison or association of
something by virtue of its similarity to object that has been known from earlier times.
For example, a person who has never seen a wild ox has been told that it resembles a
cow. So, when the person observes a wild ox, the person observes that it is like a cow
and so believes it to be a wild ox.

Arthapatti (Presumption)

Arthapatti means ‘presumption’ or ‘implication’. It is derived from two words ‘artha’

meaning fact and ‘apathi’ meaning ‘kalpana’ or supposition. Arthapatti resolves the
conflict between two facts by solving the problem which occurs between two facts.
Arthapatti solves the problem by presuming about the fact which may seem
contradictory. For example, a person is fat and the person does not eat in the day. It
therefore means that the person eats in the night.

Anupalabdhi (Non Apprehension or Non Perception)

Anupalabdhi (non apprehension) is a kind of pramana which informs about the

nonexistence of an object or about the absence of the object. Objects that do not exist
sometimes cannot be perceived through the senses and therefore another source of
knowledge is needed. Therefore, Anupalabdhi happens when the non-perception of
an object talks about its non-existence. For example, when a chair which must be in a
room is not seen there, then the knowledge about nonexistence of the chair is determined
through separate pramana which is Anupalabdhi.
The Indian political thought tradition includes various aspects of ancient moral
philosophy like Purushartha, goals of liberation and theory of karma. These moral
philosophies have given rise to two distinctive schools of thought depending on the
acceptance of Vedas and religious rituals. These schools of thought are orthodox
(Astika) schools and heterodox (Nastika) schools. The schools which accept the
authority of the Vedas are classified as the orthodox schools and the schools which do
not accept the authority of Vedas are classified as the heterodox schools. Among the
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NOTES orthodox schools of thought the Nyaya school of thought and among the heterodox
schools of thought the Charvaka school of thought is important to understand the
epistemic foundation of Indian political thought.

1.3.1 Basic Premises of Indian Political Thought: Political ideas in the

Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Arthashastra

The political ideas found in ancient Indian texts such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata,
and Arthashastra provide a rich tapestry of governance, statecraft, and ethics. These
texts offer profound insights into Rajdharma (the duty of rulers), the art of governance,
and the intricacies of political strategy. Let us study these ideas as presented in the
respective texts.

The Ramayana

The Ramayana, attributed to the sage Valmiki, is an epic narrative that centres around
the life of Lord Rama. It provides valuable lessons on Rajdharma, or the duty of kings,
through the actions and decisions of its characters.

Rajdharma in the Ramayana

1. Rama’s Adherence to Duty: Rama’s life exemplifies Rajdharma, where he

prioritises duty over personal desires. His decision to accept exile to honour his
father’s promise highlights the importance of keeping one’s word and fulfilling
one’s duties irrespective of personal loss.
2. Justice and Fairness: The Ramayana emphasises justice and fairness in
governance. Rama’s efforts to ensure the well-being of his subjects, even at
personal cost, underline the ideal of a king being the protector and caretaker of
his people.
3. Moral Integrity: The epic underscores the necessity of moral integrity and
righteousness (dharma) in leadership. Rama’s actions reflect the ideal qualities
of a ruler who embodies truth, compassion, and selflessness.

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An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought

The Mahabharata NOTES

The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is another monumental epic that profoundly

illustrates political philosophy and ethics. It presents complex scenarios and characters
that present various facets of Rajdharma and statecraft.

Rajdharma in the Mahabharata

1. Yudhishthira’s Dilemma: The character of Yudhishthira personifies the conflict

between moral duty and political necessity. His adherence to dharma, even
when it leads to hardship, demonstrates the challenges of righteous rule.
2. Bhishma’s Teachings: The Anushasana Parva of the Mahabharata contains
Bhishma’s teachings on Rajdharma to Yudhishthira, where he outlines the
responsibilities of a king, including protecting the weak, ensuring justice, and
promoting prosperity.
3. Krishna’s Counsel: Lord Krishna’s guidance to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita
(part of the Mahabharata) extends to the realm of political ethics, emphasising
the importance of performing one’s duty without attachment to results and
advocating for righteous action in governance.

The Arthashastra

The Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya), is a comprehensive treatise on

statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy. It is a pragmatic guide to governance
and administration. It outlines the primary duties of a ruler, including the protection of
the state, administration of justice, and welfare of the people. It emphasises the ruler’s
role in maintaining law and order and ensuring the prosperity of the state. Kautilya
provides detailed instructions on the organisation of the state’s administrative machinery,
including the roles of various officials, the management of finances, and the importance
of efficient governance. The Arthashastra advocates for the use of espionage and
strategic diplomacy to safeguard the state’s interests. It includes methods for gathering
intelligence, forming alliances, and dealing with enemies. The text underscores the
significance of economic prosperity for a stable state. It advises on revenue collection,
resource management, and trade policies. Kautilya also provides extensive guidelines
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NOTES on military strategy, including the organisation of the army, tactics for warfare, and the
importance of maintaining a strong and disciplined military.

1.4 NYAYA SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Sage Gautama is the chief proponent of the Nyaya school of thought. Nyaya in Sanskrit
variously means justice, equality of all beings, rules, methods, or judgement. They are
also called Tarkashastra, Anvikshiki, Akshapada Vidya and the Nyaya Vidya. The
Nyaya school of thought has been attributed to the development of epistemology,
methodology and theory of logic. The Nyaya School is religious as well as philosophical.
It advocates bringing an end to human suffering as suffering results from ignorance of
reality. Therefore, liberation from suffering can be achieved by right knowledge. The
objective of the Nyaya School is to achieve true knowledge of the reality as inherent in
metaphysics and investigation of those conditions which require correct thinking as
evident in epistemology. The Nyaya school of thought advances the use of logical
reasoning and critical thinking (Chatterjee, S C: 1939).
The Nyaya School of thought prominently emphasise four basic area, namely:
(i) theory of knowledge, (ii) theory of physical world, (iii) theory of self, and (iv) theory
of God. These four areas culminate from the study of Nyaya sutra. In Nyaya sutra,
sixteen entities (padartha) are mentioned. These sixteen entities are (1) pramana
(means of knowledge), (2) prameya (right knowledge), (3) samsaya (doubt or
uncertainty), (4) prayojana (goal or purpose), (5) drstanta (factually correct example
used in inference), (6) siddhanta (widely accepted doctrine), (7) avayava
(components of syllogism), (8) tarka (counterfactual argument), (9) nirnaya (definite
knowledge), (10) vada (consultation or discussion), (11) jalpa (finding fault in
opponents argument to establish own argument by giving wrangling rejoinder), (12)
vitanda (debating only to refute), (13) hetvabhasa (fallacy of inference), (14) Chala
(unjust reply), (15) jati (reply by false analogy), and (16) nigrahastha (exposing
opponent’s argument and showing self-contradiction and inconsistency and thus
defeating the opponent).
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Pramana NOTES

Pramana is the effective depiction of true knowledge of the existence of an object.

Pramana articulates an object the way object articulates itself. Pramana however
articulates an object through true cognition which can be ascertained by inference.
Therefore, without true cognition, the object cannot be realised. In Pramana, the
object of knowledge, the knowledge itself and the one who knows, or knower gets
linked to the object. It is only by Pramana that an object can be determined. So, one
who generates practical response due to desire to possess the object is the knower.
Therefore, Pramana is the way by which he knows the object. The object which is
known is called prameya and the knowledge of the object is known as pramiti.
Therefore, Pramana reveals the truth and emphasises the importance of cognitive
process and its connection to the existence and non-existence of things. The Nyaya
school of thought uses four different and independent means of knowledge. These
four knowledge forms are: (i) Perception (Pratyaksa), (ii) Inference (Anumana), (iii)
Comparison (Upamana), and (iv) Verbal Testimony (Sabda) (Bilimoria, Purushottama:
2017).

Pratyaksa (Perception)

In this world it is believed that whatever is perceived by our senses is true. So, whatever
we see by our eyes or hear is thought to be true because our senses create a definite
perception of an object. Perception therefore is valid knowledge and the method of
acquiring valid knowledge. In the Nyaya school of thought, perception is a kind of
cognition that generates from contact of sense organ and the object. A perception
comes into existence when the object encounters self, mind (manas) and sense organs.
The contact happens in sequences where the self meets mind (manas), then the manas
comes into contact with sense organs and then the sense organs come into contact
with the object. The entire process produces cognition and the knowledge about an
object becomes a perception.
The perception or pratyaksa means an object or something which is present
before the eyes or sense organs which demonstrate direct of immediate knowledge of
the object. By the term “object”, Gautam means three kinds of objects namely, the
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NOTES physical objects (table, chair, pot), specific objects (color, hard, soft), and internal
objects (pleasure, pain, sorrow). Therefore, perception is a cognition which is always
about the object. The cognition of objects that are externally present, for example
table and chair is called external perception and those which are internally present as
for example pleasure and pain are called internal perceptions.
It can be said that in the Nyaya school of thought the perception applies to
those cognitions which are produced through contact between object and sense organ.
This perception can be momentarily as the cognition is generated at that moment due
to contact. However, in the deep study of cognition, there can be the existence of an
eternal being who can perceive all the objects at all the times. In this condition the
meaning of perception becomes difficult to comprehend. In Nyaya school of thought,
Gangesa has attempted to loosen the complexity by defining perception in a more
general sense by including the subject, object and eternal being. This brings focus of
the ‘contact’ between different variables. Contact is the process by which an object
gets into relationship with sense organ thereby producing a definite perception of that
object.
In Nyaya school of thought, there are different kinds of contact between sense
organ and the object. Udyotakara has shown six kinds of contact between sense
organ and the object. These contacts are as follows:
i. Samyoga (Conjunction) – In this kind of contact there is direct contact
between the eyes and the object. As for example, a full view of table or a
chair in a classroom.
ii. Samyukta Samavaya (Inherence in What is Conjoined) – Here an
indirect form of contact is established. The contact is established between
the object and the sense organ though a third-party mediation which is
related to both. As for example, the eyes encounter the color of pot through
the pot kept in full view.
iii. Samyukta Samaveta Samavaya (Inherence in What is Inseparably
Related to What is Conjoined) – It is the kind of indirect contact which
takes place with the help of mediation of two objects that are related. As
for example a blackboard in a classroom is when looked at or is perceived,
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the colour of the blackboard that is black is also perceived. Here the NOTES
contact of the eyes with that of the colourness with help of mediation of
two inseparable objects that is blackboard and colour takes place.
iv. Samavaya (Inherence) – This is related to sound. When a person hears
a sound then a contact between sound and the sense organ that is ear is
being made.
v. Samaveta Samavaya (Relation between Inherence and the Senses)
– This is the contact between the sense and the object through another
object that is inseparably related to both. As for example when a person
perceives a sound, the ear is in contact with the soundness as the sound is
inherence and that inherence is the virtue of the ear.
vi. Samyukta Visesanata (Absence of the Object) – In this kind of contact,
the sense remains in contact with the object until the object reflects the
virtue of the other object with the sense. As for example when a table is
not seen in a classroom. The relation between the perception of nonexistence
and the inherence is explained by this contact. So, when a table is not seen
in a class, the visual sense has conjunction with the class, but the absence
of the table is in the relation of the class.
The above mentioned six types of contacts (Samyoga, Samyukta Samavaya,
Samyukta samaveta samavaya, Samyukta samavaya, Samavaya, Samyukta
visesanata and Samaveta samavaya) are called ordinary or laukika. Apart from
these, the Nyaya school of thought recognises three kinds of extraordinary contacts
which are also known as alaukika. These three kinds of contacts are: (i)
samanyalaksana pratyaksa, (ii) jnanalaksana pratyasatti, and (iii) yogaja.
i. Samanyalaksana pratyaksa – In this kind of contact, the quality of an
object is perceived as the quality of all other individual objects. As for
example when a person sees a tiger, the quality that is tiger-ness is also
perceived. Therefore, tigerness becomes the mode of contact for all other
tigers which would be seen in future.
ii. Jnanalaksana pratyasatti – In this kind of contact, the perception is
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NOTES capable of perceiving and is not present at that moment. Therefore,

perception is based on experience. For example, the coldness of the ice.
iii. Yogaja – This kind of contact is intuitive in nature and is observed among
the yogi who by committed meditation has gained extraordinary powers
to perceive phenomena of the past, present and the future.
In the Nyaya school of thought, the perception or the cognition takes place in
two stages namely (i) nirvikalpaka cognition and the (ii) savikalpaka cognition.
i. Nirvikalpaka cognition– In this stage of cognition the first contact of
sense organ takes place with the object. This is the primary cognition of
an object without determinate knowledge of the characteristic and
interconnection of the object. So, nirvikalpaka is a blunt knowledge of
object in which merely the basic existence of object is perceived. As for
example, when a person sees a mango, a contact between eyes and mango
is made. At this stage, just the size, shape, and colour of the mango are
noticed, not the mango itself.
ii. Savikalpaka cognition– This is generally considered as the second stage
which produces determinate knowledge of the object. In savikalpaka,
the person recognises the object due to attributes of its quality. The
interconnection between several characteristics is easily drawn. As for
example after seeing the mango the person can easily determine that it is a
mango and can be edible. The savikalpaka cognition cannot take place
without the occurrence of nirvikalpaka cognition as the interconnection
between characteristics cannot be drawn without knowing that
characteristic itself.

Anumana (Inference)

Inference or Anumana is one of the important parts of Nyaya school of thought as it

deals with logic. Inference comes under Pramana which is a theory about knowledge.
Inference not merely deals with valid thinking but also gives much emphasis on the
mode of knowing. Inference as a means of knowing is called ‘anumana’ while inferential
cognition is known as ‘anumiti’. Inference is that form of knowledge which comes
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after some other knowledge. So, it is a kind of knowledge which is indirect and is the NOTES
result of past knowledge. As for example when a person sees smoke emanating from
the hill, the person infers that there is fire on the hill. Therefore, the sight of smoke
proves to be a benchmark for the inferring fire of the hill. The inference is further
divided into two categories namely: (i) svarthanumana, and (ii) pararthanumana.
i. Svarthanumana– This is the inference for oneself. The inference therefore
shows a psychological understanding about the process of knowledge. As for
example a person has observed earlier that smoke is produced whenever there
is fire. So, whenever a person sees smoke on a hill that person remembers that
wherever there is smoke there is fire. Therefore, due to experience an inference
is made that the hill is on fire.
ii. Pararthanumana– This kind of inference is based on logical reasoning. Hence
syllogism plays an important role in determining the production of knowledge.
Pararthanumana can be understood by five logical statements- (a) there is
fire on the hill (the proposition that has to be proved, also known as pratijna),
(b) because there is smoke (it states the reason for fire, also known as hetu),
(c) wherever there is smoke, there is fire (vyapti), (d) as observed in kitchen (it
is an example also known as drstanta), and (e) there is fire on the hill (this is the
conclusion also known as nigamana). In this example, the first statement is the
assertion, the second statement gives the reason, the third statement shows the
unchanging conjunction (between smoke and fire), the fourth statement expresses
the similarity as for example hill is like kitchen (due to presence of fire and
smoke) and the fifth and last statement is conclusion which establishes the
assertion made earlier.

Upamana (Comparison)

Comparison or Upamana is the knowledge that is derived from the similarity between
two objects. The word Upamana is derived from two words that is ‘upa’ and ‘mana’.
Upa means similarity and mana means cognition. So it is that cognition that is produced
by comparing the similarity between one object which is known to another object that
is not known. The classic example is about wild ox. A person who has never seen a
wild ox recognises it because he has been told that it resembles a cow and has seen a Self-Instructional
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NOTES cow earlier. So, when the person sees a wild ox then he finds that it is like cow.
Therefore, the person thinks that it must be a wild ox. The Nyaya school of thought
says that this knowledge cannot be derived from by perception or by inference as it is
based on the knowledge of similarity.

Sabda (Verbal Testimony)

Most of the knowledge is transmitted from one human to another by the words spoken
by an individual. This is also known as verbal testimony or ‘sabda’. However, all the
words and sentences are not true and therefore are not valid knowledge. Only those
authoritative verbal testimony (aptavakya) becomes pramana which are given by
authoritative and trustworthy people because they know the truth and speak the truth.
The statements of trustworthy people are reliable and are meaningful.
However, to derive knowledge from verbal testimony it becomes necessary to
understand the words. The words are important as they form the sentences. The
sentences may be verbal or in a written form. To convey knowledge the sentence must
follow some conditions. These are (i) akanksha (expectation); (ii) yogyata (fitness or
qualification); (iii) sannidhi (nearness); and (iv) tatparya (intention).
Simply grouping some words does not create a sentence and therefore it
becomes meaningless. In the first instance if the group of words does not produce
akanksha or expectation, the words do not make sense. As for example ‘table,
elephant, pot’. These words do not make sense as they do not produce expectation.
As for the second condition the sentence has to be fit and non-contradictory to convey
meaning. As for example ‘boil the potatoes in soil’. Here the word boil produces an
expectation while the word soil is not fit to fulfil. The third condition points out that the
words must be near or spoken in quick succession to make sense. As for example if
words are spoken with long pause it does not make sense. In the fourth condition the
intention of speaker becomes relevant whereas several meaning of the word can be
drawn at a time. As for example at cash counter when a person says that he needs
change then it means that he needs money of small denomination and not a change in
life. Therefore, it is necessary to know a person’s intentions.
In Nyaya school of thought the sabda are of two kinds. These are laukika and
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persons whereas verbal testimony under alaukika is divine in nature. Therefore, NOTES
statements from wise people are laukika while words of Vedas or religious texts are
alaukika. The sabda pramana plays a significant role in transmission of knowledge,
generation of cognition and cultivation of values. Through sabda, knowledge about
‘dharma’, ‘kartavya’, ‘dana’, ‘tyaga’ etc. are cultivated.

Nyaya Padartha

In Nyaya sutra, Gautama has mentioned about sixteen entities or padartha. Of the
sixteen, the “pramana” has already been discussed above. The rest of the fifteen
padartha are discussed below.
Prameya– It talks about the object of true knowledge or reality. The Nyaya
school of thought recognises twelve objects of true knowledge. These are (i) self
(atma), (ii) body (here the organic activities takes place and feelings like pleasure and
pain are felt), (iii) senses (taste, touch, smell, hearing and sight), (iv) objects of senses
(the sensible qualities of taste, touch, smell, sound and colour), (v) cognition or
knowledge (buddhi), (vi) mind (manas that can perceive pleasure and pain), (vii)
activity (pravitti), (viii) mental flaws (dosaa or weakness like ‘raga, ‘dvesa’ and
‘moha’), (ix) rebirth after death (pretyabhava), (x) experience of pleasure and pain
in life (phala), (xi) suffering (dukkha), and (xii) liberation from suffering (apavarga).
Samsaya– It is a condition of doubt and uncertainty. Here the mind gets puzzled
in choosing an option due to the availability of several alternatives. This condition is
exacerbated if contradictory explanation of similar things is available. As for example
if two wise men offer contradictory meaning of life, then samsaya or doubt occurs.
Doubt can be overcome by rational decision making.
Prayojana– It means goal to achieve something or purpose of some activity. It
is related to a person’s desire to achieve the goal or to shun it. This produces
determination to achieve the desired goal. The primary purpose can also be to achieve
happiness and remove pain.
Drstanta– This refers to factually correct example or an undisputed fact that
can be used generally. As for example if smoke from the hill represent fire, then smoke
from the kitchen also represent fire.
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NOTES Siddhanta– It is the widely accepted set of rules or conclusive views in a

disciplinary area. The Nyaya school of thought accepts four kinds of siddhanta. These
are: (i) sarvatantra siddhanta, (ii) pratitantra siddhanta, (iii) adhikarana siddhanta,
and (iv) abhyupagama siddhanta. In sarvatantra siddhanta, the conclusive doctrine
is not disputed. In pratitantra siddhanta, the conclusive doctrine is established by
specific philosophers for a specific discipline. In adhikarana siddhanta, to establish
the conclusive doctrine of a discipline, the conclusive doctrine of another discipline
must be established first. In abhyupagama siddhanta, a discipline provisionally accepts
the conclusive doctrine of another discipline as a hypothesis, in a hope that future
scrutiny may nullify the conclusive doctrine.
Avayava– It is based on syllogism. Therefore, it is said to be a conclusion
derived from logical argument. In Nyaya school of thought syllogism is based on five
logical arguments known as pratijna, hetu, vyapti, drstanta, and nigamana.
Tarka– It refers to counterfactual argument to a given logical statement. It initiates
a debate. A hypothetical argument is used to justify a conclusion. In tarka the use of
hypothetical arguments to justify a conclusion can lead to absurdity. As for example if
smoke can exist in a place which does not have fire, it will mean that smoke cannot be
caused by fire. The given example leads to absurdity. However, tarka is useful in
confirming pramana.
Nirnaya– It is a definite knowledge or a doctrine in a discipline. The doctrine
has been produced after a detailed examination using tarka, ascertaining pramana
and removing all doubts. The doctrine is therefore widely accepted in a discipline.
Vada– In this discussion or debate takes place between two opposing parties
who have different views on a subject matter. The motive behind vada is to find out
the truth. Hence in the discussion tarka is used and pramana is adhered to. The use
of syllogism is a common practice.
Jalpa– In this a person finds fault in opponents’ argument to establish own
argument and therefore gives wrangling arguments. The aim here is to defeat the
opponent and not to find out the truth. Hence, invalid logic is used.

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Vitanda– In this a person tries to win a debate by refuting the arguments of NOTES
other. Here the aim is not to establish one’s argument but to win by refuting the arguments
of the opponent.
Hetvabhasa– It is the fallacy of inference. Here the reason that is given in the
statement is not the valid reason. It contains error and therefore difficult to get an
inference.
Chala– In a debate when a person is unable to give a good reply to a strong
argument of the opponent then the person gives irrelevant argument. The person takes
opponents argument in a sense that was not intended.
Jati– In a debate it is a reply by false analogy. Here a futile argument is given by
a person to counter the opponent. Therefore, instead of countering the argument the
position of the opponent is destroyed. This kind of futile argument is based on similarity
and dissimilarity between the objects.
Nigrahastha– This is the final part of the debate. Here a person shows self-
contradiction and inconsistency in the opponent’s argument. By doing this the person
finally defeats the opponent.

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. The word ‘epistemology’ is derived from the Greek words ‘episteme’ meaning
_______ and ‘logos’ meaning _______.
2. In Indian epistemology, the term for non-apprehension is _______.
3. The Mimamsa School rejected _______ and _______ as valid forms of
knowledge.
4. According to the Nyaya School, perception is a cognition produced through
contact between _______ and _______.
5. Inference based on logical reasoning is known as _______ in the Nyaya School.
B. State True or False:
1. Epistemology in Indian political thought solely focuses on the subject-object
distinction.
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NOTES 2. Pratyaksa is considered the most indirect form of knowledge in Indian

epistemology.
3. The Nyaya School attributes the development of epistemology to Sage
Gautama.
4. In Nyaya, ‘Samyoga’ refers to a contact type where there is a direct connection
between the eyes and the object.
5. Sabda or verbal testimony includes both human speech and divine texts
according to the Nyaya School.

1.5 CHARVAKA SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Among the heterodox (nastika) schools of thought, the Charvaka school of thought is
the most important school of thought. It is a materialist school of thought. It heavily
relies on the naturalistic tendencies of human life. Though it is influenced by spiritual
schools’ thought like Nyaya, it significantly refutes them by destroying their main premises
of argument and ridiculing them (Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad: 1992).
The Charvaka school is believed to be propagated by Brihaspati who teacher
(Guru) of Gods (Devta) was. Brihaspati propagated Charvaka School or materialism
to the Daityas (Rakshasa) to destroy them. It is also believed that Charvaka was a
sage and a disciple of Brihaspati who propagated materialism. It is also believed that
those people were called Charvaka who believed in the philosophy of ‘eating, drinking
and making merry’ as the word ‘charva’ means to eat. Also, Charvaka means nice
words to hear as ‘charu’ means nice and ‘vaka’ means word. Charvaka school is also
known as Lokayata school as both are same.
The Charvaka School questioned the authority of the Vedas and dogmatic
practices of the society by propagating the materialist arguments. In that process the
Charvaka school refuted existing morality and ethics. They produced negative rhetoric
for other school of thought which later on developed into a distinctive philosophy and
thereby contributing to epistemic foundation of Indian political thought. Unfortunately,
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no authoritative text of Charvaka School except for ‘Tattvopaplavasimha’ has NOTES

survived. Most of the knowledge about Charvaka School has been derived from
those texts which heavily criticise and ridicule the Charvaka School.

Pratyaksa (Perception)

The Charvaka school believes that Pratyaksa (perception) is the only pramana or
valid source of knowledge. So, anything that is available to sense perception is
considered to be true and the rest of the things are considered doubtful. For Charvaka
School, the things that could not be perceived do not exist.

Anumana (Inference)

The Charvaka School rejects Anumana (inference) as a valid source of knowledge.

Charvaka School believes that there is no valid ground to determine the relation between
objects in a statement or vyapti. The inference moves from a known premise to an
unknown premise. So, if something is true for a specific phenomenon may not be true
for another phenomenon. As for example, in Charvaka School the vyapti that wherever
there is smoke, there is fire, is not true because it is difficult to determine its universal
occurrence. So, Charvaka School rejects inference as relation between objects cannot
be accepted universally.

Sabda (Verbal Testimony)

The Sabda or verbal testimony is also rejected as a valid source of knowledge by the
Charvaka School as Sabda is based on inference. Even the Vedic testimony is also
rejected by the Charvaka School as it considers issues like life after death, belief,
moksha, and rebirth as having no meaning.
By constructing their philosophy based of refutation and rejection the Charvaka
School has weakened its own philosophical premises. As for example by rejecting
Inference (anumana) they have created problem for themselves because any validation
of Charvaka School will require inference. So Purandara postulated that inference
could be accepted to strengthen perceptual knowledge but cannot be used to determine
knowledge which is not perceived by sense organs like life after death.
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NOTES Charvaka School therefore accepts Pratyaksa (perception) as the only pramana
or the valid source of knowledge. Everything originates from the combination of four
elements, namely, earth, water, fire, and air. Therefore earth, water, fire and air are the
only realities of the world. Consciousness exists only due to the combination of these
four elements. The Charvaka School postulates that ‘self’ or ‘purusa’ is nothing but
only body which has consciousness.
The Charvaka School does not consider ether (akash) as an important element
as it could not be perceived by sense organs. The consciousness that exists in the
body is due to the body and hence the property of the body. Consciousness is produced
only due to a combination of the four elements. However, in relation to self or purusa
the Charvaka School has shifted position upon criticism from the Nyaya school of
thought.
The Nyaya school of thought argued that since earth, water, fire and air does
not individually have consciousness, they cannot produce consciousness collectively.
The Nyaya school of thought also argued that even when the body is unconscious, the
self exists and there is no proof that the self is destroyed upon death. Everybody has
manas and can feel pain or pleasure. However, the Charvaka School called manas to
be subtle and hence cannot be perceived.
The Charvaka School of thought has been vigorously criticised by other schools
of thought. It has been considered useless by humans and often ridiculed. The Lokayata
has also been considered as ‘the basis of the foolish and the profane world’. Despite
criticism, the Charvaka School of thought played an important role by challenging the
dogmatic belief and questioning other schools of thought. This way it enriched the
epistemological foundations of Indian political thought.

1.6 SELF

In the Indian political thought, the ‘self’ has been given considerable importance. As
the Indian political thought has inclination towards spiritualism the notion of self has
been widely explained. The self has often been associated to atman and consciousness.
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and the God (parmatman) which is infinite has been recognised. Self or (atman) is NOTES
the all-knowing which is present in a person and experiences pleasure and pain through
the sense organs due to ability of cognition. The manas or mind can know all these.
The action or pravrtti of an individual and certain defects or dosas like passion and
attachment causes pain and pleasure. The self is in a constant journey and changes
body until it achieves moksha (Chakrabarti, Kisor Kumar: 2001).
The Charvaka school of thought points out that the self is subtle and therefore
cannot be perceived by sense organs. To know self is a difficult proposition. It is
believed that the self is inferred from qualities like pleasure, pain, desire, hatred, effort,
and consciousness. Atman and the Parmatman (the finite self and the infinite self)
both experience qualities like desire, effort, and consciousness. Infinite selves alone
experience hatred and pain. Both individual and God experience happiness, however
individual’s happiness is not eternal while God’s happiness is eternal.
The Nyaya school of thought believes the self exists independently. Self is
different from mind, body, senses, and consciousness. The self is eternal and cannot
be produced or destroyed. Consciousness is a quality of self which however is not
essential. Just like a sleeping individual has self but no consciousness. Therefore, the
self can exist without consciousness. Self can attain consciousness when it comes in
contact with mind, and the mind comes in contact with senses and senses with objects
(Ibid.).
The atman or soul attains liberation or moksha when it is detached from the
body. In this state, the soul is liberated from all worldly pain and suffering. If the soul is
attached to the body, then the sense organs will come in contact with the worldly
objects and give rise to pleasure or pain. Liberation brings freedom from pain and
ends the cycle of rebirth, ushering the soul into eternal bliss.
To attain knowledge about self an individual should listen to the teachings of
scriptures and reflect upon it. An individual should also meditate by practicing yoga.
This way an individual will learn about self and understand that the self is different from
body. Upon this realisation, an individual will not be attracted towards material things
and worldly pleasures. This way the individual will eliminate punishment of past karma,
get freedom from pain, detach the self from body and attain moksha.
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NOTES Conclusion

The epistemic foundations of Indian political thought are a culmination of those thought
processes which have been developed by sages, philosophers, theoreticians and
logicians since time immemorial. The thought process which developed in ancient India
had enriched itself by various debate, discussions and practices. It is noteworthy that
the thought process maintained its continuity and clarity.
By inclining towards spiritualism, the epistemic foundations have not merely
drawn a link between the creator that is God and the worldly affairs but have also
drawn authority from the God for activities in the world. This is how a King got
recognition and this is how the state came into existence. The duties of the King and
the purpose of the state were elaborated and with the passage of time it got consolidated.
To guide the purpose and goal of a Kingdom, the philosophical foundations played an
imminent role. Any deviation or complexity of the state was resolved by the knowledge
gained from the various schools of thoughts.
Certain philosophical concepts of ancient India like Dharma, Artha, Kama
and Moksha are such deep rooted in Indian political psyche that statecraft has intricately
aligned itself to these concepts. So, purpose of the state or of the politics in India is not
merely to bring material development but also bring spiritual upliftment by following
the path of righteousness.

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. The Charvaka school is a _______ school of thought.
2. The Charvaka school accepts _______ as the only pramana or valid source
of knowledge.
3. The Nyaya school believes that the self exists _______of mind, body, and
senses.
4. Charvaka rejects _______ as a valid source of knowledge.
5. In Indian philosophy, _______ refers to the liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

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B. State True or False: NOTES

1. The Charvaka school accepts inference (Anumana) as a valid source of
knowledge.
2. Charvaka believes that everything originates from the combination of earth,
water, fire, and air.
3. The Nyaya school supports the idea that consciousness arises from a
combination of elements.
4. According to Charvaka, verbal testimony (Sabda) is a reliable source of
knowledge.
5. Moksha involves the liberation from worldly pain and the cycle of rebirth.

1.7 SUMMARY

 Indian political thought has a rich and deep tradition, addressing various aspects
from divine existence to universal values.
 The tradition provides a significant knowledge base for understanding the world,
guiding humanity through crises.
 Epistemology, derived from Greek, is essential to comprehend Indian political
thought, studying the nature and scope of knowledge.
 Indian epistemology or ‘Gyanmimansha’ focuses on cognition, integrating
metaphysics and religion, and sometimes blurs the subject-object distinction.
 Knowledge or ‘Pramana’ is acquired through verified methods and includes
types such as perception, inference, comparison, verbal testimony, presumption,
and non-apprehension.
 The Mimamsa School contributed significantly to epistemology, though it rejected
certain forms of knowledge.
 Nyaya School was founded by Sage Gautama, it emphasizes epistemology,
logic, and knowledge to alleviate suffering. It focuses on theory of knowledge,
physical world, self, and God. Self-Instructional
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NOTES  Pramana in Nyaya includes perception, inference, comparison, and verbal

testimony. Different types of perception and inference are detailed, including
ordinary and extraordinary perceptions, and svarthanumana and pararthanumana
inferences.
 Nyaya distinguishes sixteen entities (padartha) including pramana and others
like prameya, samsaya, prayojana, and drstanta.
 The Charvaka school of thought is a materialist and heterodox (nastika)
philosophy that relies on naturalistic tendencies and rejects spiritual and moral
premises of other schools.
 Believed to be propagated by Brihaspati and Charvaka, it questions the authority
of the Vedas and traditional morality.
 The Charvaka School values Pratyaksa (perception) as the sole valid source of
knowledge and rejects Anumana (inference) and Sabda (verbal testimony).
 They believe everything originates from the combination of four elements: earth,
water, fire, and air, and consciousness results from this combination.
 The Nyaya school of thought criticizes Charvaka, arguing that consciousness cannot
arise from a combination of elements and that the self (atman) exists independently.
 Despite heavy criticism, the Charvaka School contributed to challenging dogmatic
beliefs and enriching Indian epistemological foundations.
 In Indian political thought, the concept of the self (atman) has been widely
discussed, with the Nyaya school distinguishing between the finite self and the
infinite self (God).
 Nyaya philosophy asserts the independence of the self from mind, body, senses,
and consciousness, and believes in moksha (liberation) through detachment
from the body.
 The concept of self and liberation involves reflection on scriptures, meditation,
and the practice of yoga.
 The epistemic foundations of Indian political thought have developed through
extensive debates and align closely with spiritual concepts like Dharma, Artha,
Self-Instructional Kama, and Moksha.
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NOTES
1.8 GLOSSARY

 Epistemology: The study of knowledge, its origin, and scope.

 Nyaya: A school of thought emphasizing logic and knowledge.
 Padartha: Entities or categories in Nyaya philosophy, including means of
knowledge and objects of true knowledge.
 Charvaka: A materialist school of Indian philosophy that rejects traditional
spiritual and ethical norms.
 Nastika: Non-orthodox schools of Indian thought that reject the authority of
the Vedas.
 Brihaspati: Mythical teacher of the gods who is believed to have propagated
the Charvaka philosophy.
 Nyaya: An orthodox school of Indian philosophy that emphasizes logic and
epistemology.
 Vyapti: The invariable concomitance or relation between objects in an inference.
 Atman: The self or soul in Indian philosophy.
 Moksha: Liberation or release from the cycle of rebirth and worldly suffering.

1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions-1

A. 1. knowledge; reason
2. Anupalabdhi
3. sambhava; aitihya
4. sense organs; the object
5. pararthanumana Self-Instructional
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NOTES B. 1. False
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. True

In-Text Questions-2

A. 1. materialist
2. Pratyaksa
3. independently
4. Anumana
5. moksha
B. 1. False
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What does the term ‘epistemology’ mean in the context of Indian political thought?
2. Explain the meaning and nature of Pratyaksa (perception) in Indian political
thought.
3. Discuss the chief features of Sabda (verbal testimony).
4. Critically examine the role of Charvaka School in shaping Indian political thought.
5. Delineate the basic premises of self.
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6. What are the different types of ‘Pramana’ in Indian epistemology? NOTES

7. Describe the two stages of cognition according to the Nyaya School.
8. What are the four different means of knowledge in the Nyaya School?
9. What is the primary focus of the Charvaka school of thought?
10. Who is believed to have propagated the Charvaka school of thought?
11. What does the Charvaka School accept as the only valid source of knowledge?
12. How does the Nyaya school of thought criticize the Charvaka’s concept of
consciousness?
13. What does the concept of moksha entail in Indian philosophy?

1.11 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Altekar, A. S. 1958. State and Government in Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal

Banarasidass.
 Banarjee, Sarbani. 2003. Theory of Nyaya: Some Observations. Indian
Philosophical Quarterly, XXX (1): 103-110.
 Bilimoria, P. 2017. Pramana Epistemology: Origins and Developments, in
Purushottama Bilimoria (et. al.) (eds.) History of Indian Philosophy Routledge
History of World Philosophies, London: Routledge.
 Brown, D. M. 1953. The Premises of Indian Political Thought. The Western
Political Quarterly, 6 (2): 243-249.
 Chakrabarti, K. K. 2001. The Existence and Permanence of the Self. Classical
Indian Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition. Delhi: Motilal
Banarasidass.
 Chatterjee, Satishchandra and Dheerendramohan Datta. 1948. An Introduction
to Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.
 Chatterjee, S. C. 1939. The Nyaya Theory of Knowledge: A Critical Study
of Some Problems of Logic and Metaphysics. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. Self-Instructional
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NOTES  Chattopadhyaya, D. 1992. Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism.

New Delhi: People’s Publishing House.
 Dasgupta, S. 1922. A History of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
 Krishna, D. 1996. The Problematic and Conceptual Structure of Classical
Indian Thought about Man, State, and Polity. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
 Perrett, Roy W. 2016. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
 Phillips, S. 2019. Epistemology in Classical Indian Philosophy, The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, [Online: web] Accessed 04 October 2021 URL:
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-india/
 Potter, Karl H. 1977. Introduction to the Philosophy of Nyaya-Vaisesika. Karl
H Potter (ed.). Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian Metaphysics
and Epistemology: The Tradition of Nyäya-Vaisesika up to Gaûgesa. Delhi:
Motilal Banarasidass.
 Sharma, C. 1987. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal
Banarasidass.
 Soni, J. 2003. On the Origin and Development of Epistemology in Indian
Philosophy, [Online: web] Accessed 04 October 2021URL: https://
them.polylog.org/4/fsj-en.htm
 Varma, V. P. 1959. Studies in Hindu Political Thought and its Metaphysic
Foundations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.

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LESSON 2 NOTES

CULTURAL AND TERRITORIAL CONCEPT OF

INDIA AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF INDIAN
POLITICAL THOUGHT
Kajal
Research Scholar,
Department of Political Science, DU
Structure
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Cultural and Territorial Concept of India
2.4 Concept of Dharma in Vedic Period
2.5 Dharmashastra in the Context of State and Politics
2.6 Contribution of Shamanic Philosophy to Indian Political Traditions
2.7 Islamic Political Tradition in India
2.8 Syncretic Political Tradition in India in the Context of Sufi and Bhakti
Movements
2.9 Summary
2.10 Glossary
2.11 Answers to In-text Questions
2.12 Self-Assessment Questions
2.13 References/Suggested Readings

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Discuss the religious traditions of India, and their association with Vedic
traditions.

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NOTES  Understand the social, cultural, and political discussions around ‘Dharma’ which
distinguish India from other traditions.
 Explain about the Dharmashastra in the context of state and politics, contribution
of Shamanic philosophy to Indian political traditions and syncretic political
tradition in India in the context of the Sufi and Bhakti movements.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

The political thought of India dates to the Vedic age. The social, cultural, and political
life of India has been very diverse. From the Vedic age to the eleventh century, there
has been an active development and expansion of Indian thought. During this period,
most of the subjects of Indian society were associated with religion and some traditions
for their rendering. There have been mainly two systems of religious traditions in Indian
thought and society, Brahmin and Shaman. Brahmins have been present in India since
the Vedic period, and Shamans have been present since about the 6th century BCE.
Mainly those who could not agree to the lifestyle and traditions of the Brahminical
system left the world, which is called Shamanic. Later in this period, from a religious
point of view, other two traditions came to the fore, Islamic and syncretic. In these
religious traditions, there have been social, cultural, and political discussions around
‘Dharma’.

2.3 CULTURAL AND TERRITORIAL CONCEPT OF

INDIA

The concept of India as a cultural and territorial entity has evolved over millennia,
shaped by its diverse geography, historical developments, and the rich tapestry of
cultures, religions, and traditions that have flourished on the subcontinent. This synthesis
of cultural and territorial elements forms the essence of India’s identity and unity.

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Cultural Concept of India NOTES

India’s cultural concept is deeply rooted in its history and the continuous interplay of
various civilizations. The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s earliest urban
cultures, laid the foundations of Indian society with its advanced urban planning, trade
networks, and social organization. This was followed by the Vedic period, which
introduced the Indo-Aryan culture and the Sanskrit language, significantly influencing
Indian philosophy, religion, and societal norms.
The Indian subcontinent has always been a melting pot of cultures, with significant
contributions from the Mauryan, Gupta, and Mughal empires. Each era brought with it
a confluence of ideas, art, and architecture, enriching the cultural landscape. The spread
of Buddhism and Jainism, followed by the advent of Islam and later Christianity, further
diversified the religious and cultural milieu. The Bhakti and Sufi movements emphasised
devotional aspects of spirituality, transcending religious boundaries and fostering a
sense of cultural unity.
Indian culture is also characterised by its linguistic diversity. With over 1,600
languages spoken, India’s linguistic heritage is unparalleled. However, Sanskrit, Tamil,
Persian, and later English have served as important cultural and administrative languages,
promoting intercultural communication and understanding.

Territorial Concept of India

Geographically, India occupies a strategic position in South Asia, bounded by the

Himalayas to the north, the Indian Ocean to the south, the Bay of Bengal to the east,
and the Arabian Sea to the west. This geographical diversity has played a crucial role
in shaping the territorial concept of India.
Historically, the notion of Bharatvarsha, as mentioned in ancient texts like the
Mahabharata and Puranas, referred to the land stretching between the Himalayas
and the oceans, encompassing various kingdoms and cultures. The Mauryan Empire
under Ashoka was one of the earliest political entities to unify large parts of the Indian
subcontinent, setting a precedent for subsequent empires like the Gupta and Mughal
dynasties.
The British colonial period further defined the territorial boundaries of modern
India. The British unified diverse princely states and regions under a central administrative Self-Instructional
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NOTES system, although this was primarily for their economic and political benefit. The concept
of a unified India gained momentum during the Indian independence movement, with
leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru advocating for a single, sovereign
nation-state that transcended regional and cultural differences.
Post-independence, the territorial concept of India was formalized with the
adoption of the Constitution in 1950, defining India as a Union of States. The
reorganization of states based on linguistic lines in the 1950s further cemented the
territorial boundaries, accommodating India’s vast cultural and linguistic diversity within
a federal structure.

Integration of Cultural and Territorial Concepts

The integration of India’s cultural and territorial concepts is evident in its national symbols,
institutions, and policies. The Constitution of India embodies this synthesis, promoting
secularism, democracy, and unity in diversity. Institutions like the Archaeological Survey
of India and the Sahitya Akademi preserve and promote India’s cultural heritage.
Various festivals are celebrated across different regions, which reflect the cultural
unity amidst diversity. The Indian diaspora globally also plays a vital role in preserving
and propagating Indian culture, reinforcing the idea of a culturally unified yet territorially
diverse nation.

2.4 CONCEPT OF DHARMA IN VEDIC PERIOD

Ancient Indian political thought is an integral part of Indian philosophy. If we talk

mainly about the Vedic period, all the rules and laws related to religion and society
were contained in the ‘Dharmashastra’. Dharma means one’s duty, i.e., to adopt the
path of virtue and truth. It is a moral and natural law. It is a complete social system. In
Vedic India, it is believed that one should lead one’s life according to Dharma, that is,
follow the right path and perform one’s duties. In the Vedic period, the villages were
self-supporting, and everything they needed was present within the villages. In this
age, society was divided into four varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras
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karma because of his knowledge, ability, etc. For example, the descendants of Sage NOTES
Bhrigu were carpenters who were skilled in making chariots. During the Vedic period,
Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya, Chandrama, Prithvi, and Vishnu, were praised, and
religious learnings and rules were expressed by the ‘Rit’. Varuna was considered a
peace-loving deity and the guardian of moral rules called Rit, which even the gods had
to follow.

Concepts of Dharma and Danda in the Post-Vedic Period

The later Vedic period can also be called the Brahminical period. During this period,
the varna system had become birth-based, not karma-based. The idea of Rit had lost
its importance. During this period, the religion of every individual was fixed. Everyone
must perform their duties in accordance with the dharma and the Brahminical texts, in
which the Vedas and Upanishads were composed. These epics were composed during
the period of Ramayana, when religion gained maximum popularity. During this period,
society used to expand their faith and belief through Puranas, folk songs, and stories.
Kautilya accepted the views of the Brahmas and Upanishads about dharma. According
to Kautilya, the dharma mentioned in Rigveda, Samaveda, and Yajurveda keeps the
four Varnas and Ashrams vested in their duties. In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, describing
the duties of the four varnas, it is said that the work of a Brahmin is to study religion,
perform sacrifices, take, and give charity. The dharma of a Kshatriya is to study,
perform Yagya, earn a living with strength and weapons, and protect all beings. Vaishya’s
dharma is study, perform Yagya, agricultural work, animal husbandry, and trade.
Similarly, Shudra’s dharma is to serve Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, farming, animal
husbandry, business, crafts, singing, playing, etc. (Shastri, 2016)
Manusmriti’ had an important place in ancient times. Manu’s dharma refers to
those qualities which keep the four varnas and the conduct as their distinctive qualities.
According to Manu, dharma is the discipline of society and the state. It is also subject
to it. The dharma described by Manu is comprehensive and full of the rules of morality
for the individual, society, time, and state. (Mandlik, 2015)
Dharma and Danda are both interrelated, and both are dependent on each
other. The word danda means discipline, force, restraint, and compulsion. Where the
fear of punishment exists behind the duty. The performance of duties in the form of Self-Instructional
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NOTES karma is dharma. But if one does not follow this dharma, they will be liable to punishment.
By this, we can say that duties in society are enforced by punishment.

2.5 DHARMASHASTRA IN THE CONTEXT OF

STATE AND POLITICS

We know that the state is a system which has been studied by various Indian thinkers
from ancient to community. Every thinker has defined this system as the land,
boundaries, and membership of the community. The idea of the state can be seen in
Kautilya’s Arthashastra in ancient Indian literature. Where a detailed description of the
origin, nature, development, objectives, functions, or justification of the state is found.
The ancient Indian political system was based on the religious state, which was a
completely secular idea. According to V.K. Sarkar, the political history and philosophy
in India have always been outside the domain of religion. No priest had the authority to
interfere with the affairs of the civil administration. But this does not mean that there is
no relationship between religion and politics. According to Kautilya, if any conflict
arises between Dharmashastra and current practices or between religion and state,
the state’s decision is based on dharma. In this period, there were only two sources of
law considered– Dharmashastra and Arthashastra. In case of conflict between the
two, the duties under dharmashastra should be followed. In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, it
is written about the state that ‘it is the duty of the state that it should not allow the
subjects to be corrupted by the path of dharma and make everyone follow their
respective dharma and get a place in the hereafter. (Mandlik, 2015). If a state
successfully performs the duties of dharma and maintains a just state, then it gets a
place in the hereafter.
Along with the relation of religion and politics, ethics is also closely related to
them. Ethics makes a distinction between the right and wrong of action. The right
actions were encouraged by the state, and the wrong actions were punished by the
state. It was the duty of the king to implement these moral actions in a policy-oriented
manner. It was the Dharma of a person to perform one’s duties according to the rules
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There was a close relationship between religion and politics in ancient India. NOTES
The cultural traditions of Vedic India gave more importance and respect to dharma
than the king. The state was not superior to dharma. Although Kautilya entrusted the
king with the right to make a new law or religion, Manu did not give any authority to
the king. Rules have also been made for the king who violates the dharma. When the
duties and rights of the king are described in Dharmashastra and other Indian texts, it
is given the name of Rajdharma.

Other Distinctive Features

In addition to the appropriate features, Professor Bhikhu Parekh has mentioned some
other distinctive features of Indian political traditions, as follows:
 First, the Indian tradition is egalitarian. Although it developed the idea of the
moral equality of all individuals, it never developed social, legal, or political
groups.
 Second, the Indian tradition of thought is pluralistic in orientation. Indian political
writers recognised the autonomy of social groups from the very beginning.
 Third, thought in early India was critical of the very established social order.
Most of the writings justified the caste system.
 Fourth, writers wrote mainly for the attention of the rulers. His works are largely
ethics or manuals of administration; therefore, to a greater extent, they are didactic
and practical.

Origin of State

The origin of the state is a fundamental topic in political theory, exploring how and why
organised political communities emerged. Theories explaining the origin of the state
can be broadly categorised into several perspectives: divine right, social contract,
evolutionary, and conflict theories. Each provides a different lens to understand the
development of political states.
 Divine Right Theory: The divine right theory posits that the state is established
by divine will, and rulers are chosen by a higher power. This perspective was
prominent in many ancient civilizations and medieval Europe. According to this
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NOTES theory, the legitimacy of the ruler is derived from divine sanction, and obedience
to the ruler is seen as a religious duty. This idea is evident in ancient texts such as
the Vedas in India and the Bible in the Christian tradition.
 Social Contract Theory: The social contract theory suggests that the state
arises from a voluntary agreement among individuals to create a governing body.
Key thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
developed this theory during the Enlightenment. According to Hobbes, in the
“state of nature,” life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,” prompting
individuals to surrender certain freedoms to a sovereign authority in exchange
for security and order. Locke, on the other hand, argued that individuals consent
to form a state to protect their natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Rousseau
believed that the social contract should establish a direct democracy where
sovereignty lies with the people.
 Evolutionary Theory: The evolutionary theory views the state as a product of
gradual development over time. This theory posits that the state evolved from
primitive social structures, such as family and tribal systems. As human societies
grew in size and complexity, more formal and organized structures of governance
emerged. Key stages in this evolution include:
o Kinship and Tribal Societies: Early human societies were organised around
kinship and tribal affiliations, with leadership often based on family ties and
age.
o Chiefdoms: As societies grew, they formed chiefdoms, with centralised
leadership under a chief who wielded authority over multiple tribes.
o City-States: Further development led to the formation of city-states,
characterised by a central urban centre and surrounding territories.
o Nation-States: Modern nation-states emerged with defined territorial
boundaries, centralised governments, and complex institutions.
 Conflict Theory: Conflict theory argues that the state originated through
conquest and domination. This theory posits that states were formed when one
group imposed its will on another through force. The ruling group established
institutions to maintain control and exploit resources. Thinkers like Karl Marx
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its dominance and suppress subordinate groups. According to this perspective, NOTES
the state is a product of power struggles and economic exploitation.

Other Theories

Several other theories also contribute to understanding the origin of the state as given
below:
1. Patriarchal Theory: It suggests that the state originated from the patriarchal
family structure, where the father figure extended his authority over larger social
groups.
2. Economic Theory: It proposes that the state emerged to regulate and manage
economic activities, ensuring stability and facilitating trade.
3. Cultural Theory: It argues that the state arose from shared cultural, religious,
and ideological beliefs that unified people and necessitated governance structures.

Composition and Functions of State

Indian political thought traditionally views the state as a key institution for ensuring
order, justice, and prosperity. In texts like the Arthashastra, the state is described as
an organised polity with a structured administration and clearly defined roles for the
ruler and officials. The state’s functions include:
1. Protection of the State: Ensuring external security and defense against invasions.
2. Maintenance of Law and Order: Implementing justice and upholding social
harmony.
3. Economic Regulation: Overseeing trade, agriculture, and taxation.
4. Welfare Activities: Providing public services like education and healthcare.

Principles of Administration

The principles of administration in Indian political thought emphasise ethical governance,

competence, and accountability. Key principles include:
1. Dharma: The king and administrators must adhere to dharma, ensuring justice,
fairness, and ethical conduct.
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NOTES 2. Efficiency: Effective and competent administration is crucial. Officials are

selected based on merit and ability.
3. Accountability: The ruler and officials are accountable to the people and must
act in the public interest.
4. Decentralisation: Administration is often decentralised, with local governance
structures like village councils (panchayats) playing a significant role.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra outlines a detailed administrative framework, including
the roles and responsibilities of various officials, taxation policies, and measures for
ensuring internal security.

Foreign Policy

Indian political thought on foreign policy, as reflected in texts like the Arthashastra,
emphasises realism and pragmatism. Given below are the key aspects:
1. Realpolitik: Foreign policy is based on the principles of power, strategic alliances,
and national interest.
2. Mandala Theory: Kautilya’s Mandala Theory suggests a geopolitical strategy
where neighbouring states are viewed with suspicion, while states further away
can be potential allies.
3. Diplomacy: Emphasis on negotiation, treaties, and alliances to achieve political
and economic goals.
4. War and Peace: Warfare is considered a last resort, and peace is preferable,
but the state must always be prepared for conflict.

Role of Subjects/Citizens

In mainstream Indian political thought, the role of subjects (citizens) is integral to the
functioning of the state. The following points illustrate the role of citizens:
1. Participation in Governance: Ancient texts emphasise the involvement of
citizens in local governance through assemblies and councils.
2. Rights and Duties: Citizens have rights to protection, justice, and welfare, but
they also have duties to pay taxes, serve in the military, and adhere to the laws.
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3. Moral Conduct: Citizens are expected to uphold dharma, contribute to social NOTES
harmony, and engage in ethical behaviour.
4. Accountability of Rulers: Citizens have the right to hold rulers accountable,
and unjust or tyrannical rulers can be challenged or overthrown.

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. The political thought of India dates back to the _______age.
2. During the Vedic period, society was divided into four _______based on
karma and livelihood.
3. In the Brahminical period, the varna system became _______-based.
4. Danda means _______, force, restraint, and compulsion.
5. The concept of Rajdharma refers to the duties of the _______.
B. State True or False:
1. The concept of Dharma in Vedic India involved leading life according to moral
and natural law.
2. In the Vedic period, the Varna system was birth-based from the beginning.
3. Danda is unrelated to the concept of Dharma.
4. Kautilya’s Arthashastra emphasizes the state’s duty to uphold Dharma.
5. Bhikhu Parekh described Indian political traditions as authoritarian and
monolithic.

2.6 CONTRIBUTION OF SHAMANIC PHILOSOPHY

TO INDIAN POLITICAL TRADITIONS

Shamanic philosophy is considered the first atheist philosophy in India, advocating a

logical approach based on direct evidence. It posits that earth, water, fire, and air are
composed of four elements, and the human body is similarly constructed. Rejecting
divine power as a fantasy, Shamanic thinkers are materialists who rationally oppose
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NOTES like sacrifices, idol worship, and yagyas. Buddhism and Jainism, ancient religions
founded by contemporaries Gautam Buddha and Mahavira, respectively, align with
Shamanic philosophy. Both religions arose during a time of instability in Indian thought,
criticising the prevailing ritualistic and caste-based practices.

Jainism and Non-Violence

Jainism specifically opposes the sacrificial system, advocating non-violence (ahimsa)

as the ultimate religion. According to Jain philosophy, all living beings exist in elements
like water, air, and soil, and protecting them is a fundamental duty. This belief profoundly
influenced Hinduism, promoting the welfare of all living beings and a non-violent
approach to life.

Origin of Kingship in Buddhist Thought

Buddhist literature presents a different perspective on the origin of kingship compared

to Brahminical literature. It rejects the doctrine of divine origin, as detailed in the
Jatakas, which describe the election of kings based on merit rather than birth right.
Notably, these texts mention instances where individuals from various castes, including
Brahmins and even low-caste individuals, were elected as kings. This election process
underscores the importance of merit and the collective rights of people, who maintained
their privileges through numbers and organisation.

Theory of the Origin of the State

The theory of the state’s origin is found in the Digha Nikaya, which describes a golden
age of harmony and bliss where virtuous people lived peacefully. Over time, greed and
selfishness emerged, leading to societal corruption. To address this, people elected
the best person among them to punish wrongdoers in exchange for a portion of their
crops, creating the role of Mahasammata, or ‘Great Elect.’ This theory challenges the
Brahminical notion of divine social order creation.

Role of Punishment and Dharma

The state emerged to curb societal corruption, but crime persisted. In the Anguttara
Nikaya, Buddha emphasised the deterrent effect of harsh punishments by rulers.
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Although punishment (Danda) was also crucial in Vedic society, Buddhist literature NOTES
does not centralize it, preferring to maintain social order through positive religiosity,
akin to the Western concept of virtue. Unlike the Brahminical view, which differentiates
between the moral duties of kings and common people, Buddhism applies the principle
of righteousness uniformly. The Mahabharata’s concept of Rajdharma outlines the
distinct duties of a king, but Buddhism insists that the state’s primary objective is to
protect social order through righteousness in both internal and external policies.

2.7 ISLAMIC POLITICAL TRADITION IN INDIA

During the medieval period, Islamic tradition influenced Indian political thought
significantly. Muslim rulers, although legitimised by the Khalifa, had to adapt to the
socio-political realities of India. Unlike Hindu political ideas, Islamic traditions had a
less profound impact on politics. However, key works from this era highlight the views
of Muslim rulers.
Ziauddin Barani, a prominent thinker during the reign of Alauddin and his
successors, was a staunch Sunni who believed only Sunnis deserved a dignified life.
His work, Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, discusses the nature of the state, the divinity of
kingship, and state duties. Barani considered Mahmud Ghaznavi as the ideal ruler and
believed that while earthly emperors were sent by Allah, the real ruler was Allah.
In contrast, Abul Fazl, another medieval thinker, promoted a more inclusive and
peaceful approach. His works, Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama, reflect a belief in the
king’s duty to foster an environment of free thought among scholars of different religions.
Fazl distinguished between true and selfish kings, advocating for rulers who focus on
eliminating oppression rather than amassing power.

Nature of the State

In the Islamic state, rulers adopted a dual policy towards co-religious and non-Muslim
subjects. While the state protected Muslim life and property, non-Muslims paid a
special tax, Jizya, for security. Abul Fazl believed in no enmity between Hindus and
Muslims, emphasising cooperative policies.
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NOTES Divinity of Kingship

Barani’s views emphasised the divine nature of kingship, asserting that a ruler must
embody Allah’s qualities and follow Sharia. Conversely, Abul Fazl viewed religious
persecution as futile, advocating for political measures to foster religious harmony and
intellectual freedom.

Religious Ideas

Barani’s religious fanaticism is evident in his belief that Hindus should be impoverished
if not converted to Islam. In contrast, Abul Fazl, often criticised for his secular and
inclusive views, promoted peace and criticized reliance on old religious texts. His
works reveal a free-thinking approach that was ahead of his time.

2.8 SYNCRETIC POLITICAL TRADITION IN INDIA

IN THE CONTEXT OF SUFI AND BHAKTI
MOVEMENTS

Sufism as an ideology or devotion first developed in central and western Asia. It

expanded in various directions from there. Most of the Sufis had a deep devotion to
God and many of them insisted on a simple life away from obscene displays of wealth.
Sufism in India existed in the form of several Sufi sects or Silsilas (orders), such as the
Chishti, Suhrawardi, and Naqshbandi Silsila. The founder of the Chishti sect was
Mu’in-al-din Chishti. There is much contradiction between religious traditions in tomb
worship, especially in Sufi Islam. The Sufi saint and his mausoleum bring humans from
different communities into forms of unity that promote peace and reconciliation (Van
de Veer et al. 2015, 410). Syncretism is the most important means of dealing with
diversity.
Bhakti is defined as devotion to an individual deity and has its origins in
Vaishnavism or Bhagwatism, developed after the Maurya period. According to them,
the objective of the soul is to reunite with God through a process called Mukti, Moksha,

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or Nirvana, i.e., salvation from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Bhakti sages like NOTES
Ramananda, a Vaishnava, opened doors to all and allowed devotees from the lower
castes. Kabir renounced Sanskrit and composed his hymns in local dialects. He
denounced idol-worship, caste system, pilgrimage, rituals, and external symbols of
religious life in a very radical form. He refuted not only orthodox brahminical practices
but also Islamic practices like offering prayers, visiting mosques, etc. Kabir said that
the Lord resides in the heart of the devotee, so a simple life, purely, is enough to know
him.
Both Sufism and the Bhakti movements have attempted to redefine social and
religious values as reform movements. Saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak emphasised
the reorganisation of society on egalitarian lines. The conversation between Bhakti
and Sufi saints had a great impact on Indian society. The Sufi doctrine of Wahdat-al-
Wujud (the Unity of Existence) was remarkably like that of the Upanishads. The
importance of Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the environment they created, which continues
to influence the social, religious, and political life of India in later centuries as well.

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Shamanic philosophy is considered the first _______ philosophy in India.
2. The Jataka tales in Buddhism describe the _______of kings based on merit.
3. Jainism promotes _______as the ultimate religion.
4. The term _______refers to the “Great Elections” in Buddhist texts.
5. The Sufi doctrine of Wahdat-al-Wujud is the Unity of _______.
B. State True or False:
1. Shamanic philosophy accepts the concept of divine power.
2. Jainism opposes the practice of animal sacrifices.
3. In Buddhism, kingship is established through hereditary succession.
4. The Jizya tax was levied on Muslims in the Islamic state.
5. Sufism and Bhakti movements aimed to promote social unity and reform.

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NOTES
2.9 SUMMARY

 Indian political thought dates back to the Vedic age and has evolved over time,
integrating social, cultural, and religious aspects.
 Two primary religious traditions in ancient India were Brahmin and Shamanic.
 The concept of Dharma in the Vedic period involved moral and natural law,
guiding individuals to follow the right path and perform their duties.
 Varna system in Vedic India was initially based on karma and livelihood but
later became birth-based in the Brahminical period.
 Dharma and Danda (discipline and punishment) are interrelated, with duties
enforced by the fear of punishment.
 In the context of the state, Dharmashastra and Arthashastra provided guidelines,
with the state making decisions based on dharma.
 Ethics in ancient Indian politics distinguished between right and wrong actions,
which the state had to enforce.
 The relationship between religion and politics was close, with the state upholding
dharma as superior to the king’s authority.
 Bhikhu Parekh highlighted Indian political traditions as egalitarian, pluralistic,
critical of established order, and primarily practical and didactic in nature.
 Shamanic philosophy in India pioneers atheism, advocating a materialistic
worldview and rejecting divine concepts, rituals like sacrifices, and idol worship.
 Buddhism and Jainism, part of this tradition, promote non-violence and rationality,
challenging Brahminical practices.
 Buddhist texts like the Jatakas present kingship based on merit rather than
caste, offering a secular alternative to Brahminical divine order.
 The Digha Nikaya proposes a theory of state origins, suggesting governance
emerged as societal corruption increased, challenging Brahminical notions of a
divine social order.
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 Islamic political thought in medieval India introduces dual policies for Muslims NOTES
and non-Muslims, with scholars like Barani and Abul Fazl offering differing
views on kingship and state nature.
 Sufism and Bhakti movements emphasize devotion, simplicity, and social reform,
influencing Indian religious and political thought profoundly.

2.10 GLOSSARY

 Vedic Age: The period in ancient Indian history marked by the composition of
the Vedas.
 Brahmin: The priestly class in Vedic society, associated with religious and
spiritual duties.
 Shamanic: Religious traditions that emerged around the 6th century BCE, often
in opposition to Brahminical practices.
 Varna: The classification of society into four groups: Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudras.
 Rajdharma: The duties and responsibilities of a king as described in ancient
texts.
 Shamanic Philosophy: Atheist philosophy focusing on materialism and logic.
 Jizya: Tax levied on non-Muslims in Islamic states for protection.

2.11 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions - 1

A. 1. Vedic
2. varnas
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NOTES 3. birth
4. discipline
5. king
B. 1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. False

In-Text Questions -2

A. 1. atheist
2. election
3. non-violence
4. Mahasammata
5. Existence
B. 1. False
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True

2.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Mention the salient features of pre-colonial Indian thought.

2. Explain the concept and importance of religion and punishment.
3. What was the place of the theologian in ancient Indian thought? Explain.
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4. What are the two primary religious traditions in ancient Indian political thought? NOTES
5. How was the Varna system originally determined in Vedic India?
6. What are Dharma and Danda, and how are they related?
7. In the context of state and politics, what two sources of law were considered in
ancient India?
8. Who highlighted the distinctive features of Indian political traditions, such as
egalitarianism and pluralism?
9. What elements do Shamanic philosophers believe make up the earth and human
body?
10. Which two religions fall under Shamanic traditions?
11. How does Buddhist literature describe the origin of kingship?
12. What is the significance of the Jizya tax in the Islamic state?
13. What principle do both Sufism and Bhakti movements emphasize in their
teachings?

2.13 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ahmad, Aziz, 1962. “Trends in the Political Thought of Medieval Muslim

India”, Study Islamica, 17: 121-130.
 A. Appadarai, 1987. “Indian Political Thinking in the Twentieth Century:
An Introductory Survey”, Second Edition, New Delhi, South Asian Publisher
Pvt. Ltd.
 A. Appadarai, 2002. “Political Thoughts in India”, Delhi, Kham Publishers.
 Bhandarkar, D.R., 1929. “Some Aspects of Ancient Polity”, Banaras Hindu
University.
 Chaudhary, Nirad C., 1979. “Hinduism” B.I. Publications, New Delhi.
 Habib, Irfan, 1995. “Essays in Indian History”, Tulika Publication, New Delhi.
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NOTES  Habib, Irfan, 1980. “Barni’s Theory of the History of the Delhi Saltanate”,
Indian Historical review, Vol.VII, No.1-2.
 Habibulla, A.B.M, 1976. “The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India”, Central
Book Depot, Allahabad.
 Udayveer, “Kautilya Arthashastra”, Meharchand Lakshmandas, Delhi.
 Mehta, V.R., 1992. “Foundations of Indian Political Thought”, Manohar
Publishers, New Delhi.
 N.N. Mandlik (ed.), “Manusmriti”, Mumbai.

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UNIT II: MANU

LESSON 3 MANUSMRITI: RELEVANCE OF THE

STUDY IN THE PRESENT CONTEXT
Manusmriti: Relevance of the Study in the Present Context

LESSON 3 NOTES

MANUSMRITI: RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY

IN THE PRESENT CONTEXT
Dr. Zahidul Deewan,
Ms. Anvita
Translation - Baby Sartaj

Structure
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Authenticity of Manusmriti (Talking Point)
3.4 Manu’s Political Thought
3.4.1 Divine Theory of Origin of the State
3.4.2 Theory of Saptanga: The State Structure
3.4.3 Limits of State Activity
3.4.4 Can a King be Autocratic?
3.5 Social Philosophy of Manu
3.5.1 Social Aspect of Manu Code
3.5.2 Concept of Justice
3.5.3 Caste System
3.5.4 Manu’s Ashram System
3.5.5 Types of Marriages and Law of Inheritance
3.6 Manusmriti and Women
3.6.1 Manu’s Views Related to Women
3.7 Summary
3.8 Glossary
3.9 Answers to In-text Questions
3.10 Self-Assessment Questions
3.11 References/Suggested Readings

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NOTES
3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Search for different texts available on Manusmriti
 Study the Hindu social policies and rules written in Manusmriti
 Analyze the philosophical thinking of Manu
 Explain the Hindu social system mentioned in Manusmriti

3.2 INTRODUCTION

Many texts have been composed from time to time to control and smoothly run Indian
society and to regulate all social activities. These are known as Vedas, Puranas,
Upanishads, Smriti, Samhita etc. and descriptions of various dynasties are also found
in these texts. All these texts were divided according to subject and type as Dharma
Sutras, Dharmashastras and commentaries (explanations). When we talk about Smriti,
it comes below Shruti and is considered to be man-made. Veda does not come in the
category of Smritis. In India, the number of Smritis is considered to be 18 such as
Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, Atri Smriti, Vishnu Smriti, Haarit Smriti, Parashar
Smriti, Vyas Smriti, Gautam Smriti, Daksh Smriti, and Brihaspati Smiti.
On this basis, Manu is considered the founder of rules and laws. He is considered
as the first man of the world and on the basis of that all human beings are called the
children of Manu. It is because we are the children of Manu that we are called (ekuo)
Manav or humans. Manu himself is said to be the Manas Putra ‘Mind-born’ or existed
from the thoughts of Brahmaji. The rules and principles given by Maharishi Manu are
so broad and far-sighted that they can be applied according to different periods of
time. The views presented by Indian political thinkers on Manusmriti are very important
for political science, due to which this subject turns towards a new direction of thinking.

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NOTES
3.3 AUTHENTICITY OF MANUSMRITI (TALKING
POINT)

Despite Manusmriti being the basis of Hindu religion-related laws, rules and regulations,
socio-political, ideals, etc., there are many opinions regarding the time of its composition.
Who was Manu and what was he? Regarding this, there have been differences between
different thinkers and each other. It is believed that there are 14 Manus including the
Swayambhu Manu, and eight Manus are also mentioned in Shanti Parva of
Mahabharata. Thus, many Manus are mentioned in Hindu Scriptures. One group believes
that because the rules and laws were established by Manu for a proper-functioning of
society, it is also inferred that Manu was the terminology used for jurists and perhaps
it was used for a group of lawyers who, from time to time made rules and regulations
so that society could function smoothly.
The time of creation of Manusmriti was 300 BC. to 200 B.C, as it is believed.
Dr. V.C. Sarkar dates Manusmriti to 150 BC. Maxmuller dates it to the fourth century
and Dr. Hutter dates it to 600 BC. Some scholars consider it to be from the Ramayana
and Mahabharata period or even before that period. According to Kalidas, Raghuvanshi
kings followed the principles propagated by Manu in letter and spirit. Regarding
Manusmriti, there is a doubt whether Manusmriti is the creation of any one person
or whether different jurists of different times have been involved in preparing it.
There is no original copy of Manusmriti available. In today’s time, the copy of
Manusmriti is discussed as its basis or the Kulak Bhatt, which was considered by the
British as the basis for making laws for Indians, and was compiled in the 15th century.
Manusmriti is considered to be the first Sanskrit text to be translated into
British, English language, by Sir William Jones in 1794, which was then also studied
out of India. Subsequently, work was also done on this subject by foreign scholars
Max Muller, Georg Buhler and Patrick Olivelle. In 1886, Maxmullar’s book series
‘Secret Books of the East’ dealt with this subject in detail. The total number of chapters
in Manusmriti is 12 and the number of verses is 2694 (the number of verses has also

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NOTES been stated differently by different scholars). In these verses, all aspects of the royal
society have been discussed in detail.
In Manusmriti, along with a detailed explanation of the king’s state and public
duties, it is also said about how the king should behave with the neighboring enemy
nation and what policies he should adopt. What should be the duty of all the classes?
What should be the punishment given by the king for not following it?
Chapter-1 of Manusmriti describes the origin of creation, Chapter-2 describes
Sanskar, fasting, etc., Chapter-3 describes Shraddhakalpa, Chapter-4 describes
Vrittikalshana, etc., Chapter-5 describes Bhakshyabhakshya, Chapter-6 describes
four Ashrams, Chapter- 7 describes royal religion, Chapter-8 describes about
governance, Chapter-9 describes about male-female religion, Chapter-10 describes
about Chaturvarna religion, Chapter-11 describes about atonement and Chapter-12
describes quotations of verses related to attaining salvation has been given.

3.4 MANU’S POLITICAL THOUGHT

3.4.1 Divine Theory of Origin of the State

The seventh chapter of Manusmriti mainly mentions matters related to the king. On the
basis of origin, both the state and the king are considered a divine institution.

Manu and Brihaspati believe that God had created the king from the parts of
these eight Gods: Indra, Vayu, Yama, Surya, Agni, Varun, Moon and Kuber. Due to
the presence of the essence of Gods in the king, the king’s position becomes higher
than the Gods and he is considered to be the supreme God because he is versatile
also. The king is believed to take five forms according to the circumstances, Agni for
satisfying others with the anger and glory of the king, Indra for conquering the enemies

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by attacking them, Soma for speaking politely to the people, Yama for doing justice NOTES
and Kuber for providing wealth and resources to the needy.

In the initial stage, when there was no king, fear and unlawfulness across the
society were prevalent. Powerful and tyrannical people used to abduct the weak and
the weak were suffering, they had no protector. There was no arrangement of law and
order in the society. To free the earth from fear and anarchy, God has created the king.

Therefore, even if the King is a child, he is respectable, and insulting him is an

insult to the God. In this way, an attempt has been made to direct the people to follow
all the orders of the king. The king is expected to discharge his responsibilities in a
manner consistent with divinity. He should protect all his subjects in every way and
should give appropriate punishment to those who behave contrary to the social order.
(Verse 7/14 and 17) Manu believed that before the state, God had created the penal
system. This punishment is actually the state. Therefore, the state is subject to divine
penal legislation and has the means to enforce divine punishment. If a king does not do
social welfare work even after collecting taxes from his subjects, he is destined for
hell.

3.4.2 Theory of Saptanga: The State Structure

The Saptanga state theory propounded by Manu is very popular in Indian political
philosophy. According to him, the state is like a body which has seven parts. All these
parts are the nature of the state body without which it is difficult to imagine the functioning
of the state. The seven parts of the state have been described in Chapter 9, Verse 294
of Manusmriti. Various theories regarding the state have been propounded by Indian
political thinkers in the past, which hold their special place in the field of political
science even in the present time. The state has been considered organic by Manu, that
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NOTES is, there are seven parts of the state, which is also called Saptanga principle. All these
seven organs fulfill their responsibilities and make the state system smooth and
successful. Just as if any part of the body gets damaged then its working capacity is
affected, similarly if any part of the state does not function smoothly then the collapse
of the state is certain. These seven parts are-
(a) Swami (King)
(b) Amatya (Minister)
(c) Pur (Capital)
(d) Rashtra (Nation)
(e) Kosha (Funds)
(f) Danda (Penalty)
(g) Mitra (Friend)
(a) Swami – Manu uses the word Swami for the king. All the powers of the state
are vested in the king only. The king should have moral qualities, and
administrative ability and discharge his responsibilities. A state without a king
cannot be imagined. The king should strive for the unity and integrity of the state
and the king is responsible for every activity of the state.
(b) Amatya or Minister - It has been propounded by Manu as the governance
system of the king’s state. He is supreme in power, but still he cannot run the
governance system well without skilled ministers. In a way, the cabinet puts a
stop to the misuse of powers by the king because Manusmriti considers the
powers of the king not as his personal power but as institutional power. Therefore,
he should appoint capable ministers and seek their advice in every work and
appoint appropriate ministers for the proper functioning of every department.
In Manusmriti, not only the king but also the qualities and qualifications of the
ministers have been described in detail. The king should provide autonomy to
various departments by judiciously transferring powers to them and he should
also take care that the power should not be misused by the ministers. The
actions of the cabinet should be monitored by the king. The decentralization of
powers has also been described in Manusmriti.
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(c) Pur or Capital City – In Manusmriti, the word Pur means capital, fort, etc. NOTES
The idea is that the capital should be completely safe in every way. Hence, for
its construction such a place should be selected which is inaccessible and it
becomes difficult for the enemies to attack here. Manu has emphasized the
need for a fort in the capital and has also mentioned different categories of forts,
like Dhanvan fort, human fort, tree fort, water fort, Mahidurg, Giri fort, etc.
(d) Janapada- Manu has used the word Janapada for the land falling within the
boundaries of the state and the people living in it. Like Manu, Kautilya also
divided the Janapadas. It has been considered a part of the state and it has been
said that the district should be such where the climate is good, there is pasture
for animals and the land is fertile. There should be forts, mountains, forests, etc.
in the middle and on the borders of the district, so that they can be used to
protect the citizens in times of disaster.
(e) Treasure - The money collected according to religion to carry out the
administrative work of the state is called Manu Treasury. Manu has considered
the treasury as a very important part of the state. All the welfare works of the
state can be accomplished only through money and even the army cannot function
to protect the people due to lack of money. If the state does not have funds then
the existence of the state may be in danger. According to Manu, the state should
always strive to increase its treasury through a just path.
(f) Punishment - Manu’s punishment refers to the army that protects the state. It
is very important for the army to be powerful. In the absence of a powerful
army, the state cannot survive nor protect its citizens during attack. The king
should keep trying to make his service more resourceful. Manu has included
elephant army, chariot army, horse army, infantry and water army in the army.
(g) Friend - Friend is an important part of Manu’s Saptanga Theory. Manu believes
that no state can exist completely alone. Therefore, for the conduct of international
relations, any state should have friendly relations with other states. This helps in
achieving the defense and development objectives of the state. A friend should
be someone who supports you in adverse circumstances and a friend should
not be artificial but should be natural.
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NOTES In this way, the organs of the state described in the Saptanga principle
propounded by Manu are similar to those of modern states and all these organs are
necessary for the smooth functioning of the structure and activities of the state.
Manu has mentioned Mandal and Shaadgunya Niti for foreign policy or
establishing relations with other nations. Under the Mandal principle, the state should
always be ambitious and strive for its expansion. The king had to establish his relations
with other states on the basis of the Mandal principle. This principle shows the area of
influence of the king. In this theory, there is a mandal of 12 states that wants to establish
different types of relations with different states and at the center of it is Vijigishu (the
state that desires to conquer. Such king should use policies like Sama, Daam, Dand,
Bheda, etc. together or separately and try to conquer enemy nations and bring them
under his control.
In war, both the parties have to suffer loss, hence before the war, these six
measures which are called Sandhi, Vigraha, Yan Asana, Dwaidhibhava and Sanshraya
should be used. The king should also establish political relations by sending ambassadors
to other states and the defeated state should be treated with respect. Manu believes
that the king should always protect and affirm his national interests by keeping them
paramount and for this he should not hesitate to use force as necessary. This is where
the king behaves righteously.

3.4.3 Limits of State Activity

The state was originated with the objective of human welfare and removal of social
instability. Therefore, whatever ideas have been given in Manusmriti regarding the
functions of the state, the all-round development of humans and society lies at its core.
Internal and external security of the state, provision of justice and rights of citizens for
the continuity of social rules, etc. are included in Manusmriti as essential tasks and
education for the society, construction of public places and their maintenance, provision
of means of entertainment, etc. have been kept in the category of voluntary functions
of the state. In this way, in the system made by Manu, all the social, economic, political,
religious etc. activities of the subjects are included within the scope of work of the
state, through the use of which the subjects can achieve the goal of a happy life and all-
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external attacks but also protect the citizens from internal enemies like dacoits, robbers, NOTES
thieves, etc. It is also the responsibility of the state to settle their mutual disputes,
punish the corrupt government employees who abuse their powers and commit atrocities
on the people and suppress those who conspire against the state system or the king,
etc. In Manusmriti, the state is expected to do the following acts in order to maintain
order in the state-
 Make all sections of the society perform their duties
 Maintain such a system in the state that rules and regulations are followed by
everyone
 Maintain internal peace in the State
 Keep the States free from control and fear of external powers
 Take strict action against corruption
 Maintain control over the treasury
 Treat people like their son
Apart from this, it is also expected from the state that it should ensure that no
one is being harassed by anyone, that the social system continues to operate following
hierarchical duties and that the responsibilities of trade, agriculture and animal husbandry
are performed well by the Vaishyas. It is also the duty of the state to control market
prices for the supply of essential commodities in the society. The state should also
ensure the provision of service to the other three classes by the Shudras. Providing
education, giving donations to Brahmins, punishing criminals, protecting and helping
the disabled, women, minors, etc. are considered other essential functions of the king.
Manu has accepted that the arrangement and continuity of the treasury is one of
the main responsibilities of the State. For this, he should work for the economic progress
of the state because he collects money only through taxes paid by the people. The
state should try to achieve what it has not achieved and whatever has been achieved
by the state should be protected and enhanced. The state should acquire land and
money as per need and should provide money or land as gift to the deserving ones.
The state should consider the happiness of the people as its own happiness and should
make every effort to increase the happiness and prosperity of the people.
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NOTES In Manusmriti, the king is expected to establish peace in the entire world. Hence
many practical advices to the king have been given in this book. The king is expected
to establish friendly relations with other states by appointing ambassadors. He should
appoint capable and efficient diplomats because they help their king to make the ruler
of another state his ally. Manusmriti advises states to adopt the policy of first
reconciliation and then Daam or bribery towards a powerful enemy. Force should be
used only when all three diplomacy, Sama, Daam, and Bheda failed. The supreme
duty of the king should be to protect the people. Hence, the king avoided war but
should always be prepared to face every situation. Before war, information about all
the weak points of the enemy should be obtained and one should not hesitate to use all
types of diplomatic measures. A weak king should keep a trustworthy friend. If there
is no possibility of winning a war then one should not fight it. However, if the enemy is
very powerful and war has become inevitable, then the king should take refuge in one
of his friendly nations. In the case of winning the war, one should focus more on
making friends instead of acquiring land and looting money.

Duties of the King

There is also a proper description of the qualities and duties of the king in Manusmriti.
Manu has told the king that a Kshatriya king who is educated in the Vedas should
protect all the people living in his kingdom with justice in every way. The ruler should
be religious because a rule based on religion is not violent. A king should have purity,
humility and proficiency in knowledge related to governance. He should be Jitendriya
because only he can keep the people under control. The king should be free from all
the vices and addictions that arise from lust, anger, attachment and greed. The king
should attend the Raj Sabha only after performing daily religious activities and taking
blessings from the Brahmins and should carry out his administrative work as per the
discussions of the ministers.
 Executive- In Manusmriti, the king has been made the head of all executive
systems. Due to which he is expected to perform tasks related to the management
and security of the state. He should make such arrangements of employees for
all the works, so that proper division of tasks and responsibilities can be ensured
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how should the work be divided and how should the various units of work be NOTES
grouped? Aristotle has described two types of division of work – first, division
of work according to categories of humans and second, division of work
according to service. Similarly, Smriti writers have created their system on the
basis of a complete varna system according to tasks and responsibilities.
 Judicial- In Manusmriti, just conduct is expected from the king, and justice is
the basis of punishment. Manu believed that people’s behavior was controlled
only because of the fear of punishment. It is the duty of the king to give just
punishment to the criminal after considering the place, time, seriousness of the
crime, etc. Before giving punishment, all the evidence should be seriously
considered and discussed with enlightened people. The people should not feel
that they are not getting justice. The judicial system should be according to
Dharma.
 Legislative- Kings used to conduct and administer only according to the path
shown in ancient religious texts. Nevertheless, Manu arranged for a council for
law making whose determination was based on intellectual capacity. In this,
there should be one Nirvakta, three knowledgeable in Vedas, one Mimansakar,
one knowledgeable in theology, one Niskat and three people who should be
mainly related to business.
 Administration- While giving instructions related to the administrative system,
Manu said that the king should establish his kingdom in between two-three, five
and a hundred villages and to maintain peace and order there, qualified employees
should be appointed for each area. The king should appoint a capable cabinet
to assist him and should keep visiting the state himself and taking information
about the officers and employees of the state through spies.
 Upshastriy-It was a very important task of the king to ensure that religion
remained established in the secular society and that every person in the society
followed it. For this, it was necessary for the king himself to be proficient in the
Vedas and scriptures. The king also had to appoint a capable and excellent
person as his advisor. For this he used to appoint Brahmins to various posts.
Manu considered the inclusion of Brahmin and Kshatriya qualities necessary
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NOTES  Revenue- Maharishi Manu has given great importance to the treasury for the
administrative work of the state. He pointed out the deep connection between
politics and economics. According to him, excessive taxes create a feeling of
dissatisfaction among the public, whereas low taxes are harmful to the state and
the king. Manu has arranged tax collection in such a way that it was according
to the economic condition of both the poor and the rich. He gave principles for
collecting taxes for revenue, protection of people, tax on profit, national planning,
relief from suffering etc. and prohibited excessive taxes. They gave provision
for separate parts and amounts in form of different taxes.
 Army- According to Manu, being the supreme commander, it is very important
for the king to have leadership skills so that the army can follow him. A king
must be courageous and proficient in warfare skills. He should not abandon
courage and righteous conduct under any circumstances. The king should equip
his army with necessary weapons to strengthen it and reward the best soldiers.
The role of the army is important in the outcome of the war. Therefore, he
should include elephants, horses, chariots and infantry in his army.

3.4.4 Can a King be Autocratic?

In Manusmriti, the divine theory of the origin of the king has been given and the king is
considered to have originated from the part of a deity and has been given a higher
position than the deity and on this basis, he gets unlimited power and authority. Yet the
king’s autocracy has not been supported. A provision has been made to curb the
power of the king in a logical manner through various measures. The king has been
subordinated to religion and it is expected from him that he will always protect the
people by practising religion. The king is always expected to follow the royal dharma
and make efforts for the people. The cabinet also advises the king in institutional
matters and prevents him from being arbitrary. In the nine chapters of Manusmriti,
Manu has made both the ruler and the ruled subject to punishment i.e. the justice
system. If the king does not use punishment judiciously, he himself becomes liable to
punishment. In order to prevent the king from deviating from his path, his daily routine
has been set in such a way that he cannot do anything that goes against the public
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interest. The king is also responsible for the subjects and he receives authority from NOTES
the subjects. If the king turns away from public welfare, he should be abdicated.
In this way, Manu’s king, despite being divine and having all the rights, is not
autocratic but is committed to the welfare of the people.

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Manusmriti is believed to be the first Sanskrit text translated into ________
by Sir William Jones.
2. Manu’s rules and principles are considered broad and ________.
3. The Manusmriti outlines the ________ theory, describing the state as having
seven parts.
4. According to the Manusmriti, the king is created from parts of eight ________.
5. The divine theory in Manusmriti states that the king’s position is ________
than the gods.
B. State True or False:
1. The Manusmriti is considered part of the Vedas.
2. Manu is regarded as the first man and the progenitor of humankind in the text.
3. The Saptanga theory describes the state as having six parts.
4. Manusmriti suggests that the king’s power should be unchecked and absolute.
5. Manusmriti has chapters dedicated to the duties of kings and the classes in
society.

3.5 SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY OF MANU

3.5.1 Social Aspect of Manu Code

Manusmriti not only mentions Rajdarshan but also elaborates its views on social
philosophy. Also, Manusmiti sheds a light on how society should be organized. The
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NOTES Manusmriti contains detailed explanation of the principles of social organization, the
functions of different varnas and the responsibilities of the state and the king in the
social system. Many respected historians claim that the Book of Manu is reflected in
the form of a discourse on issues such as laws, duties, behavior and other essential
beliefs of everyday life. It outlines a set of moral principles for human society.
Manusmriti, also known as the Laws of Manu, is considered one of the most
authoritative texts in the Brahmanical tradition that outlines essential social and civil
rules and codes of conduct. The rules and laws related to marriage, rituals, caste,
morality, religion, etc. given in Manusmriti are still a basis of Indian Hindu religion. It
encompasses all systems within itself.

3.5.2 Concept of Justice

There is a convention of jurisprudence in any system. In the Indian stream of thought,

many sages have analyzed the judicial system from a comprehensive perspective. In
this sequence, Manu has given a detailed description of the judicial system in Manusmriti.
Punishment or legal punishment is a part of the state. In the absence of strength, the
political system degenerates. Punishment is the pivot of the state, punishment is the
basis of the state. Manu has included the word punishment in a broader sense. Dand
means law. It also means justice system and punishment.
All explanations of law come under the penal theory. Manu expanded the penal
code and described it. He has made provisions for different types of punishments for
different types of crimes. Manu has made it clear that the king is bound by all the rules
and laws. He is special but suffers punishment like ordinary people. He says that if a
common man is punished for a crime by one pana, then if the king breaks the rule, he
should be punished with a hundred pana because the king is more learned and capable.
Similarly, for any punishment, if the culprit is a Brahmin, then the punishment for him is
many times more than that of a Shudra, Vaishya and Kshatriya. Manu explains the
laws to punish Vaishya more than Shudra, Kshatriya more than Vaishya and Brahmins
much more than Kshatriyas.
He said that there are mainly two reasons for conflict and dispute to arise - first,
disputes arising due to violence or crime and second, disputes arising due to land and
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It is noteworthy in Manusmriti that the responsibility of the king is to do justice. NOTES

But if the king does not do justice himself, then he should appoint a learned man as a
judge to do justice. Judges appointed by the king, along with other people, decide
disputes in the court. Judges should decide all disputes impartially and neutrally. In a
court whose decisions are not based on truth, its members are destroyed by sin.
Regarding the qualification of a judge, Manu says that under no circumstances should
an unqualified person be made a judge. A judge should be a person who can determine
the inner feelings of humans from external symbols like sounds, characters, signals and
other gestures.
The evidence presented in these disputes has been divided into two parts in
Manusmriti, one is human evidence and the other is divine evidence. Three types of
human evidence have been described – written, device and witness. Manu has written
that evidence written by judges should be given more importance but articles written
by force should be invalidated. It is considered a reliable evidence as it has been seen
with direct eyes, but the statements of people who tell lies, servants, enemies, ascetics
and lepers should not be believed. There should be a provision for oath before
presenting evidence and there should be a provision for strict punishment for those
who give false evidence. Evidence should be taken from women regarding women.
Utmost importance should be given to eyewitness testimony.
Manu considers punishment as very important in the justice process. According
to Manu, punishment is the king because punishment gives the power to rule, which is
also the purpose of religion. The king should make arrangements for fair punishment in
the state. It has been said that taking away the enemy’s wealth, inflicting physical pain
and killing him are the three types of punishments. Apart from this, while distinguishing
between two other types, they mention ‘Prakash Dand’ and ‘Aprakash Dand’. In this
way, Manusmriti has given a detailed description regarding punishment and justice.
The immediate penal code was propounded by Manu Maharaj keeping in view
the political and social systems of that time, which is not necessary to be 100% relevant
in today’s situation. But the modern penal code also includes its fundamental and
theoretical aspects because many principles are beyond the limits of time. Thus, Manu’s
penal code needs to be seen in a balanced view. Among the oldest penal principles in
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NOTES 3.5.3 Caste System

The caste system in India and its origin is a topic which has always been a subject of
discussion in different ways. The caste system is the basis of social behavior and social
life in India. Many Indian and foreign thinkers have done research on the caste system
of India. Many scholars praised the caste system, and many have condemned the
caste system in their writings and considered it difficult. Many people also believed
that the caste system has been invented by Brahmins to establish their dominance in
the society.

Due to his qualities and deeds, a Brahmin becomes a Shudra and a Shudra
becomes a Brahmin. The same sequence is applied for Kshatriya and Vaishya also.
Following this tradition, Lord Krishna had said in the Gita that I have created four
varnas on the basis of qualities and deeds, not on the basis of caste. The caste is not
Varna. Caste shapes a person, and qualities and actions make him a human being.
Varna is related to those actions by which a person earns his livelihood. A person
without qualities cannot do anything except service. A person who is devoid of
knowledge and special deeds is called Shudra. While establishing the excellence of
service religion, Manu has said that Vayovruddha Shudraah Pujyaah means if a Shudra
is older in age then he is venerable.
If we discuss ancient times or the Vedic period, then instead of the birth-based
caste system in India, there was a karma-based caste system in which people were
placed in different classes not on the basis of their birth but on the basis of their
qualities and deeds. This varna system was carried forward by Manu and the duties
and conduct of people of each varna were determined. Dr. P.V. Kane writes in his
book History of Dharmashastra that ‘In the Rig Veda period, there were two
opposing groups, Arya and Dasyu (slaves), who were different from each other in skin
color, worship practice, speech and appearance. Therefore, in very ancient times, the
word varna was related only to slaves and Aryans. Although the words Brahmin and
Kshatriya have been used frequently in Rigveda, the word Varna had no connection
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NOTES

In this verse of Rigveda, it is said that I am a praiser, my father is a physician and

my mother grinds flour on wheels. We want to earn money through various activities.
This shows that different people of a family used to do the work done by different
classes according to their ability.
The explanation of the verse (3/44/5) of the Rigveda is as follows: O Indra, the
drinker, will you make us a protector or a king? Will you make me a sage who remains
happy after drinking Soma or will you give me infinite wealth? This clearly shows that
a person can join any varna. It is seen that earlier there were enemies of the Aryans
who were different from the Aryans and were black in colour, whom the Aryans had
defeated and enslaved. Later, he joined the Shudras but his position in the society
remained low. In Taittiriya Samhita, where Shudras are not considered worthy of
performing Yagyan, it is said that:

That is, bring light to our Brahmins, fill light to our kings, and fill light to Vaishyas
and Shudras. From this it appears that Shudras were also a part of the society and
were equal to the other three castes in receiving enlightenment from God.
The caste system talked about in Manusmriti was not propounded by Manu but
was already present in the society. In Purushasukta of Rigveda, it is described in the
verse (10/90/12) that the different classes of the society originated from different parts
of the body of Brahma. Brahmins were born from Brahma’s mouth, Kshatriyas from
his arms, Vaishyas from his abdomen and Shudras from his feet. According to Manu,
all men were not of equal capacity, since they had different executive abilities, so they
should ordinarily perform the tasks for which they were suited. In Manu’s words, the
determiner of this standard was a person’s ability and not his birth formula. Brahmins
were virtuous and were there to impart knowledge. Kshatriyas were dedicated to
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NOTES Vaishyas were dedicated to the production of goods and services and to providing
services to people with less intelligence.
Brahmins were considered superior to other people because they were pure in
character, virtuous and educated in the Vedas and hence had complete knowledge of
religion. A Brahmin was not only a person dedicated to knowledge, but was also pure
and selfless in nature and behavior. Kshatriyas were placed second in this hierarchy
because they had a sense of duty to provide protection to others, but were not devoid
of personal interests and ambitions. The Vaishyas ruled with the motive of profit and
were guided by desires and self-interest. Manu ‘prescribed a strict code of conduct
for each Varna with a clear priority to merit. He said that the name of Brahmins should
be selected in such a way that it symbolizes knowledge, the name of Kshatriyas should
symbolize power, the name of Vaishyas should be such that it symbolizes wealth and
the name of Shudras should be such that it symbolizes ability. The privilege and reverence
for sages is such that even if a king is 100 years old, he should respect a 10-year-old
sage like his father. Even an uneducated sage could guide the king and preach him the
laws. With time, perhaps this system became birth-based.

It is described in the verse that for the special growth, peace, prosperity and
progress of the people i.e. the society, God created the Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya
and Shudra castes respectively as per the comparison of the mouth, arms, abdomen
and legs, i.e. the society was transformed into human body. Considering it as a society,
these four varnas were created to make it run smoothly. This caste division in the
society reflects the division of functions in the society. Manusmriti’s verse-

The explanation of which is as follows - Brahmin was superior by knowledge,

Kshatriya by force, Vaishya by wealth and Shudra by birth. This division became
based on birth instead of deeds, yet there seems to be a possibility of mobility in it. It

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is also mentioned in Manusmriti that the first three varnas are dwijati and the fourth NOTES
varna is a caste because it is not allowed to undergo Upanayana Sanskar and apart
from this there is no fifth varna (Manusmriti 10 14). According to Manusmriti, the birth
of a Brahmin is considered as an eternal embodiment of religion, that is, his body itself
is the visible embodiment of religion. He becomes eligible to attain salvation by being
born for the growth of religion. Thus Brahmin has been considered the best in
Manusmriti. It is also said that a Brahmin eats his own food, wears his own clothes and
gives his own donations. Others consume all things only because of the mercy of the
Brahmin (Manusmriti 1/ 102).
In Manusmriti, where Brahmins have been described as superior, arrangements
for strict conduct have also been made for them. A Brahmin should study the scriptures
diligently and a Brahmin who follows the best fast never indulges in mental, verbal and
physical defects (Manusmriti 1. 103-104). In this, Brahmins are expected to live a
simple life, have high thoughts and protect their religion and culture. The rule laid down
for Brahmins is that they should receive only that much money which can support their
family and perform their religious activities without hurting anyone (Manusmriti 412-
3). They were expected to take only one potful of food. If he is unable to earn his
living, then he should collect the rice ears that fall in the field after the crop is harvested
and eat them. Manu has termed this process as Rita. If a Brahmin is suffering from
hunger then he should take the help of the king, his disciple or any person of good
conduct, failing which he should take charity from another worthy second caste or a
worthy person and if this is not possible then he should take charity from a Shudra. But
he cannot use the donation received from a Shudra in Yagya or Agnihotra, otherwise
he will have to become a Chandal (Chandals were not Shudras and were considered
to be outsiders who did not get any place in the four varnas). He should not take
donation to him from any unjust king or person. The provision of livelihood for the
Veda-knowledgeable and the poor Brahmin is considered the duty of the king. It is
also mentioned in Manusmriti that giving charity to a Brahmin who has not studied the
Vedas, is deceitful or greedy, is not only useless but doing so leads to hell (Manusmriti
4/ 192 - 194). If a Brahmin was not able to support his family through teaching and
priestly work, then he was allowed to adopt Kshatriya or Vaishya work, but the other
three varnas were not allowed to adopt Brahmin work.
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NOTES Even after giving the best position to the Brahmins, Manu does not make them
autocratic, and if any Brahmin, due to his dominance or greed, makes the Dwijans
who are blessed with Yajnopa perform servile work without their wish, then there is a
provision of punishment of six hundred pans on him.
In the Varna system, Kshatriyas come after Brahmins, and protecting the weak
is considered equivalent to punishment for them. Manu has made arrangements for the
Kshatriyas to protect the state, perform charity, recitation of Vedas and not get attached
to addictions. Vaishya comes third in the Varna system, whose work along with giving
of charity is said to be agriculture, animal husbandry and commerce. There is also a
provision in Manusmriti that if a Kshatriya is not able to earn his living from his own
work, then a Kshatriya can work as a Vaishya and the Vaishya can leave the prohibited
works and adopt the Shudra profession. If a Shudra is not able to do his work and his
wife and son are suffering from hunger, then he can turn to artisanship to earn his living.
This shows that the facility to change occupation as per need was prevalent in the
society.
Manu does not consider Shudras as untouchables, but if a person born in a
Brahmin, Kshatriya or Vaishya family is not able to move towards knowledge after
getting education, then he is a Shudra. Even though a Shudra may not attain education,
he can be a person of good character and a religious person. Manu places morality
above all and calls it the root of religion. If the penal system described in Manusmriti is
studied adequately, then it becomes clear that it is not at all appropriate to say that
Manu has made harsh penal laws for the Shudras and has provided privileges and
special facilities to the Brahmins. The criteria of Manu’s penal system are - merits and
demerits and basic elements - intellectual level, social level, position, and effect of
crime.
If Manu gives more respect and social status to the higher varnas on the basis of
merit-work-merit among the varnas, then he also gives more punishment for committing
crimes. Thus, in Manu’s system of just punishment, the least punishment is for Shudras,
Brahmin has the most, and the king even more. This is Manu’s universally accepted
penal system, which applies to all penal places –

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NOTES

In these verses, it has been said that a Brahmin should be given a hundred times
more punishment than the punishment given to a Shudra for theft. No matter who is
guilty, it has been said that he will not be given any exemption in punishment.

3.5.4 Manu’s Ashram System

Indian cultural philosophy fundamentally envisages the complete upliftment of human

life. Our sages have created such a system that human life should be orderly, progressive,
and compatible with the consciousness of nature and inspired by the welfare of all
living beings.
The Ashram system in the ancient Indian school of thought is one such structure
that was created by our sages to live a balanced life between materialistic pleasures
and the joy of spirituality which is based on a balanced approach with both the worldly
and transcendental systems. This system was essentially designed to be followed by
humans of divine nature. This system is divided into four divisions – Brahmacharya
Ashram, Grihastha Ashram, Vanaprastha Ashram and Sannyasa Ashram. If the
complete lifespan of a human being is imagined to be 100 years, then the first phase of
life is in the form of Brahmacharya Ashram, and it lasts from birth till the age of 25
years. In this age group, it was mandatory to stay in Guru’s Gurukul and receive
education. In a Gurukul, a person lived under the discipline of the Guru and the Gurukul.
Under the guidance of the Guru, all types of knowledge were imparted here. Here the
student had to stay away from material pleasures and live like an ascetic. Here food
was also collected as alms. Education in agriculture, cow rearing, service, weapons
and scriptures was given to the students. During this period of celibacy, the brahmachari
or student was made completely adept in knowledge, science, and all the disciplines.
After successfully completing the Brahmacharya and Vidya study phase of the
Ashram system, a person was given entry into the second phase of the Ashram which
was called Grihastha Ashram. This period was from 25 to 50 years of age, during
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NOTES society as per the law of creation. During this period, one was allowed to enjoy worldly
pleasures and perform all his duties related to his family and society with a spirit of
dedication. Manu has mentioned about 16 Sanskars which a person has to undergo
throughout his life. Manu has mentioned these thirteen rites in his texts - Garbhadhan,
Punsavan, Seemantonnayan, Jaatkarma, Naamkaran, Nishkraman, Annaprashan,
Chudakarm, Karnavedha, Upanayan, Vidyarambh, Kesharambh, Keshant,
Samavartan, marriage and Antyeshthi. He has also mentioned various types of marriage
rites which were followed in the immediate ashram system. Among the forms of
marriage, Brahma Vivah, Dev Vivah, Arsha Vivah, Prajapatya Vivah, Asur Vivah,
Gandharva Vivah, Rakshas Vivah and Pishach Vivah were accepted and prevalent in
the society.
After the age of fifty years, the third stage of human life was the arrival of
Banaprastha Ashram, which continued for the next 25 years where the person
transferred all his duties and responsibilities to his next generation and lived the last
stage of life with his wife. Here they were expected to live a spiritual life by following
religious duties. His diet and life were completely simple.
The final stage is Sannyasa Ashram, where upon reaching a man becomes the
embodiment of religion and spirituality in the fullness of God’s consciousness. Before
entering this stage, a man becomes free from all kinds of debts including his debt to
God, debt to Rishis, debt to his parents, debt to his people and satisfying his life,
society, family, and ancestors and attains the ultimate goal of life - salvation. At this
stage of the journey, he leaves the world with the fruits of his actions in a lonely feeling.
In this way, this system makes a man a superior human being and merges him with
divine power. This is the highest excellence of our Ashram system which is not available
in any other culture of the world.

3.5.5 Types of Marriages and Law of Inheritance

Manu’s social philosophy categorises marriages into eight distinct types, each with
specific rituals and implications.
1. Brahma Marriage: In this type of marriage, the father of the bride marries off
her daughter to a man who has studied the Vedas and possesses good character.
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2. Daiva Marriage: This occurs when the bride's family marries off her daughter NOTES
to a priest. It is seen as a union blessed by divine intervention.
3. Arsha Marriage: In this type, the groom gives a cow and a bull or other gifts
to the bride’s family as a token of appreciation, symbolising the union.
4. Prajapatya Marriage: Here, the bride’s father marries off her daughter to the
groom with a blessing for them to perform their household duties together. This
type emphasises mutual duty and companionship.
5. Gandharva Marriage: This is a union based on mutual love and consent
between the bride and groom.
6. Asura Marriage: In this type, the groom offers wealth and gifts to the bride’s
family, and the marriage is conducted with their consent. It emphasises the
groom’s responsibility to provide for his new family.
7. Rakshasa Marriage: This type of marriage involves the groom taking the
bride away from her family, typically in a context of conflict or battle.
8. Paisacha Marriage: This involves the union of a couple without the bride's
prior consent or knowledge.

Law of Inheritance

Manu’s law of inheritance outlines detailed rules for the distribution of property among
heirs, focusing on maintaining family lineage and ensuring fair division.
1. Primacy of Sons: Sons are considered the primary heirs to their father’s
property. The eldest son often receives a larger share due to his role in performing
religious rites.
2. Equal Division: Generally, the property is divided equally among the sons.
However, there can be variations based on specific circumstances and the father’s
discretion.
3. Rights of Daughters: While traditionally sons are the primary heirs, daughters
are given a share in the absence of male offspring. They also have the right to
inherit their mother’s jewellery and personal property.

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NOTES 4. Widow’s Rights: A widow is entitled to her husband’s property if there are no
male heirs. She can also inherit if the male heirs are minors or otherwise unable
to manage the property.
5. Inheritance by Relatives: If a man dies without direct heirs, his property can
be inherited by his nearest relatives, such as brothers, uncles, or cousins.
6. Adoption: Adopted sons are given the same rights as biological sons regarding
inheritance. This ensures continuity of the family line and care for the family
property.
7. Exclusion of Unworthy Heirs: Manu’s laws also stipulate that individuals who
are deemed unworthy or have committed serious offenses can be excluded
from inheritance.

3.6 MANUSMRITI AND WOMEN

In every society, be it Indian, Western, Greek or any other, administrative and social
rules change according to the needs of the period and their interpretation also becomes
different. These changes have been visible in Indian society also. The system of the
Vedic period, Ramayana and Mahabharata is not visible today.

3.6.1 Manu’s Views Related to Women

During the Vedic and Manusmriti times, Indian women enjoyed considerable pride. In
Manusmriti, differences are seen at many places in Manu’s views on women.
Nevertheless, it is clear from many verses of Manusmriti that during this period, there
was provision of adequate respect and rights for women in the society. Women perform
their various duties in the family as mother, sister, daughter, wife, etc. There are many
verses in Manusmriti which discuss the place of women in society and family. Let us
explain this in detail. Manu has quoted the verse-

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This verse very well describes the condition of women in that period. This verse NOTES
says that in a society where women are worshipped, gods reside there, on the contrary,
where women are not respected, all the works of the person who disrespects become
futile, no matter how good he is. If he does any work, he has to face only sorrows.
Maharishi Manu wanted to see the woman in a happy state. If the woman of the house
is happy, positive thoughts will flow in her mind, due to which positive energy will
remain in the family. For this, in Chapter 3 Verse 55 of Manusmriti, the father, brother,
husband or brother-in-law should always keep their daughter, sister, wife or sister-in-
law happy with respect, food, clothes, jewellery, etc. as per their suitability and should
not give them any kind of trouble or problem. Sadness should not be allowed to reach
them. Maharishi Manu says about the downfall of the clan which causes sorrow to
women that:

Where daughters-in-law and women of the clan remain sad because of their
husband’s wrong conduct, atrocities, adultery, etc., the clan soon gets destroyed.
Where they remain happy, that clan is always prosperous and flourishing and keeps
moving forward. Further in verse 58, he says that the houses where daughters-in-law,
daughters and women of the family remain unhappy and curse due to disrespect, that
is, the feelings of destruction of the family arise in their mind, those houses are destroyed
by sudden actions (invisible powers).
Verse numbers 3.62, 126, 1.16, 4.170, etc. also explain the importance of
women in the society and family and say that the man who does not keep his wife
happy, his entire family remains unhappy and sad. Women who bring good fortune to
the family by giving birth to children are worthy of respect and bring light to the home.
In that period, women were considered Mahabhaga, worshipable, Grihalakshmi and
Grihashobha and the responsibility of raising children and imparting public behavior
was discharged by women only. In Manusmriti, it is said that the mother should be
given more respect than the father. Considering that man and woman are incomplete
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NOTES without each other, the rule of performing all types of religious rituals by both of them
together has been described. Men and women have been given equal recognition.
Manu says that a sensible person should not argue or quarrel with family members,
especially mother, daughter and wife.
In Manusmriti, it is expected from women that along with serving the husband,
the wife should play her role in household chores, which will develop a sense of
responsibility in them. Manu also says that the husband should hand over all his earned
money to the wife so that the money can be used properly for household work and
proper arrangements can be made for the maintenance of the family. This was the time
when there was division of household work and livelihood work between men and
women and women only performed all the responsibilities of the house. But in the
present times, women are engaged in various activities even outside the home. The
role has been changed and in the present scenario, men and women are arranging their
household work.

Rights related to marriage

Rules regarding marriage of women have also been mentioned in Manusmriti

and adequate freedom has been provided to girls. Manu says in Manusmriti that even
if a girl lives in her father’s house without marriage for the rest of her life, she should
never marry a sinful, unworthy, evil man. Manusmriti talks about eight types of marriages
– Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa and Pishach. In
this, the first four types of marriages are considered good. In a Brahma marriage, a
suitable groom is selected and the girl is dedicated to him by donating water. When the
girl becomes marriageable, she is given the freedom to choose a husband similar to
her. The practice of Swayamvara has been prevalent in India since ancient times.

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Therefore, the belief that only parents should choose the groom does not match Manu’s NOTES
views. According to Maharishi Manu, parents should help the girl in choosing a suitable
groom and not impose her decision.

Prohibition of dowry

In this way, Manusmriti completely prohibits any kind of transaction in marriage

so that no one has the feeling of greed and no one dares to grab the woman’s money.
Even Manusmriti calls marriage including dowry as ‘demon’ or ‘demon’ marriage.

Women Education

There is no discussion of any restriction on women’s education in Manusmriti, hence

they could receive any type of education. There is a provision in Manusmriti to receive
education from a Guru before marriage.

It is said in Manusmriti that a woman should have complete autonomy in handling

money and the responsibility for its expenditure, purification of house and household
items, religious and spiritual rituals, etc. and all these tasks should be done under her
guidance. He is placed at the forefront of rituals.
In Manusmriti verses 9.130, 9.131, 8.28 and 8.29, it has been said about the
property rights of women that a girl child is equal to a son, how can anyone else take
away her property rights in her presence? Only her daughter has the right on the
mother’s personal property, whereas both sons and daughters have equal rights on the
father’s property. Manu arranges this special right for the girl so that she does not

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NOTES remain at the mercy of anyone. He wants to make the woman a proprietress and not
a beggar. Further ensuring the safety of women, Manu provides for harsh punishment
for those who take possession of women’s property.
According to him, if a woman, who has no children, no male member left in her
family, is a widow, or whose husband lives abroad or is ill, the responsibility of the
safety of such a woman come under the administration and if somebody tries to steal
her property, severe punishment must be given to that person and help her getting her
property back.
The matter of giving priority to women is also visible in Manusmriti. He says that
female patients, burden bearers, senior students, grooms and kings should be given
way first. Provision has been made to feed newlyweds, underage girls, patients and
pregnant women even before the arrival of guests to their home.
A rule has been made to give death penalty to those who molest, rape or kidnap
women and it has been said to give extremely harsh punishment to those who kill
women, children and virtuous scholars.
Manusmriti contains many free proposals for women as per social laws, especially
in the realm of family. Despite giving a wide variety of rights to women, Manusmriti has
been criticized from time to time, the main reason for this is that in some places women
have been limited to household work and duty to the family. Verse 5.151 of Manusmriti
talks about women always being under the protection of men. It says that women
should remain under the protection of father, husband and son at different stages of
age. But to a large extent it is possible that this was done for their safety in the society
at that time, and the social structure was such that the responsibility of earning a living
was on men. Women are physically different from men, hence at every stage of their
age, arrangements were made for their complete protection and responsible behavior
by the men of the house.
Manu does not say anything regarding the education of women, but in verse
2.70 of Manusmriti, such a provision has been made for women that marriage itself
has been considered as Upanayana Sanskar for women and husband’s house has
been considered as Gurukul. But still in the Vedic period we find descriptions of learned
women like Lopamudra, Gargi, Aditi, etc. which do not match the rules of Manu.
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Apart from this, many rules have been made in Manusmriti to explain the NOTES
character of women in detail and to determine their social behavior and conduct.

Conclusion

Maharishi Manu propounded some rules for all sections of the society so that the
society could function smoothly. Considering man and woman as complementary to
each other, Manu has laid down social rules and conduct for both. At the same time, it
is also clear that the condition of society is different in every country and period.
Today, both the system and needs of modern society are different from ancient times.
Even if we talk about contemporary circumstances, the structure and needs of Indian
society are different from that of Saudi Arabia, America, Iran, Japan, Britain, etc. and
the status of women is also different in every society. Many contradictions in what has
been said about women in Manusmriti are clearly visible, one of the main reasons for
this could be that in different periods of time, some changes were made in all our
ancient texts, due to which the original texts were not fully known. Manusmriti has also
been interpreted in different ways by different scholars, in which the personal thinking
of the interpreter also has an impact. One specialty of the Sanskrit language is that the
same word can have different meanings in different circumstances, so the meaning of a
word can change the entire meaning of a verse depending on what meaning the interpreter
is perceiving. The translation of Manusmriti by foreign scholars during the British period
could also be the reason for these contradictions. Today, if you take copies of
Manusmriti, the number of verses is different in different copies, which casts doubt on
its authenticity.

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Manusmriti is also known as the _______ of Manu.
2. In the absence of ______, the political system degenerates.
3. Manusmriti’s caste system was originally based on ______ and ______.
4. The Ashram system divides human life into four stages: _______, _______,
_______, and _______.
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NOTES B. State True or False:

1. Manusmriti prescribes the same punishment for all castes.
2. According to Manu, the king is exempt from punishment.
3. Manusmriti supports the concept of a birth-based caste system.
4. The Ashram system requires a person to live as a householder until the age of
50.
5. Manu’s views on women indicate that they should be respected and kept
happy.

3.7 SUMMARY

 Indian texts like Vedas, Puranas, and Upanishads provide a framework for
regulating social activities, with Smritis specifically addressing societal laws.
 Manu, considered the first human and a progenitor, laid down broad and
adaptable rules and principles, influencing Indian political thought.
 Manusmriti, believed to be composed between 300 BC and 200 BC, has no
original copy but was translated into English by Sir William Jones in 1794.
 Manusmriti consists of 12 chapters covering various aspects of society, including
the duties of kings, social classes, and atonement.
 Manu’s political thought includes the divine origin of the state, where the king,
created from parts of eight gods, holds a position higher than the gods.
 The Saptanga theory describes the state as having seven parts: King (Swami),
Minister (Amatya), Capital (Pur), Nation (Rashtra), Treasury (Kosha),
Punishment (Danda), and Friend (Mitra).
 The state is responsible for maintaining law and order, justice, social duties, and
economic stability.

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 The Manusmriti outlines the king’s executive, judicial, legislative, and NOTES
administrative roles and emphasizes his accountability to religion and the welfare
of the people.
 Despite the divine status of the king, Manu’s concept does not support autocracy
but mandates checks on royal power and a focus on public welfare.
 Manusmriti, also known as the Laws of Manu, is an authoritative text outlining
social and civil rules.
 It addresses the social system, varnas (castes), and the responsibilities of the
state and king.
 Manu’s judicial system includes detailed descriptions of laws and punishments.
 Different punishments are prescribed for different crimes, with harsher penalties
for higher castes.
 Judges must be impartial and well-qualified, using human and divine evidence to
decide cases.
 The caste system is based on qualities and deeds, not birth, although it became
birth-based over time.
 Manu’s Ashram system divides life into four stages: Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha, and Sannyasa.
 Manusmriti assigns high importance to moral conduct and has strict rules for
each varna, particularly Brahmins.
 Women are given respect and rights, with emphasis on their happiness for the
overall well-being of society.

3.8 GLOSSARY

 Smritis: Texts in Hinduism that are considered to be remembered and are less
authoritative than Shruti.
 Manusmriti: An ancient legal text among the many Dharmaśāstras of Hinduism.
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NOTES  Saptanga: A theory describing the state as composed of seven essential parts.
 Shruti: Hindu scriptures that are considered to be heard or revealed.
 Dharma: A key concept in Hinduism, referring to duty, righteousness, and the
moral law.
 Varnas: The four social classes in Hindu society (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya,
Shudra).
 Gurukul: Traditional school in ancient India where students lived and learned
under a guru.
 Ashram: A system dividing human life into four stages (Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha, Sannyasa).
 Upanayana: A rite of passage marking the acceptance of a student by a guru in
Hinduism.

3.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions-1

A. 1. English
2. adaptable
3. Saptanga
4. gods
5. higher
B. 1. False
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True
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In-Text Questions-2 NOTES

A. 1. Laws
2. Strength
3. Qualities, deeds
4. Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sannyasa
5. Human, divine
B. 1. False
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. True

3.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the major types of texts mentioned that regulate Indian society?
2. When is the Manusmriti believed to have been composed?
3. Describe the caste system propounded by Manu.
4. What are Manu’s political and social views?
5. Explain the Saptanga principle of state given by Manu.
6. How has the status of women been considered in Manusmriti?
7. What has Manu said about the duties of a king?
8. Mention Manu’s ideas regarding the origin of the kingdom.
9. How does Manusmriti define punishment in the context of justice?
10. What are the four stages of life according to Manu’s Ashram system?
11. What is the significance of women’s happiness in Manusmriti?
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NOTES
3.11 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

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2- euqLe`fr ,oa L=h & M‚- nsoukjk;.k ikBd
3- euqLe`fr esa L=h&foe'kZ & M‚- foÜosÜokehXeh
4- euq vkSj Hkkjr dh jkT;O;oLFkk & jkds'k dqekj vk;Z
5- Hkkjrh; jktuhfrd fopkj & çks- T;ksfr çlkn lwn
6- euqLe`fr dk leh{kkRed vè;;u & M‚- eatq ukjax
7- euqLe`fr & çks- lqjsUæ dqekj

https://www.gdcbhojpur.com/assets/uploads/file-43.pdf
& Kailash education
https://www.mmcmodinagar.ac.in/econtent/political-
science/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%
BE%E0%A4%AF-%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%AE%E0% A4%A8%
E0%A5%81.pdf
https://www.uou.ac.in/sites/default/files/slm/VAC-05.pdf
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/86509/1/Unit-6.pdf

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UNIT III: BRIHASPATI – STATECRAFT, JUSTICE,
AND INTER-STATE RELATIONS

LESSON 4 BRIHASPATI – STATECRAFT, JUSTICE,

AND INTER-STATE RELATIONS
Brihaspati – Statecraft, Justice, and Inter-state Relations

LESSON 4 NOTES

BRIHASPATI – STATECRAFT, JUSTICE, AND

INTER-STATE RELATIONS
Revathy V Menon
Assistant Professor,
Deshbandhu College, DU
Structure
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Statecraft
4.4 Inter-state Relations
4.5 Summary
4.6 Glossary
4.7 Answers to In-text Questions
4.8 Self-Assessment Questions
4.9 References/Suggested Readings

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Discuss the Vedic mythology inscribed by Brihaspati who was considered as
Deva Guru, the Master of Sacred Knowledge, charms, hymns, and ceremonies;
he was the advisor of Indra in his conflicts with the Asuras.
 Know about the statecraft given by Brihaspati and about the inter-state relations
prescribed by him.
 Explain Brihaspati’s special concern that the Raja should take every precaution
to triumph over the populace.
 Describe the seven Prakriti which have been the cornerstone of the writings of
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NOTES
4.2 INTRODUCTION

In Vedic mythology, Brihaspati (Sanskrit: Lord of Sacred Speech) is the preceptor of

the gods, as Deva Guru the Master of Sacred Knowledge, charms, hymns, and
ceremonies, as well as the wise advisor of Indra in his conflict with the asuras. Brihaspati
is also considered to be the celestial embodiment of the purohita, or family priest, the
embodiment of religiosity and piety, and the foremost offeror of prayers and sacrifices
to the gods, with whom he intercedes on behalf of humanity. He is the teacher of the
Devas (gods), while Shukracharya, the teacher of the Danavas (demons), is his
adversary. He is also referred to as the god of wisdom and eloquence, Guru. The
Mahabharata claims that the sage Brihaspati was Angiras’ son. He is described as the
son of the fire god Agni in several Puranas. He was referred to as the gods’ instructor.
According to tradition and Vedic literature, there are two books in the name of
Brihaspati. The Brihaspati Sutra is one, and the Brihaspati Smriti is another. According
to many scholars, the second is thought to have its origins in a considerably older
period, likely the second century BC, while the first dates to the eleventh or twelfth
century. Unfortunately, there are significant differences between the two volumes.
Brihaspati was undoubtedly a renowned instructor of politics because nearly all ancient
writers on Indian polity, including Vyasa and Kautilya, referred to him as a great expert
on statecraft.
Additionally, it is probable that the Brihaspati Sutra in its current form dates
from considerably later and was created by someone who wrote under the pen name
Brihaspati, which was widespread during the medieval era. However, when we consider
the text’s whole context, it becomes clear that Brihaspati’s words came from a time of
unrest and often violent power grabs. For instance, the earlier fear of anarchy is
repeatedly expressed in his writings with great worry. He agrees that there was a
golden age centered on fairness right in the beginning. There was no Raja, and everyone
did what was right. Undoubtedly, there was a social structure with masters and slaves.
But the entire system operated on its own. In a society where harmony and cooperation
prevailed, everything was good. However, two factors contributed to its degeneration:
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social collaboration vanished. They were abandoned in favour of the laws of the jungle, NOTES
which ensured that the strong outlived the weak. He also reiterates the traditional idea
of Matsya Nyaya or the law of fishes, according to which the bigger fish eat the
smaller ones. Agriculture, commerce, and trade were non-existent at the time. There
were Rajas in some situations, but they were powerless to uphold the law. The need
for kingship became apparent at this time.

4.3 STATECRAFT

According to Brihaspati, there can be no order without respect for authority; in its
absence, people fight and obliterate one another. The powerful prey upon and profit
from the helpless. People start claiming ownership of everything. The world vanishes.
No longer functional are the family relationships. The idea of rights and obligations is
also lost. Anarchy and natural disasters result from this.
The structure of the states, as illustrated by Brihaspati, must be thoroughly grasped
in order to appreciate the current economic scenario. Brihaspati emphasises the scientific
approach and materialistic viewpoint when establishing the structure of the states. The
causes of state formation were both pragmatic and ideal, and they were intended to
achieve a great objective. As a result, Brihaspati’s ideas about the state might be
characterised as a great living system rather than a state of mind. For the origin and
functioning of this system, the collective efforts of seven separate limbs or Prakriti are
required. A Saptang theory like that of Manu and Kautilya can be found in the writings
of Brihaspati.
Few of these seven Prakritis have been fully evaluated by Brihaspati. Here are
some of them:

The Raja (Raja)

According to Brihaspati, people gather and choose a person who is already gifted
with heavenly traits to escape from such situations of tyranny. It is important to note
that the focus now moves from contract to divine ordination, presumably because he
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NOTES Brihaspati thus shares the traditional belief that human greed and cupidity are what
lead to the state and that the solution to this problem is to check human selfishness and
ensure that right prevails in society. This is the purpose for which the state was
established. All of this is a reiteration of the Mahabharata’s axiom that the state is
unified by the objectives it serves, with the main goal being to ensure that people carry
out the obligations of their station.
Like earlier theorists, Brihaspati views the ‘Raja’ as the supreme authority to
govern society and the impetus of all economic activity. He has given the ‘Raja’ the
highest and most significant position. Kingship has been referred to as one of the two
wheels of the state, according to Kritya-kalpataru Shlokas. In one of the Shlokas,
Brihaspati expresses emphatically that the Raja holds the primary responsibility for
maintaining the socio-economic fabric of the state.
However, Brihaspati differs from Vyasa in that he did not have a philosophy of
political obligation, fully disregarded the contract component of the origin of the state
and relied on divine intervention. Brihaspati claimed that God made the Raja in his
likeness in order to establish order in society. In his plan, the Raja is given the authority
to punish people who endanger societal harmony. The valid basis of obedience that
prevents people from disobeying their obligations can be provided by fear alone.
Brihaspati places a larger emphasis on the Raja’s divine birth, which gives him
significantly more power than in the Shanti Parva. Brihaspati does not subscribe to
Vyasa’s doctrines of disobedience and revolt. Any act of disobedience against the
Raja could be an act against God, aside from subjecting man to punishment in this
world, because the Raja merges in himself all the powers of the intra-cosmic gods,
which assures him superhuman character. He naturally distinguishes between excellent
and evil Rajas, but he does not follow this to his logical conclusion. When Rajas stray
from the path of dharma, it is unclear what the people’s rights or obligations are. In
fact, Brihaspati places such a heavy stress on the requirement for force aversion that it
is reasonable to assume that any act of disobedience causes man to suffer both in this
life and the next.
Another issue is that the Raja is required to follow the mean ideology. The
responsibilities of the Raja are covered in-depth in a chapter. A good Raja is guaranteed
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required to serve the people in exchange for their payment of revenue. The Raja only NOTES
thrives when he is working for the people.
According to Brihaspati, any Raja who disregards their welfare is acting against
God’s will. In fact, he continues by asserting that the Raja’s activities, rather than
himself, are what give him divinity. Especially those deeds that result in the righteous
being punished and the virtuous being protected. A virtuous Raja must perform charitable
deeds, safeguard the people’s wealth, aid in the growth of their wealth, and establish a
reign of justice, love, and charity.
Selection of Raja: The selection process, according to Brihaspati is significant.
The idea of a public election is present in older works, but Brihaspati downplays its
significance. The election is brought up during the period of the first anarchy when
people are against each other, but who could think that these people would be able to
discuss one another and choose a common superior. They paradoxically forfeit this
right once they have the ability. Nothing more is said about it after that. In fact, it looks
like the authorities are winning the argument outright. The hereditary descent theory is
fully upheld. Brihaspati supported the monarchy and, refrained from posing the logical
question that would have followed from his theories regarding the origin of the state,
namely, whether it matters who governs if they can uphold law and order and whether
they are democratic or radical if they are popular with the populace. Although the
citizens are respected, they are not given a chance to voice their opinions.
The Raja is expected to have good officials, riches, and knowledge within this
constrained framework. There are in-depth references to the prince’s upbringing, his
coronation, and the Raja’s obligations. The Raja is supposed to be made the people’s
leader so that everyone performs the tasks associated with their status. Brihaspati also
believed that the role of the Raja should be to serve the needs of the populace rather
than to rule just using force. He argued that the Raja had three responsibilities: defense
against external threats, defense against thieves and dacoits, and defense against the
more powerful. The varna system must be maintained for everyone to perform the
obligations of their position. The Raja is entitled to one-sixth of the crop for every
reason. A good rule has support from Brihaspati as well. The Raja must promote
increased trade, commerce, and agriculture. He ought to take part in neighborhood
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NOTES Mantriparishad

Since the Raja cannot handle everything himself, he needs capable mantriparishad
and aides who will regard him as their mother and father and do everything in their
power to carry out his directives. Brihaspati presents the concept of administering
tests to choose the best mantriparishad and officials based on merit while considering
their excellence and virtue. Because of how prominent their position is, along with that
of the Raja himself, mantriparishad is seen as one of the key components of the
state. Formally speaking, the mantriparishad carries out the Raja’s duties. Since the
state cannot be properly organised without them, this mantriparishad is supposed to
take on a significant role with the Raja. It must be emphasised that, despite references
to merit, the emphasis on merit does not imply equality of opportunity. The Sukraniti
does not follow the traditional pattern of hereditary office-holding, neither in terms of
employing the sons of the officials nor, most definitely, in terms of distributing the
offices based on varna. In fact, in contrast to the Sukraniti, the political structure of
the Brihaspati Sutra is one in which the varna is dominant, with Brahmaas holding the
highest and most eminent standing. Most officers would be chosen based on their
varna, and Brihaspati makes it very clear that people from the lowest varnas will not
be appointed in the mantriparishad. The Raja is commanded to pay attention to the
indications of status distinctions. There are undoubtedly references to merit, but only
the highest varnas—not all varnas—are covered by the notion. However, in the
upper varnas, talent is chosen based on the application of logical principles, and
selection is based on merit. Politics that solely favour family members and close
companions is something Brihaspati would detest. However, varna distinctions are
significant and cannot be disregarded.

Rastra

Brihaspati considers Rastra to be the third constituent part of the state, with the Raja
and Mantriparishad being the first and second. Kautilya adopted the term Janapada
to describe this concept of Rastra, which explains Brihaspati’s broad economic ideas.
Brihaspati’s thinking and perception of Rastra give a disguised vision of the economic
system. Rastra is nothing more than an integrated economic system, since Rastra
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perfection of the state, and he emphasises the integrity of the land that makes up NOTES
Rastra. This is recognised as a key component by contemporary states with state
power and sovereignty.
The welfare state ideology advocated by Brihaspati and Vyasa is identical.
However, in the Shanti Parva there is a clear relationship between the causes of the
state’s creation and the notion of rebellion if the state deviates from its main objective;
in Brihaspati’s works the two stages run in opposition to one another. If the need for
protection, which was previously lacking, is what led to the foundation of the state,
then it seems too reasonable that the state should be constrained by the circumstances
that gave rise to it. On the other hand, whether there is anarchy is unimportant if only
the divine hand was involved in the establishment of the state. Brihaspati is unable to
determine which is more crucial. He wants a good leader, but he does not want to
support any dissension or uprising if that leader turns out to be bad. At this moment,
there is yet another significant deviation. In the Mahabharata, the weak serve as the
state’s pivot, but in Brihaspati, they are conspicuously absent. This fact suggests that
Indian society may have undergone modifications throughout that time.

Kosha or Treasury

The kosha or treasury is yet another crucial component of the statecraft. Nothing can
exist as a kingdom without wealth. It aids in the kingdom’s stabilisation, the construction
of dams, the promotion of trade, and the formation of state loyalty. One of the principles
of kingship, as in the Mahabharata, is to safeguard riches, increase them, and use them
for proper purposes. Of course, a lot would depend on the personalities of those in
charge of the treasury. The kingdom is overrun by foes if the money is not secured.
Brihaspati provided thorough explanations of how the finance department is set up. To
prevent income streams from drying up and to boost the state’s wealth, he also proposed
a system of graduated taxes.
Given that it oversees the entire economic system, Brihaspati placed the treasury
at the top of the state’s economic hierarchy. Therefore, it becomes sense to assume
that Brihaspati’s economic model merged the agricultural and financial divisions of the
contemporary administrative structures. To keep track of the treasury and maintain
the statement of accounts of income and expenditure, a representative named Self-Instructional
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NOTES Dhanadhyaksha was hired. Like other thinkers, Brihaspati acknowledges that wealth
is the origin of all activities. He asserts that it governs all practical acts; thus, he advises
the people to put in a lot of effort and amass ever-increasing wealth. To strengthen the
public treasury, Brihaspati underlines the importance of a proper framework for tax
collection and wealth accumulation. A person’s profits should be divided among his or
her family and close friends, according to Brihaspati. It shows that he was in favour of
distributing wealth more fairly within society so that each person could afford to buy
the things they needed to survive.
Brihaspati asserts that the three elements—Mantra-Guna, Artha-Guna, and
Sahaya-Guna—when taken together, are essential for the effective operation of the
entire Rastra system. If a Raja exhibits these three characteristics, he should be regarded
as complete and meritorious. Brihaspati is categorical in his assertion that the best
leaders are those who have the respect of their people. Nobody should underestimate
a Raja who is regarded as a man of character by his subjects. Brihaspati’s ideas make
it plainly clear that “Artha-Guna” had a big say in how the Rastra ran its finances. The
state’s budgetary policy’s worthlessness cannot be addressed until a plan is made to
carry it out. To enhance the financial status and welfare of the public, Brihaspati advocates
for an administration that must function in accordance with state norms and rituals.

Varta

Anvikhshiki, Vedatrayee, Varta, and Danda-Niti are the four unique schools of
thought that Brihaspati supports. The Brihaspati Smriti has underlined the significance
of researching a subject considering the right time and completing a critical analysis of
the Nakshatra, day, and date. Jyotisha, Ganita, Samudrika, and Nakshatra Vidya
have received much prominence in comparison to other forms of education. It is
interesting to note that religious and economic sources both express clear disagreements
on these concerns. However, economists only recognised the economic components
of these subjects, which is why Varta, the theoretical aspect of economic activity, was
given a position. Ancient religious academics appreciated the worth of all four subject
matters.
The moral precepts strongly affected Brihaspati’s economic decisions. He asserts
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to accumulate growing sums of riches, which finally culminated in his nation’s demise. NOTES
Brihaspati chooses to increase the riches of the empire even though dealing with crises
like war and natural calamities, etc., requires additional resources. He learns that a
Raja runs the risk of being humiliated by his enemies if he does not raise the state
treasury. The importance of a fair tax system has increased. Brihaspati’s views on the
taxation system are successfully communicated through the budgetary strategy.
Brihaspati opposes high taxes on the one hand, but he also seems to be in favour of the
state’s general economic growth, which can only be achieved by fair taxes that fill state
coffers. Brihaspati took issue with the Raja’s heirs participating in economic management
and tax collection.

Justice and Judicial System

What makes Brihaspati’s political beliefs noteworthy is how he articulates a complex

judicial system. He claims that justice is so crucial that the Raja’s future determines
how it should be administered. He contends that justice must be carried out in accordance
with the laws and scriptures, and no one who disobeys the law—even a brother or
sister of the Raja himself—should not escape punishment. Justice seeks to foster an
environment where the Raja can appease everyone. The rules for crime detection,
evidence gathering, witness examination, etc. are all covered in great depth. Decisions
should be made after carefully examining the arguments put out by each side and
supporting them with facts. He offers a complex judicial system with a hierarchy, and
he says decisions should be based on consensus-derived equity. The judges must be
moral people. They must always belong to respectable families, but they can never be
from lower varna. Additionally, they must get adequate emoluments. The administration
of justice is decentralised, and the local and district legislatures are treated with sufficient
deference.
The Raja’s court serves as the system’s pinnacle. Lower courts have the authority
to hear fresh cases and revisit previous ones. The district and subordinate courts’
rulings may be subject to review by the top court. Brihaspati considers the following
aspects of the judicial system: the review of the evidence, the opportunity for questioning,
the production of new evidence, the cross-examination of witnesses, and oaths.
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NOTES account. Justice seeks to find the truth, punish those who break the law, and remove
factors that contribute to the suffering of those who stand up for the truth. Right (dharma),
behavior, character, and kingly orders are the four main sources of law. Conventions,
as well as social and familial practices, form the basis of character.
The Raja’s order is the final source. Again, the shift is apparent here. While in
the time of Vyasa, the Raja was only a recipient of laws made outside of the political
sphere, in the time of Brihaspati, he became a significant source. This was indeed of
utmost significance because once the Raja’s authority to make laws was acknowledged,
there was no turning back. The Raja could meddle in all facets of society, including
how the Brahmaas should read the scriptures, simply because he had a monopoly on
coercive power.
Additionally, Brihaspati suggests a method of proportionate punishment. The
concept is that people should not stray from the obligations set out by their varna
status. The fact that no one is above the law, regardless of how strong they may be, is
significant. But varna and rank determine how punishment is administered. Brahmins
fare better than those from any other varna in this arrangement (he did say Sudras
could not be penalised, but this could be because they did not possess any property).
For instance, the death penalty cannot be imposed on a Brahmaa. Cutting off one’s
hands and exile from the realm would be the worst punishment for him.
Brihaspati considers four different forms of retribution: warning, dishonor to
remind individuals of their obligations, penalties, and the death penalty. The Raja’s
court had authority over the last two, while the other courts had jurisdiction over the
first two. Remember that the fourth category included physical suffering and torture in
addition to the death punishment. The lowest varnas would be especially affected by
this. However, it must be noted that Brihaspati places equal emphasis on crime
prevention and criminal reform, and he offers methods to that end. It was a step
backward to suggest that the Brahmin shares the authority to punish the Raja. It
amounted to blending the worlds of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Furthermore, it is
unclear if Brahmins have the authority to influence temporal affairs. Although the
Brahmin’s authority theoretically included that of the Kshatriya, it is unlikely that the
former could impose punishment on its own without the assistance of the state.
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Hierarchy of courts NOTES

Brihaspati Smriti maintains that there existed a hierarchy of courts in ancient India,
with the family courts at the bottom and the Raja at the top. The family arbitrator was
the least effective. The court of the judge was the next higher court, followed by the
Chief Justice, also known as Pradivivaka or adhyaksha, and finally Raja’s court.
The severity of the problem determined which court had jurisdiction over it; the Raja
had authority over the most significant conflicts, while the lowest court had control
over minor ones.
Each higher court’s judgement superseded that of the lower court. Each
subsequent decision shall take precedence over the preceding one due to the higher
level of study and expertise, and the binding force of the decisions of these tribunals,
ending with that of the Raja, is in ascending order. It is interesting to note that the
Indian judicial system currently consists of a hierarchy of courts arranged on a similar
principle: the village court, the Munsif, the Civil Judge, the District Judge, the High
Court, and lastly the Supreme Court, which replaces the Raja’s Court. Without realising
it, we are continuing a long-standing custom.
It is important to emphasise the institution of family judges. The joint family,
which might include four generations, served as the basic social lesson. As a result, a
joint family may have several members at any given moment, making it important to
resolve their conflicts with tact, sympathy, and firmness. It was also ideal for a family
member to serve as the initial arbiter in cases of conflict. The importance of the family
courts lies in the fact that the judicial system’s foundations are in the social system,
which accounts for its success.
The sovereign served as the source of all justice. One of the main characteristics
of sovereignty in Indian legal theory was the ability to administer justice and impose
punishment. Being the source of justice, the Raja was initially expected to deliver
justice in person while carefully adhering to the law and with the assistance of judges
who were well-versed in the law. For the Raja, a highly rigorous code of judicial
conduct was established. He had to make decisions during open hearings and in the
courtroom, and he had to conduct himself in a way that did not intimidate the parties.
He was required to take an impartial oath and rule on matters without prejudice or
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NOTES The Raja should approach the courtroom modestly attired, take a seat facing
east, and listen intently to his people’s cases. He shall follow the advice of his Chief
Justice (Pradvivaka), judges, the mantriparishad, and the Brahmin members of his
council before taking any action. In accordance with the law, a Raja who administers
justice in this way occupies heaven. These boundaries are important. In order to prevent
the complainants from feeling frightened, the Raja was supposed to dress modestly
(vineeta-vesha). The Raja was subject to an extremely severe code of behavior
when serving as a judge, and he was expected to be devoid of any “attachment or
prejudice. The seven virtues of a Raja come together in him like seven flames in a fire
if he resolves legal disputes (vyavaharan) in line with the law and exhibits self-control
(in court). Having taken the oath, the Raja performs the duty of dispensing justice and
is therefore regarded as the son of Vivasvan when he remains in the judgement seat
(dharmasanam), where he is required to be impartial towards every being. The
Vivasvan oath is an oath of impartiality because Yama, the deity of death and son of
Vivasvan, is unbiased towards all living things.

Integrity is a virtue of the judiciary

Integrity, which includes impartiality and a complete lack of bias or connection, is a

judge’s top responsibility. A very broad definition of integrity was given, and the judicial
code of integrity was exceedingly stringent. According to Brihaspati, judges should
make decisions without considering personal gain or any other form of bias, and they
should follow the steps outlined in the texts. By carrying out his judicial duties in this
way, a judge gains the same spiritual merit as someone who conducts a Yagya.

Retribution for corruption

Corruption was viewed as a serious crime, and all authorities agreed that a dishonest
judge should receive the harshest punishment possible. According to Brihaspati, a
judge who accepts bribes, commits injustice, and undermines the public’s faith in him
shall be exiled from the kingdom. Criminals of the same calibre include a dishonest
judge, a fabrication of a witness, and a Brahmin killer. The entire estate of a dishonest
judge should be seized by the government. Having confidential conversations with the
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complainants while a trial was ongoing was judicial misconduct. A judge or chief justice NOTES
(Pradvivaka) who privately speaks with a party before the matter has been determined
should be penalised similarly to a corrupt judge, according to Brihaspati.
Brihaspati urged the court to refrain from simply enforcing the language of the
law since doing so would lead to injustice (dharmahani) if the judgement was made
without any consideration of any relevant factors. Brihaspati goes on to add that the
court should rule in accordance with local conventions and usages even if they disagree
with the wording of the law, and he provides several impressive examples that,
incidentally, shed a great deal of light on current societal realities. These communities
in their respective nations should not be subject to penance or legal punishment.
The deception was discouraged by the Courts’ procedures and culture. Instead
of a peon as is done today, the judge himself administered the oath. The judges were
compelled to address the witness while administering the oath, praising truthfulness as
a virtue and denouncing perjury as a terrible evil. According to Brihaspati, judges who
are knowledgeable about the Dharmashastra should speak to the witness in a way that
promotes the truth and drives deception (from his mind). Instead of using predetermined
phrases, the judge’s address to the witness was more of a moral admonition meant to
instil a sense of dread in him.

4.4 INTER-STATE RELATIONS

Brihaspati made remarks about inter-state relations as a crucial aspect of politics. The
king should employ direct, talented and diplomatic methods to divide the enemy’s
forces. The realm of even a mighty king can be troubled by an adversary who takes
refuge in a fort, even if he is only armed with a single horse. This is because even a tiny
spark can start a fire, and even a tiny poison can kill. He should not trust the enemy
even after signing a treaty with him. The Dharma-Vijaya method ought to be used. A
ruler only sets the stage for his own ultimate demise if he wins a battle by turning to
Adharma. By making a commitment to the Dharma, noble individuals may assuredly
defeat tyrants. Spies and diplomats are essential in international relations.
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NOTES Conclusion

One of the most significant thinkers, Brihaspati represented the latter stages of the
growth of the Smriti literature. Instead of viewing the monarch as an autocrat, he
perceived him as a Raja, or one who pleases. The thinker kept the priest and Raja
apart, yet they were both supposed to confer with one another, with a slight difference
in emphasis. He applauded those who criticised autocrats or anyone who exploited
their position of authority. It is notable in this context that all their admiration for the
Raja was not directed at the state’s control of religion or education. The Raja was also
warned not to meddle in the family’s affairs. He was instructed to take extra care to
prevent the exploitation of disputes between brothers, fathers, and sons, or husbands
and wives. In fact, no Indian philosopher could have claimed that only the state is a
whole and the family is simply a component, as Aristotle did, or that a good state relied
on the destruction of the family, as Plato did. Both were regarded as wholes within the
wholes. In contrast to early Western philosophy, family life, and varna duties still have
a much higher value in Indian society. The two institutions of the family and the varna
served as the foundation for the moral and legal systems.
The professionalisation of state agencies is another goal of Brihaspati’s, along
with the advancement of judicial processes. The formation of a mixed type of government
in ancient India, where the principle of kingship was made dependent on the priest and
the Brahmaa on the one hand and the councillors and mantriparishad on the other,
may be attributed to all of this. According to ancient customs, the weak and
impoverished were regarded as crucial components of the polity that required the
ruler’s attention and never ascended to absolute authority.
It is obvious how they should be heard, but through spies, the Mantriparishad
Council, and occasional uprisings, people appeared to have expressed their resentment
against the tyranny. This partially explains Brihaspati’s special concern that the Raja
should take every precaution to triumph over the populace. A criticism that might be
levelled at all ancient philosophers is that distinctions of this kind do not include any
discussion of institutional restraints on the Raja’s exercise of power. In the absence of
such institutional safeguards, it was almost assumed that laws would be based on the
standards of truth and popular will, but this was rarely the case.
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NOTES
In-Text Questions
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. According to Brihaspati, no order exists without respect for ________.
2. The state is considered a complex system requiring ________ efforts.
3. The Raja is selected based on ________ ordination.
4. The Mantriparishad is selected based on ________ and virtue.
5. The ________ represents the economic system of the state.
6. The treasury is crucial for the ________ of the state.
7. The judicial system is ________, with decisions from higher courts overriding
those of lower ones.
8. Brihaspati emphasizes a ________ tax system.
9. The ________ should maintain integrity and avoid bias.
10. Treaties with enemies should be approached with ________.
B. State True or False:
1. Brihaspati believes anarchy results from a lack of respect for authority.
2. The Raja is chosen by a democratic process in Brihaspati’s theory.
3. Mantriparishad are ministers chosen from all varnas without any consideration
of status.
4. Rastra in Brihaspati’s theory is unrelated to the economic system.
5. The treasury is considered secondary in the stability of the state.
6. Brihaspati supports high taxes as a means of economic growth.
7. The judicial system includes a hierarchy of courts.
8. Integrity is a key virtue for judges in Brihaspati’s judicial system.
9. The Raja should always trust treaties signed with enemies.
10. Brihaspati believes in using Adharma for victory in battles.

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NOTES
4.5 SUMMARY

 Brihaspati emphasizes that without respect for authority, chaos and anarchy
ensue, resulting in natural disasters and the breakdown of societal order.
 The state is a complex system requiring the collective efforts of seven components
or Prakritis, including the Raja, Mantriparishad, and others.
 The Raja is considered divinely ordained, with supreme authority to maintain
order and socio-economic stability. Selection is often hereditary, and the Raja
must serve the people’s welfare.
 A council of ministers, selected based on merit and virtue, assists the Raja in
governance. The council is integral to the administration but is influenced by
varna distinctions.
 The treasury is vital for the state’s stability and economic activities. It requires
efficient tax collection and wealth management.
 Emphasizes economic activities and the theoretical aspects of the economy.
Brihaspati supports a fair taxation system for the state’s economic growth.
 Brihaspati proposes a detailed judicial system with a hierarchy of courts and
stresses impartiality and integrity. Judges must be from higher varnas and ensure
justice aligns with dharma and law.
 From family courts to the Raja’s court, each higher court’s decision supersedes
the lower ones. The judicial system mirrors the current Indian judicial structure.
 Judges must avoid corruption and bias. A strict code of conduct and severe
penalties for corruption are emphasized.

4.6 GLOSSARY

 Statecraft: The art and skill of governing a state effectively, encompassing

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 Authority: The legitimate power to make decisions and enforce obedience. NOTES
 Prakriti: In Brihaspati’s context, refers to the essential components or limbs of
the state necessary for its proper functioning.
 Varna system: A hierarchical social order based on occupation and birth,
prevalent in ancient Indian society.
 Mantriparishad: Council of ministers or advisors who assist the king in
governance.
 Rastra: Economic system or realm; the integrated economic structure of the
state.
 Kosha (Treasury): Financial department responsible for managing state
finances and wealth.
 Brahmin: The highest varna in the Hindu caste system, traditionally priests and
scholars.
 Judicial misconduct: Improper behavior or actions by judges that undermine
the integrity of the judicial process.

4.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

A. 1. authority
2. collective
3. divine
4. merit
5. Rastra
6. stability
7. hierarchical
8. fair
9. judiciary
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NOTES B. 1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. False
6. False
7. True
8. True
9. False
10. False

4.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Examine various dimensions of statecraft prescribed by Brihaspati.

2. Critically analyse the concept of kingship and statecraft given by Brihaspati.
3. According to Brihaspati, what happens in the absence of respect for authority?
4. How is the Raja selected in Brihaspati’s theory?
5. What is the role of the Mantriparishad?
6. What does Rastra represent in Brihaspati’s theory?
7. Why is the Kosha important in statecraft?
8. How does Brihaspati view the relationship between taxation and economic
growth?
9. What is the structure of the judicial system as per Brihaspati?
10. How should a king approach treaties with enemies?

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NOTES
4.9 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Barnett, L. D. 1924. 8. Brihaspati Sutra, or the science of politics according to

the school of Brihaspati. Edited, with an introduction and English translation, by
Dr. F. W. Thomas.… The Devanagari text prepared from his edition (in
Romanscript) by Pt. Bhagavad Datta, BA The Punjab Sanskrit Series, No. I.
8¾× 5¼, iii, 32, 31 pp. Lahore, 1921. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
56(2), 291-293.
 Brihaspati. 1921. Bârhaspatya sûtram arthât Bârhaspatya Arthaúâstram:
Brihaspati Sutra or the Science of Politics according to the school of Brihaspati.
 Datta, B. 1921. Brihaspati Sutra, or The Science of Politics According to
the School of Brihaspati (No. 1). New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
 Kundu, J. 2022. A survey of the Indian judiciary in the light of Manusmriti &
Brihaspati Smriti.
 Kaumalya, Brihaspati, & Bhamma, S. 1957. Kautalîyârthaúâstrasangraha
and the nîtisûtras of Brihaspati, Chanakya and Somadeva. Mysore:
University of Mysore.
 Lochtefeld, J. G. 2002. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. New
York City: Rosen Publishing Group.
 Pandey, B. 2013. Economics of Kautilya, Shukra, and Brihaspati. Economic
Journal of Development Issues, 162-164.

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UNIT IV: SHUKRA/USANA

LESSON 5 TALKING POINT: DEBATE ON THE

AUTHENTICITY OF SHUKRA-NITI AND
THE CONCEPT OF KINGSHIP AND
STATECRAFT IN SHUKRA-NITI
Talking Point: Debate on the Authenticity of Shukra-niti and the Concept ...

LESSON 5 NOTES

TALKING POINT: DEBATE ON THE AUTHENTICITY

OF SHUKRA-NITI AND THE CONCEPT OF
KINGSHIP AND STATECRAFT IN SHUKRA-NITI
Anirudh Yadav
Research Scholar, JNU
Structure
5.1 Learning Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Shukracharya: Life Sketch
5.4 Debate on the Authenticity of Shukra-niti
5.5 The Concept of Kingship and Statecraft in Shukra-niti
5.6 Critical Evaluation
5.7 Summary
5.8 Glossary
5.9 Answers to In-text Questions
5.10 Self-Assessment Questions
5.11 References/Suggested Readings

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Know about Shukra the Acharya, who wrote the Shukra-Niti that provides in-
depth explanations of several of the political, governmental, and social institutions;
and practices that were common in ancient India.
 Learn about the conception of Kingship and statecraft in his treatise.
 Give an idea of the King’s primary responsibility to protect his subjects and
punish evil doers.
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NOTES
5.2 INTRODUCTION

Sages have written works about their core principles of ethics and beliefs at various
points in time. They are known as Niti. There are Niti, among which Vidur Niti,
Chanakya Niti, and Shukra-Niti are the most well-known. Shukra’s claim that one
can do with grammar, logic and Vedanta but not without Niti demonstrates the pragmatic
nature of the work. According to Shukra, the king’s primary responsibility is to protect
his subjects and punish evil, and this duty cannot be carried out without Niti’s guidance.
The King is respected if he upholds the Niti code, however, if he breaks it, his reputation
suffers. Therefore, in this lesson, we will focus on the arguments revolving around the
Shukra-Niti’s authenticity and the Shukra-Niti concept of kingship and statecraft.
Like many historical writers in India, Shukracharya also regarded politics as a
part of ethics. He termed it moral science or Niti Shastra, which he saw as the source
of virtue, wealth, enjoyment and salvation. He believed that a ruler could only subdue
an enemy and win a friend with the aid of this science. He continued by stating that Niti
Shastra is incomparable to other sciences since it attempts to satisfy and realise every
human want and interest, as well as happiness, which is their primary goal.

5.3 SHUKRACHARYA: LIFE SKETCH

He was the son of Rishi Brighu and Ushana. Shukra, a planet with a feminic nature,
belongs to the Brahmins. He was born on Friday, Sravana Shuddha Ashtami in the
year Parthiva, when Swati Nakshatra was rising. So, in Indian languages, particularly
Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, and Kannada, Friday is known as Shukravaar.
He continued to study the Vedas with the rishi Angiras, but he was perturbed by
Angiras’s preference for his son Brihaspati. Then he went to learn under the guidance
of Gautama. He later got the Sanjeevani mantra (a song that can bring the dead back
to life) after offering penance to Lord Shiva. Brihaspati took on the role of Guru
(Preceptor) over the holy Deva people during this time. Shukracharya decides to take
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on the role of the Asuras’ Guru out of jealousy. He aids in their triumph over the Devas NOTES
and employs magic to bring back the Asuras who have died or been injured.
An ancient Indian sage and philosopher, he is best known for the contributions
he made to the study of astrology and his connections to the Asuras (demons) in
Indian mythology. He is credited with being a master of many academic disciplines,
including politics, astrology, medicine, and philosophy. Although many of these have
been lost to time over the years, he is also thought to have produced a few texts on
these topics.
The concept of “Shukra-Niti,” which stands for the art of diplomacy and the
science of moral conduct, was developed by Shukracharya and is considered one of
his most significant contributions to Indian philosophy and astrology. He created a
system of moral standards and regulations for individuals in positions of authority and
power, such as monarchs and rulers, in his book on Shukra-Niti. These principles
provide helpful guidance on issues like taxation, diplomacy, and war while emphasising
the value of justice, fairness, and honesty in governance.
Thus, Shukracharya was a key figure in ancient Indian astrology and philosophy,
and students are still learning from and valuing his contribution to these subjects today.
His ethical guidance and good governance principles are still applicable today, and his
connection to the Asuras has made him a fascinating subject in Hindu mythology.

5.4 DEBATE ON THE AUTHENTICITY OF SHUKRA-

NITI

The ancient Indian scholar Shukracharya is the author of the treatise known as Shukra-
Niti. The book, which is a treatise on the study of politics, government, and ethics, is
sometimes contrasted with Kautilya’s more well-known Arthashastra. The authenticity
of the Shukra-Niti has been fiercely debated. While some academics contend that the
manuscript was later fabricated, others assert that it is a genuine work by Shukracharya.
The following are the justifications for this debate:

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NOTES First, except from the Matsya Purana, which is a somewhat modern source, the
Shukra-Niti appears nowhere in any of the ancient Indian writings. This has prompted
some academics to contend that the work was unknown in ancient India and may
have been written later.
Second, the Shukra-Niti’s language and writing style differ from those of other
ancient Indian manuscripts, which raises the possibility that it was written later.
Third, some academics contend that the Shukra-Niti is a replica of the
Arthashastra due to similarities in the content between the two texts.
There are, nevertheless, certain arguments in favour of the Shukra-Niti’s veracity.
For instance, some academics have noted that the writing bears references to historical
persons and events from ancient India, indicating that it was written there. The text
also contains concepts that are exclusive to the Shukra-Niti and do not appear in
other classical Indian writings.

Arguments in favour of authenticity

 The Shukra-Niti provides in-depth explanations of a few of the political,

governmental, and social institutions and practices that were common in ancient
India. Since several of these descriptions are exclusive to the Shukra-Niti and
are absent from other writings, it is possible that this work was created
independently.
 The Upanishads, the Vedas and other ancient Indian writers are all mentioned in
the text, along with other literary and philosophical works. These citations imply
that the Shukra-Niti’s author was knowledgeable about traditional Indian
knowledge systems.
 The Shukra-Niti elaborates on subjects like taxation, diplomacy, war and ethics
and offers a sophisticated and multifaceted picture of political and social issues.
This shows that a competent and skilled author was behind its creation.

Arguments against authenticity

 The text makes references to some historical figures and events that are either
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mentioned as if it were still in power during the author’s lifetime, which is NOTES
historically improbable.
 The Shukra-Niti’s language and writing style are different from those of other
classical Indian works, such as the Arthashastra, which raises the possibility
that it was written later.
It is crucial to note, though, that there are probably many levels of authenticity
that the book could have and that the issue of the Shukra-Niti’s veracity is not a
straightforward binary one. For instance, it is likely that a scholar who lived in ancient
India but was less well-known than other Indian scholars penned the Shukra-Niti.
Alternatively, it is likely that a later author who was influenced by the concepts and
knowledge structures of ancient India wrote the text.
Altogether, the validity of the Shukra-Niti is a complex and contentious issue.
Even though both sides have their arguments, it is crucial to read the book critically,
have an open mind, and concentrate more on the knowledge and insights it provides
than on who wrote it.

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Shukracharya is the author of the treatise known as __________.
2. Shukracharya is often associated with the __________ in Indian mythology.
3. The __________ is the only ancient text that references Shukra-Niti.
4. Shukracharya gained the Sanjeevani mantra after offering penance to
__________.
5. Shukra-Niti emphasizes the importance of __________, diplomacy, and
statecraft.
B. State True or False:
1. Shukracharya was a disciple of rishi Angiras and later learned under Gautama.
2. Shukra-Niti is widely accepted without any debate regarding its authenticity.
3. Shukracharya’s teachings suggest that a king’s primary responsibility is to amass
wealth.
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NOTES 4. The Shukra-Niti contains references to historical figures and events that are
well contextualized and accurate.
5. The principles of Shukra-Niti focus on justice, fairness, and honesty in
governance.

5.5 THE CONCEPT OF KINGSHIP AND

STATECRAFT IN SHUKRA-NITI

The Niti Shastra explains how to go about achieving the ultimate goal of happiness. In
a phrase evocative of Plato, he said, “Great misery comes from dependence on others.”
There is no satisfaction greater than that of self-rule. According to him, a king’s two
main duties are to protect his subjects and punish the guilty, and neither of these duties
can be properly carried out without the aid of Niti Shastra. When a monarch disobeys
niti, according to Shukra, “evils prevail everywhere, the kingdom is weakened, the
army is ineffective, the civil service is disorganised, and other elements of the state get
topsy-turvy.”
Shukracharya embraced the idea of the kingdom as a traditional body with
seven limbs, namely “the sovereign, the minister, the friend, the treasury, the state, the
fort, and the army.” The treasury serves as the mouth, the army as the mid-region, the
fort as the arm, and the state as the legs. The sovereign serves as the head. The
connection between a ruler and his subjects cannot be broken. He considers the state
to be a living thing. Without the right balance of interests among all the state’s organs,
the state cannot operate effectively.
He said that “the prince who is virtuous is a part of God”, and that “every king
is endowed with the power of God.” Anyone who is different is a member of the
demons, an adversary of religion, and a subject oppressor. He asserted that there are
three different categories of kings: Satvika, Rajsika, and Tamsika. The definition of a
satvika monarch is “a king who is consistent in his duties, defends his subjects, makes
all necessary sacrifices, vanquishes the enemy, and who is kind, patient, and brave,
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and who has no attachments to things of pleasure and is dispassionate.” The king of NOTES
Tamsika possesses the exact opposite traits, and according to Shukra, such a ruler
will perish in hell. Shukra even claims that the blessings of God are bestowed upon the
Satvika king, those of men are bestowed upon the Rajsika, and those of ordinary
devils are bestowed upon the Tamsika.
Public opinion, the key component of contemporary democracy, is given
significant weight for the first time in the annals of ancient literature. Shukracharya
gives a lot of weight to the views of the subjects of the state. During that time,
participatory government began to emerge. Through a network of spies, the king is
mandated to learn about the needs of the populace. Shukra counsels the rulers to
exercise patience and kindness. He said, “The king should rectify his own faults and
should never punish the people for holding opinions supposed to his.”
The Shukra-Niti examines a few facets of ‘kingship and statecraft’ and offers
advice and guidelines for monarchs to successfully run their kingdoms. In Shukra-Niti,
the idea of monarchy and statecraft is centred on the following major concepts:

Qualities of a King

As stipulated by Shukra-Niti, a monarch must have certain traits in order to reign well.
Wisdom, righteousness, bravery, knowledge, and a sense of righteousness are some
examples of these traits. A king ought to be informed about a wide range of issues,
including politics, military strategy, diplomacy, and economics. These characteristics
are seen to be necessary to uphold the kingdom’s wealth and stability. Shukra-Niti
emphasises the value of moral principles and ethical behaviour for a king. It urges
leaders to set a good example by acting with integrity, honesty, and fairness. The
scripture exhorts kings to put the wellbeing of the kingdom and their subjects ahead of
their own selfish wants and avarice.
For a ruler, Shukra-Niti emphasises the value of adaptability and continuing
education. It implies that a king needs to be open to fresh perspectives, eager to learn
from past errors, and flexible in their approach. Literature advises kings to consult
with knowledgeable advisers, academics, and specialists in various subjects to enlarge
their knowledge and viewpoints.
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NOTES Responsibilities and Duties of a King

The text makes clear that a king has a responsibility to look after and protect his
subjects. The well-being of the populace should be given top priority, and their security,
happiness and safety should all be guaranteed. The king ought to be approachable to
his people, attentive to their complaints, and fair in how he settles conflicts. The king’s
duties include upholding the law, carrying out justice and advancing the kingdom’s
general prosperity.

Diplomacy

The text acknowledges the value of diplomacy in keeping cordial ties with nearby
kingdoms. It indicates that in order to advance peace and avert pointless conflicts, a
king ought to participate in strategic alliances, accords, and talks. When engaging in
diplomatic relations, Shukra-Niti advises leaders to exercise caution and discernment
while being cognizant of possible risks and the goals of other leaders.
The following can be listed as an example among Shukra’s suggestions for
subduing the opponent by guile and diplomacy:
1. Bhedaniti: The practise of using bribery and other unethical tactics to
promote discord among the rival’s commanders, council members, allies,
troops, and civilian population.
2. Guerilla Strategy: The skill of starting military operations suddenly,
approaching the adversary like perpetrators from a distance, and then
retreating as quickly as possible.
3. Kutayuddha: The immoral practice of conducting war by lies and deception.
According to such a policy, “one should inspire confidence in the enemy by
a sweet, smiling face, soft words, confession of guilt, service, gifts, humiliation,
praise, good offices as well as oaths.” His maxims in the Niti shastra are
undoubtedly intended to serve as a guide for monarchs and statesmen, whose
unique responsibilities to society put them beyond the rest. Like Machiavalli,
Shukra “offers an extreme example of a double standard of morals, one for
the ruler and another for private citizens. Since ruler is outside the group, or
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at least in a very special relation to it, he is above morality to be enforced NOTES

within a group.”
4. Cut down on supplies and commodities. Military and Warfare
Defence and military readiness are important, as acknowledged by Shukra-
Niti. It implies that a king should keep a well-trained and powerful army to
defend the realm from outside dangers. The book instructs kings to take
strategic actions to protect the kingdom’s safety and security as well as to
be wary of prospective enemies. It also emphasises how diplomatic channels
must be exhausted before turning to violence because war should only be
used as the last option. The king has been instructed to keep a strong army
since, without it, “neither a kingdom, nor wealth, nor prowess” is possible.
It is noteworthy to observe that Shukra encourages the use of weapons and
the manipulation of battle arrays and encourages the recruitment of individuals
of any caste as soldiers and commanders if they are young, committed to
their duties, disciplined, and well versed in Niti Shastra. Three different
methods-good pay, consistent exercise and penance and interaction with
Shastra-educated individuals, must be used to preserve and improve the
army’s strength and effectiveness.
As stated by Shukracharya, “two parties, who have inimical relations with each
other, undertake by means of arms to satisfy their rival interests,” is what is meant by
warfare. Before beginning the real operation, the king is required to study the art of
war in conjunction with his counsellors and consider the time of year, the area, and the
relative strengths of his and the enemy’s armies. According to the weaponry employed,
wars have been categorised into three categories: Daivika Yuddha, which uses charms;
Asura Yuddha, which uses mechanical devices; and human warfare, which uses
shastras and hands.

Governance

Shukra-Niti provides advice on efficient leadership and management. It emphasises

the value of selecting capable ministers and counsellors who are loyal, intelligent and
honest. The text also emphasises the importance of having an effective administrative
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NOTES system that deals with issues pertaining to infrastructure, trade, defence, taxation, and
social welfare. Shukra-Niti urges kings to have a balanced approach and advises
them to confer with their ministers before making decisions. Shukra-Niti believed in
governance through strategic planning. It implies that the king ought to have a long-
term goal in mind for the realm and make strategies and programmes to get there. This
includes establishing objectives for advancing the economy, society, and the military.
The text exhorts rulers to foresee difficulties and modify their plans considering emerging
situations.
The well-being of the populace is emphasised by Shukra-Niti as a key objective
of governance. Its counsels’ leaders should put the requirements of the common people
first and endeavour to improve their lot. This includes offering fundamental services
like infrastructure, healthcare, and education. According to the Quran, a king ought to
have empathy for the plight and necessities of the less fortunate people in society.

Economic Management

The importance of effective economic management for a thriving kingdom is emphasised

by Shukra-Niti. It urges leaders to support commerce, industry, and agriculture while
ensuring fair taxation. According to the text, a king should support economic initiatives
that benefit the entire kingdom and raise people’s standards of living. Additionally, it
cautions against overtaxing or overusing resources because these actions may cause
unrest among the subjects.
Shukracharya asserts that the king has a duty to take care of the vulnerable and
poor. He needs to show kindness to the underprivileged and refrain from oppressing
them. In addition to taking actions to protect his wealth, the king should also do so by
raising it. “Happiness of the subject is happiness of the ruler” is consistently highlighted
in several Vedic texts and is often taken as an acronym in ancient Indian literature.
The happiness, labour, and welfare of people have always been essential
considerations for rulers, and these considerations are reflected in our early legal systems.
In truth, effort was revered in antiquity because it produced creative products.
Economic, social, and personal security are necessities for all workers. Conflicts
between the ruler and servant develop when these demands are not met. Shukracharya
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leave a king who has a poor opinion of servants, is dissatisfied with the services he NOTES
provides, and has a suspicious character.
Shukracharya asserts that the king must also see to it that wages are paid in
accordance with the laws in effect at the time. In Shukra-Niti, the wage policy is
covered in great detail. The payment of wages is not to be halted or delayed by the
king. His belief that even moderate pay would cover the provision of necessary food
and clothing with even a modest wage is a reflection of his care for the wellbeing of the
general populace. He thinks that societal unrest and moral decay are caused by low
salaries.

Self-Control and Self-Reflection

Shukra-Niti emphasises how crucial self-awareness and restraint are for a ruler. It
counsels monarchs to pause and consider their choices to make sure they are in line
with the values of justice and righteousness. The text warns against making decisions
based on selfish motives, ego or haughtiness because doing so can harm a ruler’s
reputation and authority.

Culture and Education

The importance of education and cultural advancement in a kingdom is acknowledged

by Shukra-Niti. It implies that a king ought to support academics, thinkers, and creatives
in order to encourage learning and the upholding of cultural legacies. The passage
stresses the value of an educated populace, as it adds to the kingdom’s overall
development and enlightenment. It also motivates leaders to assist religious, literary,
and artistic institutions in order to promote a peaceful and culturally diverse society.

Virtuous Rule

Shukra-Niti places a strong emphasis on the notion of dharma, which stands for
righteousness and moral obligation. It implies that a king ought to rule as per dharma,
maintaining moral principles like justice and fairness. The passage exhorts kings to
uphold moral law and serve as an example for their people by living morally. It
emphasises that a king will win the respect and allegiance of the populace if they rule
with honesty and commitment to dharma. Self-Instructional
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NOTES
5.6 CRITICAL EVALUATION

It is important to evaluate and place the ideas of Shukra-Niti within the larger context
of current political ideologies and cultural norms. While literature provides insightful
analysis into some facets of monarchy and statecraft, it is crucial to modify its lessons
to meet the complexities and difficulties of the contemporary world.
The principles and norms of the time are reflected in Shukra-Niti, which has
roots in ancient Indian culture. The social hierarchy and the notion of divine authority
to rule both have an impact on the text’s lessons. The concepts, according to detractors,
might not be universally relevant in the complex and transforming world of today.
Shukra-Niti gives a lot of importance to following established customs and traditions.
It might not, however, sufficiently fulfil the requirement for adaptability and flexibility in
governance. In a changing world, leaders must be flexible, responsive to new problems
and ready to change policies as needed. The ruler’s capacity to properly handle
contemporary challenges may be constrained by Shukra-Niti’s emphasis on tradition
and stability.
The text largely concentrates on the viewpoint of a king who is in charge of a
kingdom. It might not offer all-inclusive advice for governing in communities with various
types of government or cultural diversity. It might be necessary to modify kingship and
statecraft ideas to work with democratic systems, republics or other modern forms of
government. Shukra-Niti pays little attention to the rights and involvement of the
governed, instead focusing exclusively on the position and obligations of a king. The
concepts of inclusion, participation, and citizen involvement are thought to be
fundamental to modern governance. Because of the text’s focus on top-down
government, it may be easy to miss how crucial it is to involve and empower citizens in
decision-making.
The patriarchal aspect of ancient societies, when male rulers predominated, is
reflected in Shukra-Niti. The text does not fully discuss how women can play a
leadership role or take gender equality into account. Fostering gender equality and
integration in positions of leadership is now universally acknowledged as being essential
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on conventional knowledge and theoretical precepts. The effectiveness of its teachings, NOTES
however, may not be supported by empirical data or contemporary empirical studies.
The application of evidence-based strategies and the use of many viewpoints can
improve our comprehension of governance and statecraft.

Conclusion

By considering numerous facets of governance, ethics, and leadership, Shukra-Niti

offers an extensive approach to kingship and statecraft. To ensure the welfare of their
subjects and the prosperity of their kingdoms, the king should work to build a
prosperous, just and harmonious society by adhering to the values mentioned in the
text. It highlights the significance of traits like wisdom, righteousness, accountability,
and ethical behavior. The advancement of education and culture is emphasised, along
with the welfare of the populace, economic management, defense and diplomacy.
A critical examination nevertheless exposes several restrictions. The text has
roots in a particular cultural and historical setting, which may limit its application to all
contexts. The requirement for adaptation, diversity and gender equality in modern
governance might not be sufficiently addressed. The text’s lessons might also be
unsupported by empirical research and neglect to take into account various
socioeconomic and governmental institutions.
Shukra-Niti’s concepts must be critically examined and modified in order to be
applied effectively. This requires bringing contemporary governing principles, empirical
studies and societal values into the process. By doing this, leaders may glean insightful
lessons from the book while applying cutting-edge strategies to promote inclusive,
flexible, and efficient governance in today’s vibrant and diverse society.

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Shukra-Niti teaches that a king must protect his subjects and _______ the
guilty.
2. The seven limbs of a kingdom include the sovereign, the minister, the friend,
the treasury, the state, the fort, and the _______.
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NOTES 3. Shukra-Niti classifies kings into three categories: ________, Rajsika, and
Tamsika.
4. Shukracharya suggests using _______ to subdue the opponent by promoting
discord among their ranks.
5. Effective economic management in Shukra-Niti involves supporting commerce,
industry, and _______.
B. State True or False:
1. Shukra-Niti suggests that a king should act based on his own selfish desires.
2. According to Shukra-Niti, a king should exhaust diplomatic channels before
resorting to war.
3. Shukra-Niti disregards the importance of public opinion in governance.
4. Shukra-Niti emphasizes that kings should consult with knowledgeable advisers
and specialists.
5. The concept of the kingdom as a body with seven limbs implies that each part
operates independently.

5.7 SUMMARY

 Ancient Indian sages authored ethical and political treatises known as Niti, with
Shukra-Niti, Chanakya Niti, and Vidur Niti being prominent examples.
 Shukracharya, a significant ancient Indian sage, emphasized the importance of
Niti in governance, arguing that rulers must follow Niti to maintain respect and
effectively govern.
 Shukracharya, son of Rishi Bhrigu and Ushana, studied under rishis like Angiras
and Gautama, gaining knowledge in various fields including politics, astrology,
and medicine.
 Known for his connection with the Asuras (demons) and for his contributions to
astrology and philosophy, Shukracharya is credited with creating the Shukra-
Niti, focusing on ethical governance, diplomacy, and statecraft.
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 The authenticity of Shukra-Niti is debated among scholars, with arguments for NOTES
its genuineness based on its detailed descriptions of ancient practices and its
references to traditional knowledge, while arguments against its authenticity
highlight inconsistencies in historical context and writing style.
 The debate on Shukra-Niti’s authenticity emphasizes the complexity of ancient
texts, urging a focus on their content and insights rather than solely on their
origins.
 Shukra-Niti teaches that a king’s primary duties are to protect his subjects and
punish the guilty, achievable only through Niti Shastra.
 The concept of kingship involves a kingdom as a body with seven limbs,
emphasizing the balance and interdependence of its parts.
 Shukracharya classified kings into Satvika, Rajsika, and Tamsika based on
their virtues and alignment with moral principles.
 Public opinion is crucial in governance, advocating participatory government
and listening to subjects through a network of spies.
 The text provides guidance on the qualities and duties of a king, including wisdom,
righteousness, bravery, and the protection of subjects.
 Diplomacy is emphasized for maintaining peaceful relations, with strategies like
Bhedaniti (creating discord), Guerilla strategy, Kutayuddha (deception), and
cutting supplies.
 Effective governance includes selecting capable ministers, maintaining a well-
trained army, and strategic planning.
 Economic management involves supporting commerce and agriculture, ensuring
fair taxation, and preventing unrest from economic exploitation.
 Shukra-Niti stresses the importance of self-control, cultural advancement, and
ruling according to dharma (righteousness and moral obligation).
 The text’s traditional focus may need adaptation to modern governance,
emphasizing flexibility, inclusion, and empirical evidence over rigid adherence to
ancient norms.
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NOTES
5.8 GLOSSARY

 Shukra-Niti: A treatise attributed to Shukracharya, focusing on the principles

of governance, diplomacy, and ethics.
 Asuras: Demons in Indian mythology, often contrasted with Devas (gods).
 Angiras: A rishi under whom Shukracharya initially studied the Vedas.
 Sanjeevani mantra: A mystical chant believed to have the power to bring the
dead back to life.
 Matsya Purana: An ancient Indian text, the only known source that references
Shukra-Niti.
 Arthashastra: An ancient Indian treatise on politics, economics, and military
strategy, often compared to Shukra-Niti.
 Kuru dynasty: A historically significant ruling dynasty mentioned in the text,
though its reference raises questions about the dating of Shukra-Niti.
 Satvika: A king characterized by virtues like duty, kindness, bravery, and
detachment from pleasure.
 Rajsika: A king with mixed traits, less virtuous than Satvika but not as negative
as Tamsika.
 Tamsika: A king with negative traits, considered a subject oppressor and aligned
with demons.
 Divine Authority: The belief that a king’s power is endowed by God, legitimizing
his rule.

5.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions-1

A. 1. Shukra-Niti
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3. Matsya Purana NOTES

4. Lord Shiva
5. ethical governance
B. 1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. True

In-Text Questions-2

A. 1. punish
2. army
3. Satvika
4. Bhedaniti
5. agriculture
B. 1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False

5.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Comment on the debate that revolves around the authenticity of Shukra-Niti.

2. Critically analyse the concept of kingship and statecraft in Shukra-Niti.

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NOTES 3. Write short notes on:

a. Concept of Military and Warfare in Shukra-Niti.
b. Concept of Governance and Economic Management in Shukra-Niti.
4. What is the main argument in favor of the authenticity of Shukra-Niti?
5. How does Shukra-Niti classify kings, and what are the characteristics of each
type?
6. Describe the concept of the kingdom as a body with seven limbs in Shukra-
Niti.
7. What diplomatic strategies are mentioned in Shukra-Niti for subduing an enemy?
8. Why does Shukra-Niti emphasize the importance of public opinion in governance?

5.11 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Nagar, V. 1992. Kingship in the Shukra-Niti. Delhi: Parimal Publication Pvt.

Ltd.
 Acharya, N. K. 1987. The Polity in Shukra-Nitisara. India: Vagdevi Prakashan.
 Krishna, O. 2016. “Political, Economic and Ethical Vision of Shukracharya in
Shukra-Niti”. Inroads, 5(1 & 2): 33-35.
 Mukerji, K. P. 1948. “The Army, Warfare and Diplomacy According to Shukra-
Nitisara”. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 9(1): 31-40.
 Sharma, Susheel Kumar and Singh, Vinod Kumar. 2010. “Indian Idea of
Kingship”. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 71(2): 383-398.

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UNIT V: KAUTILYA: THEORY OF STATE

LESSON 6 KAUTILYA: THEORY OF STATE

Kautilya: Theory of State

LESSON 6 NOTES

KAUTILYA: THEORY OF STATE

Dr. Nishant Kumar
Associate Professor,
Dayal Singh College, DU
Structure
6.1 Learning Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Kautilya’s Arthashastra
6.4 Origin of the State
6.5 Ends and Function of the State
6.6 Saptanga Theory (Seven Limbs of the State)
6.7 The Theory of ‘Rajamandala’ (Inter-state Relationship or Mandala Theory)
6.8 Espionage System
6.9 Taxation System
6.10 Kautilya and Welfare State
6.11 Kautilya and Machiavelli
6.12 Summary
6.13 Glossary
6.14 Answers to In-text Questions
6.15 Self-Assessment Questions
6.16 References/Suggested Readings

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Discuss about the ancient Indian philosopher Kautilya.
 Understand the characteristics of Kautilya’s Arthashastra, his Rajamandala theory
on inter-state relationships; and his Saptanga theory and Espionage system.
 Discuss differences and similarities between Kautilya and Machiavelli. Self-Instructional
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NOTES
6.2 INTRODUCTION

Within Arthashastra Tradition, Kautilya’s is the only complete work that is available to
us. Kautilya in his Arthashastra salutes Shukra and Brihaspati as pioneers of
Arthashastra tradition and also recognises his indebtedness to their teaching. After
Kautilya, Kamandaka’s Nitisara, Mitramisra’s Rajanitiprakasha and Anantadeva’s
Rajadharmakustubha and the epic Mahabharata also reflect traits of Arthashastra
tradition. For Kautilya ‘Artha’ meant subsistence. Arthashastra, therefore, would mean
the mode of acquisition and preservation of land. More widely, it signified the science
(or art) of government and statecraft. Generally, texts in this tradition contained detailed
examination of rulers and principles of state administration. The authors seem to apply
the methods of observation, analysis and deduction with respect to political life. Another
important characteristic of writing in this tradition was the centrality given to Dandaniti.
Dandaniti represented the science of politics and was primarily concerned with the
application of coercive authority of rulers.

Characteristic Features of Kautilya’s Arthashastra

1. Indicates a strong tendency towards a materialistic view of human ends.

2. Doctrine of seven constituents of state-organic theory of the state.
3. Authority and functions of the temporal ruler are discussed in detail.
4. Centrality of danda as means to protect people and save dharma. Danda is
often seen as synonym for law.
5. Includes a complete theory of government with King, amatyas and administrative
organisation as its integral parts with each being equally important.
6. Concerns about geopolitics were discussed for the first time. Glimpses of inter-
state relationships are exhibited.
7. Concern about relative morality is central. The difference between rajdharma
(during normal times) and apadharma (during emergencies) is very explicit.

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8. Scientific analysis of power in relative terms and holistic view of state power NOTES
(bala). Realist perception of international relations.
9. Politics developed as independent science, at least relative autonomous to the
fields of morality, ethics and theology.

6.3 KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASTRA

Arthashastra deals primarily with two sciences- Varta or economics, and Dandaniti or
science of government. Together they develop as Arthashastra, or the science of worldly
prosperity and well-being. The Arthashastra, like the later Shukra-Nitisara, is essentially
a handbook for the guidance of the governing group, manual for the practical politician.
For the most part, Kautilya prescribes for specific needs and uses tested administrative
procedures. Kautilya’s Arthashastra’s significance in the great tradition can be noted
as follows:
1. Kautilya was truly a realist, and he dealt with all problems which were faced by
the kings of his time and suggested pragmatic solutions in the field of statecraft.
2. Among all the great writers on politics, he is the only one who has written
independently on the subject, i.e., on politics separated from religion, ethics, or
morality.
3. He gave the country a strong and centralised administration, which had not
been known to the Indians before.
There has been a controversy about the date of its composition. Winternitz, Dr.
Jolly, and Keith hold the view that it was composed in the early centuries of the Christian
era. Winternitz says that if this work is the creation of Kautilya, why is there no account
of the Mauryan Empire and system of government as described by the Greek historians?
According to Dr. Jolly, in respect of religion and laws there is great similarity between
Kautilyan Arthashastra and Yajnavalkya Smriti; hence, the Arthashastra should have
been composed in the 3rd century, which is the period of Yajnavalkya Smriti’s
composition. But like all ancient texts, there remains authentic controversy regarding
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NOTES were first discovered in 1904, when some wandering monks brought some palm leaves
to Mysore Oriental Library. R. Shamasastry, the librarian recognised it as Arthashastra
and gradually translated it in English and published it in various European journals in
1908. It contained 15 books, 150 chapters and 180 topics. R. P. Kangle calls
Arthashastra the ‘science of politics’, A. L. Basham calls it the ‘Treatises on Polity’;
and D. D. Kosambi considers it as the ‘science of material gain’.

6.4 ORIGIN OF THE STATE

In the course of a dialogue, Kautilya says that the state originated when people got
weary of the law of the fish (Matasya Nyaya), or widespread anarchy in society due
to greed and selfishness, and selected Manu to be their first king. It was settled that the
king would receive one-sixth of the grains, one-tenth of the merchandise and of the
gold as his due share. This revenue enabled the king to ensure the security and well-
being of the subjects.

6.5 ENDS AND FUNCTION OF THE STATE

The ends of the state, according to Kautilya, were not merely the maintenance of
peace and order or protection of the people but to enable the individual to attain
highest self–development with the help of the state. Functions of the state included: a)
Protection, means guarding the country both against internal troubles as well as foreign
aggression; b) Maintaining Common Law, the state was expected to maintain the
common law as embodied in the ancient customs and usages of the land; c) Upholding
social order: The third function of the state was the protection of dharma of the land,
within the sphere of which both the state and the society moved. According to Kautilya,
the duty of the king consisted of protecting his subjects with justice. A king upsetting
the social order would prove the vanity of the royal scepter (danda); d) Promotion of
the people’s welfare: The king knew the ideal that in the happiness of his subjects
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was hidden his happiness and in their welfare his welfare. Whatever pleased him was NOTES
not considered as good, but whatever pleased his subjects was considered as good
for him.

6.6 SAPTANGA THEORY (SEVEN LIMBS OF THE

STATE)

Kautilya nowhere exactly defines the state or sovereignty, but he defines seven elements.
Like the human body, the body-politics is supposed to possess various limbs (angas).
Undoubtedly, Kautilya presented an organic theory of state, where each of these parts
was given a specific duty and overall welfare and flourishing of the state depended on
the performance of these parts. Every element is supposed to be at par in importance
to others; but their importance depends upon the achievements they have obtained.
Kautilya states these elements as, swami (king), amatyas (ministers), janapada
(territory), durg (forts), kosha (treasury), danda (royal scepter), and mitra (allies).

Swami (King)

Even a glance at the Arthashastra will convince anyone that Kautilya was a strong
advocate of monarchy. As a matter of fact, he keenly desired to establish the rule of a
strong and powerful king over the country. But it was also expected to perform social
welfarism to keep the people happy. In fact, Kautilya’s entire classic has been written
with the King at its centre.

Qualities of the King

The qualities of the king, according to him, are born of a high family, godly, possessed
of valour, virtuous, truthful, not of a contradictory nature, grateful, having large aims,
highly enthusiastic, not addicted to procrastination, powerful to control his neighboring
kings, of resolute mind, having an assembly of ministers of no mean quality and
possessing a taste for discipline. These are qualities of a high order and of an inviting
nature. Further, Kautilya prescribes restraint of the organs of the sense. Success in
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NOTES study and discipline depends on the restraint of the organs of sense, which can be
forced by abandoning lust, anger, greed, vanity (mana), haughtiness (mada), and
overjoy (harsha).
Kautilya proposes a very strict and disciplined training program. He emphasised
the importance of character-building for young Princes. He argues that vices could be
related to pleasures as well as wrath. Among vices related to pleasures that should be
controlled, he mentions hunting, gambling, sleeping by day, sensuousness, excess
indulgence with women, drunkenness, excess love for dancing, singing, music, and
useless travel. At the same time, the vices due to wrath that should be avoided included
tale-bearing, violence, treachery, envy, slandering, unjust seizure of property, reviling
and assault. Kautilya also advocated extreme care in personal safety of the King and
for this the palace was to be guarded by series of circles of warriors. He was supposed
to have multiple bedrooms and not even the closest associate should know which
bedroom he was using on a particular night. The troubles of the king may be either
internal or external. Internal troubles are more serious than external troubles, which
are like the danger arising from a lurking snake. Troubles due to a minister are more
serious than the other kinds of internal troubles. Hence, the king should keep under his
own control the power of finance and the army. Kautilya, being a realist, suggested the
King use spies even to test the loyalty of his ministers from time to time. Further, being
a realist, he suggests that no threat, however trivial, should be overlooked.

Duties of the King

As already mentioned, the Kautilya King was central to all activities in the state.
Therefore, the expectations were also very high, and he had to perform multiple
functions.
1. Executive: The foremost duty of the King was to protect and provide security
to the people. Lokaksema or welfare of all was to be the principle on which the
quality of his administration was to be judged. This included maintaining law
and order and peace in society and acting against all forms of aggression, either
internal or external. Other than these, he was also expected to help the people
during natural calamities.
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2. Judicial: King was the ex-officio head of the judiciary and the highest body for NOTES
appeals. Kautilya suggests that the principles of dharma should always be followed
while administering justice and King should be cautious that no one is punished
without proper inquiry and evidence.
3. Legislative: Some legislative activity was added in the Kautilya state in the
form of the legislative edict (shasanadesh). However, the King should always
make laws keeping the principles of dharma in mind. All laws must be discussed
with learned and experienced people for guidance and no law made should be
arbitrary.
4. Administrative: These included the appointment of the minister and the control
exercised over them by the king. Appointing the right person to the right post
and assigning work to them according to their capacities is a significant
administrative function.
5. Religious: He appointed the high priests. The domestic priest and the officiating
priests appointed by the king performed his domestic rites and the sacrifices.
Kautilya suggested that King should respect priests and give good amount of
donations to the religious institutions as it created a sense of legitimacy for him in
the hearts of masses who were mostly religious.
6. Revenue: It was his duty to see that the treasury was not depleted. He also
looked into the accounts of receipts and expenditures. He appointed the
Controller General, who was responsible for collecting the revenue. He was
responsible for maintaining taxes and controlling inflation. Also, Kautilya suggests
a rational system of taxation so that the poor do not feel oppressed.
7. Military: As supreme commander of the army, the king had the duty of inspecting
the process of recruiting soldiers as well as seeing that they were well paid, and
their families were taken care of. Further, he should also keep an eye on the
condition of elephants, the horses, the chariots used by the army and the infantry.
During wars and in peace time, he should keep his soldiers motivated and reward
achievements graciously.

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NOTES 8. Enlightened: Patronage of learned men, of those who were experts in different
fields of knowledge was an added benefit to the king and he should ensure that
these learned men are taken care of and are used for guidance.
Kautilya was firm believer in royal paternalism. Kautilya’s king was to be a
benevolent despot-responsible only to himself, accountable to none, like the father in
the management of the children, guided only by his affections and the duties which
affection implants in the paternal heart. Kautilya gives the welfare of the citizens the
first place in all considerations of policy; the good of the people and their sustained
happiness were the main ends for the service of which he chalked out an elaborate
administrative system.

Amatya (Ministers)

The most important function of the mantri (ministers) was to render advice to the king.
Kautilya insists that the king should appoint three to four counsellors. Probably the
reason for not making too many ministers was to protect and maintain state secrecy.
As regards the quality of the minister, who constitutes an important element of
sovereignty, Kautilya says that he must be a native and born of high family, influential
and well trained in all kind of arts. He must be wise, bold, eloquent, skilful and intelligent.
He must be pure in character, loyal in devotion and endowed with excellent conduct.
He must be enthusiastic and affectionate. But he must be free from procrastination and
fickle mindedness. Their recruitment was to be based on principles of merit and King
could employ certain parameters to judge the efficiency of these ministers. The King
had to test the ministers from time to time for loyalty and based on that they were to be
rewarded or punished. If any minister was found to be plotting against the King or
failed the tests, they were not only to be removed but also killed as they share many
secrets which they could split if left alive.

Janapada

Janapada includes the territory and the people. The king is asked to look personally
into the affairs of the state. This makes one assume that the state has to be small if
personal attention is to be given. There are indications that a janapada is to contain
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forest, rivers, mountains, and minerals. As for people Kautilya says that loyalty is the NOTES
most essential characteristic expected. They should pay taxes on time, should be
hardworking, religious, disciplined, and ready to even die for the country.

Durg (Fort)

The fourth element of sovereignty in the Arthashastra is the fort (durg). Kautilya says
that the construction of defensive fortification on all quarters of the boundary is symbol
of strength, provided they are situated in the strategically best suited regions, such as a
water fortification on an island in the midst of a river, or a plain surrounded by low
ground, a mountainous fortification such as rocky track or a cave, a desert fortification
in areas of a wild tract devoid of water, and a forest fortification full of water. It would
be used to garrison soldiers, store food grains for emergencies and also act as hideout
for king when there is danger.

Kosha (Treasury)

The treasury is the fifth element of the state. According to Kautilya the treasury
accumulated in a righteous and legitimate manner should be retained by the king. The
king may inherit the treasury which must be filled with gold, silver, precious stones,
jewels, and gems and it should be capable of withstanding the strain of expenditure
during times of calamities of long duration. If needed, the king can increase it through
increased taxation. Kautilya sets different kinds of taxes but maintains that they should
never be oppressive. He also suggests that the treasury should be judiciously used and
not wasted on personal aggrandisement and show-off.

Danda (Army)

Next important element in order of priority is army. Kautilya suggests the need for a
standing army and non-dependence on mercenaries. The basic qualities of a good
army according to Kautilya are that recruitment is fair and based on inheritance, they
should be loyal, strong, full of vigor and energy. The army must be invincible and
endowed with the power of endurance, trained in fighting various kinds of battles,
skilful in handling various forms of weapons. The army should not bring in any state of
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NOTES of calamities. He also mentions that the army men should be paid well, and families
should be cared for so that the soldiers are not worried about their future while at war.
Soldiers must be ready to die for the country, but the king also must ascertain that they
are well equipped with right kind of weapons and are provided with whatever is
required to keep them happy and loyal.

Mitra (Ally)

The last element is the friend of the king, who is always ready to help the king and is
also capable of helping him in times of war and natural calamity. The King should
continuously increase the number of friends and should send gifts and pleasantries as a
mark of friendship. Allies are equally important for economic activities and trade
relations.
Kautilya believes that when any one of the elements of state falls into trouble, it
threatens the overall setup and should be considered a serious issue.

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Arthashastra combines______ and _________.
2. The____________should be fertile with abundant_____________.
3. A_______________is preferred over____________according to Kautilya.
4. _______refers to___________in Kautilya’s theory.
5. The treasury should be accumulated in
a______________and____________manner.
B. State True or False:
1. Kautilya’s Arthashastra was written in the 5th century BCE.
2. The state originated to counteract societal anarchy and ensure security and
well-being according to Kautilya.
3. In the Saptanga Theory, “Kosha” refers to the army.
4. Kautilya suggests that the king should not rely on mercenaries for the army.
5. Ministers should be tested periodically for loyalty according to Kautilya.
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NOTES
6.7 THE THEORY OF ‘RAJAMANDALA’ (INTER-
STATE RELATIONSHIP OR MANDALA THEORY)

Kautilya formulated a detailed theory of foreign policy and inter-state relations. For
him, the constant expansion of territory was not only a strategic tactic but an important
duty of King. He refers to the King as vijigishu (the one desirous of conquest). Inter-
state relationship, according to Kautilya, was important because no state existed in
isolation. In reality he assumes that every state is in constant search for power over
other land. His theory of international relations is based on the maxim that a friend’s
friend is likely to be a friend and an enemy’s friend is an enemy. This theory popularly
known as Rajamandala or Mandala theory assumes a set of four concentric circles
consisting of a set of twelve states with three in each circle. At the center of this
political network was of the political system ruled by the vijigishu. The next set is
represented by ari (the enemy state). The third set represented the Madhyama king
who could turn out to be an ally or an enemy and intervene on the side of the victor by
supporting him or decide to be neutral (udasina) or an enemy (ari). The fourth circle
represented the Udasina states which were largely non-interfering and neutral
considering their distance from the centre. The relationship between the vijigishu
keeps varying as he progresses in his conquest.
Circle I: Comprising of Vijigishu, his friend and his friend’s friend.
Circle II: Comprising Ari (enemy), his friend and his friend’s friend.
Circle III: Comprising Madhyama King, his friend, his friend’s friend.
Circle IV: Consisting of Udasina King, his friend and his friend’s friend.
Spatial location and distribution of state system are two important geopolitical
aspects related to interstate relations. There are certain basic assumptions on which
his theory is based:
a) No state can exist in isolation.
b) There are no permanent friends or foes.
c) Bordering states can never be friends.
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Fig. 6.1 A Hypothetical Illustration of the Mandala Theory

Source: Political Theory of Ancient India: A Study of Kingship from the earliest times to circa
A.D. 300 by John W. Spellman (Oxford University Press: London, 1964)

Based on the relative location, Kautilya claims that the conquering King can
predict the nature of other states both in front and in the rear. The move in the mandala
is like one in the game of chess where one presumes the next move of another and
based on that plan one’s own move. In front of the vijigishu, bordering its state is the
ari (enemy), sharing the border with the enemy state would be conqueror’s friend
(mitra), next to him sharing its border would be ari mitra (friend of enemy). Next to
ari mitra is mitra mitra (conqueror’s friend’s friend) and sharing its border is enemy’s
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an enemy of the rear who could attack from back (Parshnigraha). Sharing its border NOTES
would be vijigishu’s friend of the rear (Aakranda). Next is the friend of the rearward
enemy (Parshnigrahasaara), and next to it is the ally of the rearward friend
(Aakrandasaara). These are the relations of state immediately in front or rear of the
conquering king. Other than these, he conceives of the Madhyama king who is the
intermediary king and therefore initially indifferent, but during process of conquest
there is every possibility of him either joining the vijigishu or his enemy as an ally.
Then there is the Udasina king who occupies territory far beyond the above states
and is hence in a position to assert its neutrality.
Kautilya also talks about international policy during peace times. These include
conciliation (sama); presents (dana); dissensions (bheda); and punishment (danda).
He also discusses in great detail the six-fold policies or Shadgunas as war tactics:
a) Sandhi (Alliance): That which is considered to be of mutual good faith and
conducive to mutual interest is termed as sandhi. Kautilya seems to favour
peace over war and asserts that whenever the output of peace and war are
of equal value, king should favour peace over war because war is always
costly and has that indeterminacy attached to it.
b) Vigraha (War): War is inevitable if attempts for peace fail. It is an attempt
to compel others to accept one’s supremacy and sovereignty. Kautilya claims
that when the king is convinced of success, he can go to war anytime. War
becomes imminent in the policy of expansionism. War could be of different
kinds: open battle; treacherous battle; and silent battle. When fought in daylight
and in well-defined locality it is an open war. Threatening on one front but
attacking from back, destroying enemy when he is in trouble or winning war
by bribing opposite army forms part of treacherous war. Silent battles are
fought with the help of secret agents without directly engaging in war.
c) Yaan (Military Expedition and March): A king can march if it disturbs
the plans of the enemies. Marching can also confuse the enemy and act as a
natural deterrent. However, Kautilya suggests that marching should always
look like one is prepared for war and should include allies because it might
turn into real war anytime.
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NOTES d) Aasana (Halting): Halting is also a very significant strategy. Kautilya suggests
that king can halt at the borders to exhibit his preparedness for war but at
the same time he should know when he can pause the war in case, he needs
to buy time to bring in additional force or wait for an ally to join his side.
e) Samashray (Seeking Protection): Seeking protection is yet another
significant strategy for the king needs to survive to fight another day. So, if a
king faces a sure shot defeat, he should seek protection from a powerful
king. Obviously, the terms would not be as according to the king, but it is
also a rational choice as the last resort.
f) Dvedibhaava (Duplicity): Kautilya is not a moralist. He is a realist and
suggests that for the larger interest of the kingdom, the king can use the
strategy of duplicity. Duplicity can be initiated by using secret agents through
bribing the ministers and army men of the enemy state or by not following
the terms of sandhi when the need be.
The strategy of the victor is contingent on four factors.
(a) Relative power equation among the victors,
(b) Objectives or empirical deviations from the ideal policy prescribed,
(c) Classification of the motivations of the actors involved, and
(d) The unanticipated and unpredictable nature of the chance factors.
An important feature of the Arthashastra is that it presupposes wars of conquest
to be a fit purpose for an ambitious king and devotes a great deal of space to advise on
how to defeat all the other kings in the area. But the discussion of the Mandala theory
and the idea of dharmavijaya show that the Mauryan pursuit of all Indian dominion
was necessarily its background. The Arthashastra’s model king does not annex defeated
kingdoms, submerge their rulers, and absorb them into his own state apparatus. On
the contrary, the ideal of conquest according to dharma (as opposed to asuravijaya
and lobhavijaya) obliges him to deal leniently with his conquered foe, perhaps re-
installing him or placing a relative on the throne. The throne does not disappear. Tributes
will certainly be asked for, but the vassal kingdom so far as we can see keeps most of

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its autonomy. However, all these are context-dependent and subject to the interests of NOTES
the conquering King. Kautilya suggests that before any expedition, king should assess
the power of the other kings and characterises them as samrajya (equal state);
heenarajya (weaker king); and balwaanrajya (strong king). Relative strength however,
is to be calculated based on an overall assessment of not only strength of army or
physical strength (utsaaha bal) but also mantra bal (intellectual power) and prabhu
bal (economic power).

6.8 ESPIONAGE SYSTEM

Espionage in the Arthashastra polity occupied a very important place in the function of
the state (or the king). Spies disguised in several forms remained busy in conveying
important news of the kingdom to the king. He believed that a strong and efficient
espionage system was crucial for the king in both internal and external affairs. He
classifies spies into two categories: samstha (’the establishment’, where the agents
are stationed in a single place, the headquarters); and samcaras, (’the rover’, agents
who move from place to place). These are further subdivided into categories.
Samsthas are stationed at the capital and help the king get all the information
from within the capital. Equally, they are used to testing the amatyas and other
administrative officers from time to time to check their loyalty towards the king. They
are of five kinds specialising in different functions: Kapatika (sharp disciple with capacity
to guess the minds of others); Udasthita (ascetic at centre of monks); Grihapatika
(spy posing as farmer); Vaidehaka (merchant spy at centre of traders); Tapasa (bogus
ascetic made a secret agent but poses as a seer). These spies are mainly responsible
for ascertaining the purity or impurity of the king’s servants.
Samcaras are special agents trained for both information gathering and
assassinating. They are used against enemies and can also be stationed in other kingdoms
(both of allies and enemies) to perform secret services. They are primarily categorised
as: Sattrin (an orphan trained as agent by state); Tiksna (assassin who secretly liquidates

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NOTES all enemies of state); Rasada (a chemist and poison-giver); Bhiksuki (Brahmin nun
who spies on families that trust them). They are expected to collect information and
inflict punishments.
Other than this, he talks of Ubhayavetana spies who were engaged in foreign
state. They play an important role in setting up propaganda and creating dissension in
the other states when need be. Women also play a significant role as secret agents,
disguising themselves as dancers and prostitutes in foreign states. They are given the
task of luring the ministers and kings of foreign lands, befriending them and extracting
secrets. When need be, they are also expected to secretly kill the enemy using poison
or other substances.

6.9 TAXATION SYSTEM

Kautilya articulated a sophisticated taxation system in his treatise, the Arthashastra,

highlighting its vital role in statecraft. Central to his Theory of State, the taxation system
ensured a steady revenue stream essential for public welfare, infrastructure, and defense.
Kautilya emphasised diverse revenue sources, including agriculture, trade, industry,
and natural resources, with taxes proportional to income, typically one-sixth of
agricultural produce. Efficient tax administration was crucial, advocating honest officials,
meticulous record-keeping, and periodic assessment to reflect economic conditions.
Kautilya’s principles stressed equity, fairness, and flexibility, ensuring taxes did not
overburden any group while offering reliefs during economic hardships. Revenue
utilization focused on public welfare, military maintenance, and administrative costs,
reflecting Kautilya’s vision of a strong, stable, and prosperous state. By integrating
equitable taxation into the broader governance framework, Kautilya’s system aimed
at economic prosperity, social justice, and administrative efficiency, ensuring that the
state remained robust and harmonious. This taxation framework not only reinforced
the state’s economic foundation but also promoted social stability and good governance,
underscoring Kautilya’s profound understanding of economic and political dynamics.

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NOTES
6.10 KAUTILYA AND WELFARE STATE

One of the central themes in Kautilya’s Arthashastra is the concept of a welfare state,
an idea that he developed long before the term became commonplace in modern
political discourse.
Kautilya envisioned a state where the ruler’s primary responsibility was the
well-being and prosperity of the citizens. He believed that the welfare of the people
was intrinsically linked to the strength and stability of the state. The ruler, according to
Kautilya, should act as a guardian and a caretaker, ensuring that all citizens have
access to the basic necessities of life and that their economic and social welfare is
protected.

Principles of a Welfare State in Kautilya’s Vision

Given below are the principles of Kautilya’s welfare state:

1. Provision of Basic Needs: Kautilya emphasized the importance of ensuring
that all citizens had access to food, clothing, shelter, and healthcare. He advocated
for state intervention in times of famine, natural disasters, or economic distress
to provide relief and support to the affected population.
2. Economic Prosperity: Economic welfare was a crucial aspect of Kautilya’s
welfare state. He proposed a comprehensive economic policy that included
agricultural development, trade regulation, industry promotion, and prudent fiscal
management. Kautilya believed in the importance of a balanced and sustainable
economy where the state played an active role in regulating and promoting
economic activities to ensure prosperity for all.
3. Social Welfare: Kautilya’s welfare state also encompassed social policies aimed
at improving the quality of life for citizens. He supported the establishment of
educational institutions, healthcare facilities, and public infrastructure. He believed
that a well-educated and healthy population was essential for the state’s long-
term stability and prosperity.

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NOTES 4. Protection of Rights and Justice: Justice and the protection of citizens’ rights
were central to Kautilya’s vision of a welfare state. He advocated for a robust
legal system that ensured fairness and justice for all, regardless of social status.
Kautilya’s legal framework included provisions for the protection of property
rights, fair treatment of labour, and measures to prevent exploitation and
corruption.
5. Employment and Livelihood: Kautilya recognised the importance of
employment for the welfare of the state. He proposed policies to promote job
creation through the development of various sectors like agriculture, handicrafts,
and trade. The state was to ensure that everyone had the opportunity to earn a
livelihood and contribute to the economy.

Role of the Ruler in a Welfare State

In Kautilya’s vision, the ruler played a pivotal role in the welfare state. The king was
seen as the protector and provider, responsible for the overall well-being of his subjects.
Kautilya emphasised that a ruler should be just, wise, and benevolent, prioritising the
interests of the people over personal gains. The ruler was expected to be proactive in
addressing the needs of the citizens and ensuring that the state’s resources were utilised
effectively for the public good.

Mechanisms for Ensuring Welfare

Kautilya’s Arthashastra outlines several mechanisms to ensure the effective

implementation of welfare policies:
1. Efficient Administration: Kautilya stressed the importance of a well-organised
and efficient administrative system. He proposed a hierarchical structure with
clear roles and responsibilities to ensure effective governance and implementation
of welfare policies.
2. Revenue Management: A well-planned taxation system was essential for
funding welfare programs. Kautilya advocated for fair and equitable taxation,
ensuring that the burden of taxes did not fall disproportionately on any one
section of society. He also emphasised the prudent management of state
resources to maximise public welfare.
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3. Public Works and Infrastructure: Investment in public works and NOTES

infrastructure was seen as crucial for economic and social welfare. Kautilya
proposed the construction of roads, irrigation systems, schools, hospitals, and
other public facilities to improve the quality of life for all citizens.
4. Social Security Measures: Kautilya proposed various social security measures
to protect the vulnerable sections of society. These included provisions for the
elderly, the disabled, and the poor, ensuring that they were not left destitute and
had access to necessary support.

6.11 KAUTILYA AND MACHIAVELLI

One of the most significant comparisons that is often forwarded by scholars is that
between Kautilya and Machiavelli. Some scholars have gone so far as to call Kautilya
as ‘Indian Machiavelli’ or ‘Oriental Machiavelli’. Machiavelli, the political thinker and
stateman of Italy during the Renaissance, is widely considered the first modern thinker.
He was a realist thinker who was not a votary of the purity of means but rather focused
on achievement of ends. He wrote in The Prince that the ruler, in order to succeed,
must learn, how not to be good with the people whom he regarded as utterly selfish
and wicked. This text by Machiavelli is often compared with Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
Both of them, though belonging to different times and environments, lived in an age of
transition. Following the line it is asserted that ‘like Machiavelli, Kautilya has also
made a distinction between moralities of the ruler and the ruled and both of them have
put the ruler above the ordinary canons of morality. There are also other striking
similarities between Kautilya and Machiavelli.’ Machiavelli and Kautilya avoided
discriminating between good and evil and writing from the standpoint of the ruling elite
they found their interest almost entirely in the affairs of state and man’s political behavior.
Both of them persuade almost the same goal, namely, how power can be maintained
and enlarged. Their views on the nature of statecraft are also very similar. The focus in
both the texts is on the King. He is pivotal and the entire strategy of statecraft depends
on the efficiency of the king. Therefore, both of them advocated centralised monarchy
as the best form of government. They focus extensively on the training and education
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NOTES of young princes and establish politics as an autonomous field separating it from ethics
and morality. For example, both of them believe that if it is in the larger interest of his
subjects, King can overlook the principles of morality. He should be ready to use
unfair means, even treachery if it was aimed at larger good of his people, for he is to be
judged solely based on how he improved the life of his people. In fact, both of them
suggest different sets of moral principles for common masses and King, and within
these principles they consciously make distinctions between King’s duty during normal
times and during emergencies. Both of them also asserted that King need not be
religious in personal life, but he should be wise enough to use religion to create social
bonds among people and should never insult religion in public. Even in the field of
international relations, they reflect a similar attitude. They both support unification of
smaller kingdoms and developing a larger and United Kingdom which is self-sufficient.
At the same time, both favour expansionism as an important policy for the King. There
are also similarities in the way they define the role of spies and propaganda for the
king.
But Kautilya’s comparison with Machiavelli in this respect cannot be pushed
too far. It is said of Machiavelli that he was neither moral nor immoral but was unmoral.
But even this cannot be said of Kautilya. Kautilya sought out to refabricate the craking
(social) edifice, and his approach to politics, that is why, tends to be integral. He refers
to the trivarga-dharma, arthaa (the material well-being) and kama (sensual pleasure)
as the goal of life. However, equally significant is the fact that the whole conception of
danda in Kautilya is structured in order to uphold dharma and it is this aspect that
guides his assertion in Arthashastra. Further, the state envisaged in Kautilya’s
Arthashastra subordinates moral principle of the necessity of its own existence and
welfare, and the same attitude is assumed towards religion. Also objectionable is the
inherent eurocentrism in the claim of Kautilya as ‘Oriental Machiavelli’. Kautilya
produced his scholarship many centuries before Machiavelli and in a completely different
place in history. Forced comparison often does not do justice to the unique characteristic
of individual authors and their contribution in their fields. It also creates doubts about
the authenticity and autonomy of these thinkers and is therefore avoidable.

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Conclusion NOTES

Kautilya’s Arthashastra is a seminal text that outlines the principles of statecraft,

governance, and diplomacy with remarkable clarity. His Rajamandala theory presents
a sophisticated understanding of inter-state relationships, emphasising the importance
of alliances and enmities in maintaining a state’s strategic position. Kautilya’s Saptanga
theory, which identifies seven key elements of a state, underscores his comprehensive
approach to governance, while his espionage system highlights the critical role of
intelligence in maintaining power and security. Comparing Kautilya to Machiavelli
reveals both striking similarities and notable differences. Both philosophers emphasise
the pragmatism required for effective governance and the importance of strategic
manipulation in politics. Machiavelli’s ideas in The Prince resonate with Kautilya’s
focus on realpolitik and the use of cunning to achieve and retain power. However,
while Machiavelli’s work is often seen as a reflection of Renaissance political realism,
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is deeply rooted in ancient Indian contexts, including religious
and cultural considerations. His theories offer a more holistic approach, incorporating
aspects of ethics and statecraft that Machiavelli’s work typically sidelines. Kautilya’s
contributions to political philosophy provide a rich and nuanced perspective on
governance and statecraft that continues to influence political theory today. His detailed
analysis of state functions, diplomacy, and intelligence underscores the complexity and
depth of his thought, while comparisons with Machiavelli highlight both the universality
and distinctiveness of his ideas. Understanding Kautilya in the context of his time and
in comparison to later political theorists offers valuable insights into the evolution of
political philosophy and its practical applications.

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Kautilya’s Mandala theory emphasizes the constant expansion of __________.
2. The first circle in Mandala theory consists of Vijigishu, his friend, and his friend’s
__________.
3. According to Kautilya, there are no permanent friends or __________.
4. Kautilya’s six-fold war tactics are known as __________.
5. Espionage is divided into stationary spies (Samstha) and __________ spies. Self-Instructional
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NOTES B. State True or False:

1. The Mandala theory is based on the idea that states can exist in isolation.
2. Kautilya favors war over peace whenever possible.
3. The role of spies in Kautilya’s polity is crucial for both internal and external
affairs.
4. Kautilya’s views on statecraft and Machiavelli’s are identical in all aspects.
5. Kautilya suggests that in times of sure defeat, a king should seek protection
from a powerful ally.

6.12 SUMMARY

 Kautilya’s Arthashastra focuses on two sciences: Varta (economics) and Dandaniti

(science of government).
 Kautilya is noted for his pragmatic solutions and independent writing on politics,
separate from religion or ethics.
 The Arthashastra was discovered in 1904 and later translated by R. Shamasastry.
 It contains 15 books, 150 chapters, and 180 topics.
 The state originated from a need to counteract societal anarchy (Matasya Nyaya),
with people selecting Manu as their first king.
 Kautilya’s ends of the state include peace, order, and individual self-development.
 Saptanga Theory outlines seven elements of the state: King (Swami), Ministers
(Amatya), Territory (Janapada), Forts (Durg), Treasury (Kosha), Army (Danda),
and Allies (Mitra).
 The king must possess specific qualities, such as being born of a high family,
virtuous, and disciplined.
 Duties of the king include executive, judicial, legislative, administrative, religious,
revenue, military, and enlightened functions.
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 Ministers (Amatya) are to be wise, bold, loyal, and free from procrastination. NOTES
 The state (Janapada) should have a fertile territory and loyal people.
 Forts (Durg) should be strategically located and act as defensive structures.
 Treasury (Kosha) should be accumulated righteously and used judiciously.
 The army (Danda) should be loyal, well-equipped, and not reliant on mercenaries.
 Allies (Mitra) should support the king in times of war and calamity.
 Kautilya’s Mandala theory focuses on foreign policy and inter-state relations,
emphasizing territorial expansion.
 A state is part of a larger system and cannot exist in isolation.
 The Mandala consists of four concentric circles of states, each with different
roles: Vijigishu (conqueror), Ari (enemy), Madhyama (neutral/intervening), and
Udasina (neutral).
 Kautilya’s strategies during peace include conciliation, presents, dissension, and
punishment.
 The six-fold war tactics (Shadgunas) are Sandhi (alliance), Vigraha (war), Yaan
(military march), Aasana (halting), Samashray (seeking protection), and
Dvedibhaava (duplicity).
 Espionage is vital, with spies classified into stationary (Samstha) and roaming
(Samcaras), each with specific roles.
 Comparisons between Kautilya and Machiavelli highlight similarities in their views
on statecraft, morality, and the role of the ruler, though they lived in different
times and contexts.

6.13 GLOSSARY

 Arthashastra: Ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military

strategy.
 Varta: Economics, one of the two main sciences in Arthashastra. Self-Instructional
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NOTES  Dandaniti: Science of government, the second main science in Arthashastra.

 Matasya Nyaya: Law of the fish, symbolizing anarchy in society due to greed
and selfishness.
 Saptanga Theory: The theory of the seven limbs of the state.
 Vijigishu: A term used by Kautilya to describe the king who is eager for conquest.
 Madhyama: The neutral or intermediary king in the Mandala system.
 Dvedibhaava: Strategy of duplicity or deceit. Kautilya advises using duplicity
for the kingdom’s benefit, such as using secret agents to bribe or manipulate
enemy officials, or breaking alliances if it serves a greater strategic purpose.
 Ubhayavetana: Spies engaged in foreign states to spread propaganda and
create internal discord.

6.14 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions-1

A. 1. Varta; Dandaniti
2. Janapada; natural resources
3. standing army; mercenaries
4. Durg; forts
5. righteous; legitimate
B. 1. False
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. True

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In-Text Questions-2 NOTES

A. 1. Territory
2. Friend
3. Foes
4. Shadgunas
5. Roaming
B. 1. False
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True

6.15 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Saptanga Theory? Do you think the King has a pivotal role in Kautilya’s
theory of state? Explain.
2. Critically analyse Kautilya’s theory of the origin and functions of the state.
3. Discuss Kautilya’s understanding of international relations with reference to
Rajamandala theory. Do you think it is relevant in contemporary times? Comment.
4. Explain Kautilya’s views on the Espionage system and its importance for the
state.
5. What are the two main sciences addressed in Kautilya’s Arthashastra?
6. How does Kautilya’s Arthashastra differentiate itself from other ancient political
writings?
7. According to Kautilya, why did the state originate?

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NOTES 8. List the seven elements of the state in the Saptanga Theory.
9. What qualities does Kautilya recommend for a good minister?
10. What is the main focus of Kautilya’s Mandala theory?
11. How many concentric circles are there in the Mandala theory?
12. What are the four-fold strategies Kautilya suggests during peace times?
13. How does Kautilya classify spies in his espionage system?
14. What is the main difference between Kautilya and Machiavelli’s views on
statecraft?

6.16 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ghosal, U. N. 1959. A History of Indian Political Ideas. London: Oxford

University Press.
 Sharma, R. S. 1959. Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient
India. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
 Brown, D. Mackenzie. 1953. The White Umbrella: Indian Political Thought
From Manu to Gandhi. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California
Press.
 Varma, V. 1974. Studies in Hindu Political Thought and Its Metaphysical
Foundations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

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UNIT VI: AGGAÑÑA SUTTA (DIGHA NIKAYA):
THEORY OF KINGSHIP

LESSON 7 AGGAÑÑA SUTTA (DIGHA NIKAYA):

THEORY OF KINGSHIP
Aggañña Sutta (Digha Nikaya): Theory of Kingship

LESSON 7 NOTES

AGGAÑÑA SUTTA (DIGHA NIKAYA):

THEORY OF KINGSHIP
Prof. Tapan Biswal
Former Associate Professor, School of Open Learning, DU
Prashant Barthwal
Assistant Professor, Sri Aurobindo College, DU
Structure
7.1 Learning Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 The Issue of Political Authority and Obligation
7.4 Evolution of Kingship and the State in Buddhism
7.5 Concept of State in Aggañña Sutta
7.6 The Issues of Socio-political Equality from Buddhist Lens
7.7 Summary
7.8 Glossary
7.9 Answers to In-text Questions
7.10 Self-Assessment Questions
7.11 References/Suggested Readings

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Discuss about the issues of political authority and obligations in ancient India.
 Evaluate the evolution of Kingship and the state in Buddhism.
 Elaborate on the evolution of the concept of state in Aggañña Sutta.
 Discuss the issues of socio-political equality from Buddhist lens.

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NOTES
7.2 INTRODUCTION

Literature from the Vedic era simply elaborates “the earliest expression of Indian social
1
and political concepts, which served as the foundation for later development” . As
these ideas were later developed and further enhanced through speckled channels
such as “the literature of Brahminical laws (mentioned in Smriti’s), Adikavayas’,
Dharmashastra, (above all) unorthodox canonical works of the Buddhists and Jains’,
where the classical Sanskrit and Tamil literature and the literature of historical records
2
of the later periods discovered it in most detailed manner” . Thus, there is no doubt to
give the textual consent, hereafter, that early Buddhism was in part a product of the
societal change in the Ancient India. It is also evident that it responded to the needs of
the people during a period when the material culture was increasing rapidly.
While it appears that this was the case, our historical narrative indicates that
dissenting perspectives to the effect that early Buddhism is incompatible with social,
political, and legal notions are frequently found in the writings of earlier Buddhist thinkers.
There are a variety of causes behind this. For the beginners, it has long been considered
that “early Buddhism was almost totally concerned with individual ethics, which has
proven to be incorrect. As a result, several academics have asserted that the primary
3
goal of early Buddhism was the spiritual upliftment of the individual person” . Meanwhile,
for academicians, including some of the contemporary one’s, an attempt has been
made to examine the teachings and preaching of the Buddha or early Buddhism in the
context of the Vedic philosophy. For example, Radhakrishnan writes that “the Buddha
did not perceive himself as announcing the establishment of an entirely new religion.
He was raised as a Hindu and died as a Hindu. He was reiterating the ancient values of
4
Indo-Aryan civilisation, but with a renewed emphasis on them” .
This lesson attempts to extract the “political ideology of the Buddha from
Theravada Buddhist texts to relate it to the idea of the non-self (anatta). Although the
account from Buddhist texts does not clearly demonstrate that the Buddha, throughout
his life, invented a political theory that is relevant to the modern political system in the
modern era, his advice to rulers of state regarding righteous policy and strategy of
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duties, are still relevant today” . Therefore, to solve contemporary political difficulties NOTES
and conflicts, the study of the political ideas of the Buddha would be a promising
alternative path to take.

7.3 THE ISSUE OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY AND

OBLIGATION

Early Buddhist ideas on the nature, grounds, and justification of political obligation and
authority are examined in the Pali canon and in the non-canonical literature of early
Buddhism to better understand these perspectives. Furthermore, “it will be concerned
with the assumptions and acceptance of political obligation and authority by thinkers
from the pre-Buddhistic era, notably those from the Vedic and later Vedic periods well
6
as post-Vedic thinkers, to gain a better understanding of early Buddhist concepts” .
We will then look at sections in the Vedic and Buddhist texts where political obligation
and power are explored about one. Since mankind has reached “a certain level of
maturity in formulating a range of expressions of political obligation and authority,
ideas of political obligation and authority can be classified in various ways and viewed
7
from multiple perspectives” . Concentrating on the Indian tradition, we can discover
several notions about political obligation and power that were acknowledged as
acceptable by Indian thinkers.
Before moving on to social contract debates, let us first analyse the theological
doctrine of early Buddhism, which was primarily accepted by orthodox scholars. There
are four different variants of this that we can differentiate. The monistic perspective of
theology is the first form of theological theory to be developed. As a result of “the
sacrifice of the cosmic person, it asserts that the ruler’s authority derives from the
rejection of the cosmic person, and the subjects are required to obey the ruler because
he works to bring about their salvation by the omnipotent cosmic or divine will of the
8
cosmic person” . More specifically, this point of view is implied by the divine
construction of the social order, which is divided into four classes, each with a defined
function. A second version of the “theological doctrine that of divine invention, also
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NOTES and is referred to as “divine creation” in the text. As the narration goes, everything was
flawless in the natural world at the beginning of time, and men coexisted in peace and
9
contentment, sharing whatever they had in common” . According to the available
historical evidence, passages like this, which can be found in several other courses,
modify the idea of the ruler’s divine creation to provide him with religious traits, if not
divinity itself. Following the logic, the ruler’s authority is primarily an emanation of, and
a delegation by, divine authority. The monarch has no obligations to his subjects other
than to coerce them into adhering to religious rules and regulations. The magico-religious
view is the third variant of the theological theory. It has played a significant role “in the
history of Hindu political views in one form or another. It is used to describe the belief
that the authority and obligations of the sovereign are derived from the highest and that
10
they are founded on a reciprocal link between spiritual authority and temporal power” .
The final version of the theological theory is “the concept of a mutually beneficial
agreement between the king and his subjects, approved by the divine being. Even
though the accounts of this agreement are recounted in various writings, their details
fluctuate, and they can be taken as suggestive of conceptions of both divine selection
11
and commercial agreement” .
Meanwhile, the opinions are not “the result of logical or empirical reasoning;
instead, they have merely held ideas that have never been supported by rational
arguments; furthermore, none of the four variants presents a meaningful notion of a
social contract, even though some references are made to agreements between subjects
12
and rulers on a sporadic basis” . According to early Buddhist scriptures, orthodox
thinkers claimed authority in knowledge and divine power in ethical, social, and political
life. This claim was inspired by Brahma, and it was supported by evidence in the early
13
Buddhist literature. Any “statement claiming to be authoritative” should, according to
the Buddha, only be accepted or rejected after one has personally verified its truth or
untruth. Indeed, this is true even about comments made by the Buddha himself. With
the “Vedic intellectuals’ naive theological and metaphysical notions being rejected and
the authority of the dhamma being recognised, early Buddhism advanced a social
contract theory as a possible explanation for the genesis of kingship. In those days and
beyond, this belief had a significant impact on the country’s political life, possibly more
14
so than any Vedic or post-Vedic doctrine about the origins of kingship” . This is
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chronicling man’s evolution from his natural state to a fully formed civilisation. The NOTES
15
people recognised the first king and were referred to as Mahasammata (“approved
monarch” or “Raja”).
The democratic and ethical characteristics of the Ramayana, for example, stand
out as being distinctive of the early stages, as opposed to those of the Mahabharata,
which stands out as being specific of post-Vedic epics. Ancient India’s state expanded
in size and complexity after the Buddha’s time, partly owing to the rise of rulers such as
the Nanda and Maurya dynasties. During this period, scholars developed a theory of
reason for the state, which distinguished the realm of the state’s morality from the
individual’s morality. Rhys Davids observes that “despite its good-natured irony and
imaginative etymologies, the Aggañña Sutta reveals a sound and healthy perception
16
and is considerably closer to the actual facts than the Brahmaa stories” . V. P. Varma
says that “while the narrative of Mahasammata is significant from a sociological
standpoint, it did not serve as a springboard for a more significant amount of subsequent
17
sociological and political study in the writings of later Buddhist scholars” .

7.4 EVOLUTION OF KINGSHIP AND THE STATE IN

BUDDHISM

The state emerges as a punitive entity tasked with imposing law and order, without
which human beings will not be able to thrive in a peaceful society. According to the
contract between “the state and the subject, one command and the other must comply
with the command. In the agreement, the institution of taxes represents payment for
18
specific work, and taxation symbolises the contract” . As a result, it is inescapable,
19
and neither the subjects nor the state have any other option except to live with it” .
The institution of kingship is the most important institution of a state, and it is
ruled by or centred on a single man, the monarch. As a result, kingship differs from
other social organisations characteristic of stateless civilisations, such as chiefdoms.
Monarchies are symbolic of the centre of a culture that has been structured into a
state. These individuals are regarded as intermediaries between the numerous elements
and interests that combine to form society’s social order and between the human and Self-Instructional
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NOTES extra-human worlds. Throughout “the Diggah-Nikaya, which is considered one of

the most important Buddhist texts, the Brahmaa Vasetta inquires of the Buddha as to
whether or not the Brahmaic claim to supremacy was justified. An extraordinary incident
in history had supported Buddha’s point of view when he was asked whether he
agreed or disagreed with the question. There was a time when individuals were faultless
20
to the end of having no physical substance to be found in their bodies” . According to
the Diggah-Nikaya, “the Aggañña Sutta traces the history of human civilisation. It
provides a short explanation of the first difficulty, which is creating a monarchy or
state. The changing nature of socio-political and economic phenomena is traced through
21
history, from embryonic to a more complicated form” .
According to the Aggañña Sutta, “the genesis of kingship evolved and passed
through several stages of human society before reaching its current position. These
signify that those ethereal creatures were in a state of peace, happiness, prosperity,
and quiet for an extended period. Eventually, though, this absolute purity was no longer
22
possible, and imperfection began to intrude into the picture” . Differences in gender,
race, religion, and other characteristics manifest, bringing life down from the ethereal
to the corporeal plane. First and foremost, “they became involved in the food gathering
process. Second, through increasing food production and cultivating agricultural lands,
men began to organise themselves within their families in the third place. Fourth, they
chose to split their rice plants or grain amongst themselves and set up boundaries to
23
protect their property (mariyadam thapemsu)” . After reaching the final stage, a
person, in addition to securing his own portion, also seized another’s that had not been
assigned to him, and since then, theft, blaming, false speech, and the use of force have
spread among the populace as a result. Following this crisis in society, “the beings
(satti) assembled and debated possible solutions to the problem. They then agreed to
choose a being (satta) to assist them in resolving this social issue. As recorded in the
24
Aggañña Sutta, Mahasammata was not accorded the status of a monarch (Raja)” .
He was only permitted to preserve peace and order by implementing the customary
laws of the community or tribe, which he did at the will of the people. Gokhale asserts
that, as the Suttanta pointed out, “the key intent of state is to ensure the rule of law
against of every societal evil thought to provide the safeguard to the subject like property
25
and family and to uphold the power of righteousness over the wrongdoings” . The
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Mahasammata was declared to be the king to accomplish this. Then, he was referred NOTES
to as Khattiya. He was “the Lord of the farmsteads, and Raja pleased and protected
the people with his righteousness Dhamma, which was later changed to Raja. To put
it another way, the state, according to this view, is founded on the widespread acceptance
26
(mahajanasammata) of its objectives and functions” .
Through the practice of Dhamma, “it is supposed to defend and safeguard the
rights of individuals while also creating conditions of happiness for those who are
27
under its jurisdiction (Dhammam pare ranjetti)” . Finally, the state (is the antithesis
of anarchy and the culmination of the Dhamma). In the Aggañña Sutta narrative,
“Dhamma appears as deliverance from conflicts resulting from selfish wants, and it
serves as the foundation for the establishment of order or state. The Diggah-Nikaya’s
Aggañña Sutta contains a substantial spectrum of thoughts on creating the state and
its concomitant, the social contract theory. It goes without saying that this story could
28
not be believed to be true” . However, the Buddha made an attempt to describe the
position of the king in the manner in which he believed it should be. Without question,
he stated that the monarch had been chosen and that his most essential job was to
maintain peace and order while also protecting the property of his subjects rather than
levying taxes. When it comes to the Mahasammata, Jayatilake says that “the Aggañña
Sutta makes no mention of his belonging to a particular caste when he was elected by
his community to serve as their leader. In the sense of supreme legislative authority,
Sovereignty is bestowed in the people, according to the Buddhist doctrine of the
29
social contract” . There are a few things that are extremely important to the Buddhist
notion of kingship. They are as follows: “Although the king in question was chosen by
the entire population (Mahajanasammata), he is treated as a prime inter pares (a
man who is “like unto himself and not unlike himself”) because of the equality of man
after his election, even though he is a handsome and commanding figure in his own
30
right” . According to the Aggañña Sutta, “the Mahasammata was not only a lawgiver,
but he was also chosen by the people as their leader from amongst themselves, and he
lived off rice that was provided by the people as well. When it comes to early Buddhist
attitudes on kingship, the evidence provided by the Pali Canonical texts appears to be
31
fairly equivocal” .

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NOTES Buddhists’ attitude toward kingship is informed by “the Aggañña Sutta’s

description of the origins of the institution of kingship, which in turn indicates what kind
of kingship Buddhists may support; that is, a form of kingship that arose as the result of
a social compact. Described in the Aggañña Sutta, the first monarch was chosen by
32
the people as a means of ensuring justice and order amongst themselves” .
Mahasammata was the one who had been ‘agreed upon’ or “allowed” to reign. He
was the one who had done so. Compared to Brahminical notions of kingship, in which
33
the king played a “cosmic and divine function,” as Heine-Geldern puts it, and “was
34
regarded to be either an incarnation of a god or a descendant from a god or both, ”
this is a significant departure from the Western concept of kingship. But according to
the story of this Sutta, he was neither king nor legislator. Still, he served as the sort of
executive who ensured that law and order were maintained throughout society.
Moreover, because he was unbiased, he punished anyone who violated the customs
and traditions of the group in question. In this way, “he could be seen as a law and
justice authority of some sort.”
Consequently, as the discourse demonstrates, a primitive social organisation
among human beings also emerged in this manner. According to Aggañña Sutta, the
state came into being during this period of kingship. Consequently, we can deduce that
the Khattiya was not only the Lord of the Lands but also the King of State and the
35
Supreme Ruler over his subjects” . The progression of the Raja’s status demonstrates
progress in the development of kingship over time. As a result, “economic growth
alone will not be sufficient to eradicate theft from a society. On the other hand, there is
no question that people steal due to destitution and unequal distribution of wealth in
society. In these circumstances, there is no justification for punishing a person for theft
36
who takes what is not provided simply for the sake of maintaining their own survival” .
He steals for no other reason than the reality that he has nothing else with which to
support himself and his family. The solution for him does not lie in punishment but
rather in prudent financial management.

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NOTES
In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. The Pali canon contains teachings attributed to the __________.
2. In early Buddhist texts, the king is referred to as __________.
3. The Aggañña Sutta provides insights into the origin of the state and __________
theory.
4. Mahasammata was chosen by the people to ensure __________ and order.
5. The monistic perspective of theology asserts that the ruler’s authority derives
from the rejection of the __________ person.
B. State True or False:
1. The Pali canon is part of the Vedic literature.
2. Mahasammata was chosen to impose heavy taxes on the people.
3. The Aggañña Sutta traces the evolution of human society and the establishment
of kingship.
4. In early Buddhism, Dhamma refers to the cosmic law and teachings of the
Buddha.
5. According to early Buddhist texts, economic growth alone can eliminate societal
issues like theft.

7.5 CONCEPT OF STATE IN AGGAÑÑA SUTTA

According to the Aggañña Sutta of Digha Nikaya, “the origin of the state in Buddhism
is founded on the theory of cosmic evolution of nature. According to this discourse,
the origin of the state can be explained utilising two evolutionary theories: the evolution
37
of cosmology and the evolution of anthropology, both of which are significant” .
Following the teachings of the Aggañña Sutta, “there came a time when the world
contracted, sooner or later, after an interminably long period had passed, and the

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NOTES living beings reborn in the World of Radiance and made of mind and feeding on rapture,
continued to exist for an interminably long period, traversing space and continuing to
38
exist in glory” . The planet began to re-evolve at that point; there was only a single
mass of water, obscurity, and darkness, and living beings were referred to as simply
beings. Nevertheless, the globe continued to evolve, and as “the delicious Earth began
to appear on the surface of the planet, the living species were drawn to it by their need
for it. The sun, the moon, the stars, and constellations were visible to them during their
period of reduced self-luminosity. As a result, they learned about the seasons, months,
39
and years that followed” .
It is said that beings dwelt in “the world of brightness and were maintained by
ecstasy, according to the Aggañña Sutta. When the world revolved, they flew across
the skies and observed the savoury Earth that covered the planet’s surface. They then
took possession of the ground and were stripped of their own brilliance. The colours
of their skin have altered due to the effects of the medication they have taken. Some
40
beings gained in attractiveness, while others lost their attractiveness” . The good-
looking beings began to express their dissatisfaction with the bad-looking humans.
There is ample evidence to suggest that even at the dawn of the world, “when there
was no visible distinction based on birth, there was still societal bias based on the
colour of one’s skin, and this was true regardless of the origin of one’s skin colour.
When the living beings flew with self-luminous lights, the delicious soil appeared on the
surface of the Earth. It served as sustenance for the earliest human beings to consume”.
The tasty Earth was first tasted by living beings with their fingertips, and then “their
physical appearance altered. Those who had a decent physical appearance began to
criticise those who did not. The delicious Earth was no longer present on the surface
of the planet and eventually vanished. When the tasty Earth was no longer present,
fungi appeared before the living beings and provided food for them... After they were
taken, there was a change in their bodies, and they subsequently censured each other
41
for having a horrible physical look, and the fungi departed as a result of this” . The
creepers appeared on the surface of the Earth when the fungi vanished, and they
became a source of sustenance for all living things. Creepers stayed as food for them
for a short period before disappearing. Finally, rice appeared in primitive living creatures
and has been their staple diet ever since that time.
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Although there were human beings on earth “during cosmological evolution, we NOTES
discovered that their obvious gender as male or female did not appear until much later.
After consuming rice as a diet for an extended period, the organs gradually became
male and female, and they eventually engaged in sexual behavior. They constructed
42
cottages in which they could reside separately to conceal their filthy activities” . When
they started having children, their offspring began to gravitate toward the group of
people who shared their skin tone. They constructed the hut so that they could live
separately and engage in sexual intercourse. During this period of evolution, “there
was no compelling need for humans to remain as a group; they were perfectly content
and confident in their ability to live alone by the fraternity to which they belonged,
rarely requiring assistance from others. As a result, the birth of civilisation appears to
be ambiguous; only sexual union cannot be used as a criterion of distinction in an
absolute sense. Their unity grew gradually through time, from the tiny unit to the large
unit, since they shared the same goals and followed the same procedures, which meant
43
they had to work together to establish a social system, which took time to develop” .
Later, those people came to appreciate the value of gathering and storing food grains
for later use. To emphasise “the importance of the distribution of properties, it is important
to mention that it marks the beginning of social relationships as well as the commencement
of a social system. This realisation resulted in expressing oneself freely and having the
willingness to share what one possesses with others. As a result, sacrifices on the part
of the individual were required to further the interests of society. All of those who had
common interests and possessions banded together to form a network of
44
interconnections” . Buddhism pointed out that the primary reason for the disintegration
of absolute society was the deterioration of moral ideals, which eventually led to “the
degradation of morality itself. Malpractices committed in the name of morality brought
the good and the cheerful to their knees. Because of this, the means of reaching happiness
have been watered down in their current state. People’s selfishness was brought to
45
light by their own self-centred egos” . According to the Buddha’s teachings in the
aggañña sutta, this resulted in the greatest revolution in moral standards in the history
46
of humanity .

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NOTES
7.6 THE ISSUES OF SOCIO-POLITICAL EQUALITY
FROM BUDDHIST LENS

It is widely acknowledged that “the Buddha’s teachings apply to all of humanity,

regardless of race, caste, gender, skin color, wisdom or unwiseness, wealth or poverty,
and that his teachings are universal. Buddha absolutely rejected the socio-political
47
milieu that stood for right by birth, as established by one’s genetic makeup” . Instead,
he devised his own philosophy, according to which all human beings have equal rights
in all aspects of their lives. All Buddha’s teachings emphasise “the equality and equal
rights of all human beings in society; however, he never forgets to stress their
responsibilities as members of society. The Buddha specifically emphasised that all
human beings are equal in society; nevertheless, because of ignorance on both the
individual and social levels, as well as social dogma and human desire, we create
48
disparities that threaten the very life of society” . In this section, we’ll go over the
whole Buddhist perspective on equality from beginning to end. Many of the Buddha’s
teachings advocated for the equality of all human beings, and this is one of them. To be
more specific, “the three primary teachings of Buddhism are the principles, Tilakkhana
(three common traits), metta (loving-kindness), and the law of Kamma. These are all
49
considered to be Buddhist beliefs that symbolise the equality of all humans” .
The Buddha places a higher value on equality than other religions. Besides
believing in inequality, he viewed all sentient beings on this planet as equal in terms of
their rights and abilities. The Buddhist doctrine of social justice aims to promote equality
among all people; “it is important to note that this is accomplished through the well-
known principle of ‘Tilakkhana,’ which consists of three common characteristics,
namely (i) Aniccatâ: impermanence, (ii) Dukkhatâ: state of suffering, and (iii) Anattatâ:
50
non-self” . These three aspects of existence are also referred to as the ‘universal
characteristics,’ or in other words, characteristics that are shared by all things and are
therefore universally applicable. That which is recommended “in Buddha’s social
philosophy for the growth of a sense of universal compassion or loving-kindness (metta),
as well as the cultivation of creative altruism, is the most effective teaching for social
integration and co-ordination. To understand metta, one must remember that the Buddha,
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in proposing the deepening and ennoblement of character caused by metta, is not NOTES
motivated by caste or social class considerations. To understand metta, one must
51
understand metta and the Buddha” . Finally, Buddhism emphasises the importance of
the law of Kamma as a fundamental doctrine. Similarly, to the shadow that follows the
person everywhere and at all times in this world as well as the next, as the Buddha
declares: “Grain, property, money, all your cherished things, servants, employees and
52
associates... none of these can you take with you; you must lay them all aside” .
However, whatever kamma you create, whether with your body, voice, or thought, is
your actual property, and you must behave according to the Kamma you have made.
Caste was a primary factor in “the people’s social life during the time of the
Buddha. A person who was born into a particular caste could not, under any
circumstances, change their social standing during their lifetime. When it comes to this
topic, the Buddha’s contribution is his acceptance of the notion that one’s caste can be
changed. He put this philosophy into action by inviting people from all castes, both
53
high and poor, into his community of monks, regardless of their social status” . The
Buddha fostered brotherhood, practised love, sympathy, and compassion, and
proclaimed the equality of all human beings, regardless of caste or gender, among all
people. His order is made up of men and women and social professionals for the
cause of peace. Throughout history, “his brotherly approach toward all beings, his
concern for the well-being of all living beings, and his messages of compassion and a
modest lifestyle have been effective in improving the relations between individual castes.
His teachings are geared toward eliminating the distinction between a superior and an
54
inferior, as well as between the rich and the destitute” .
In reality, societal bias is founded on popular views that are held by the majority
of people. Human beings were introduced as the Son of God, for example. Buddhist
doctrine, may “confidently assert that it has the least discriminatory views toward
women, in contrast to such obstacles and bigoted religious beliefs. Without a doubt,
the Buddha was the first religious leader to provide equal and unhindered chances for
55
female spiritual development. We can confidently pronounce him to have done so” .
The Buddha regularly attacked and questioned the antagonistic attitude toward women
on religious and societal grounds throughout his lifetime. The Buddha, in the Kosala-
Samyutta, refutes “the view that the birth of a daughter was not as much of a cause of Self-Instructional
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NOTES joy as the birth of a son, a belief to which the Brahmins had contributed through their
practice of ritualism. Clearly, the Buddha saw that women had a dignified and vital role
to play in society, and he defined that role with profound clarity, integrating her smoothly
56
into the social fabric” . The Buddha made a concerted effort to bring about significant
improvements in social views toward women. In the Buddhist tradition, women are
not seen to be entirely under the control of men, as they are in Western culture. Buddhism
liberated the woman from her condition as a chattel and gave her the ability to live an
independent living on her own terms. As I. B. Horner put it, “With the expansion of
Buddhism, women as spinsters (single, married, and widowed) and widows (with
rights and duties that were not restricted to childbearing) became an integral part of
57
society” . According to current trends, women are respected and honoured in a
Buddhist society, and they enjoy equal standing with males in terms of respect and
honour within their community. Women are also accorded “the same respect and
recognition as men in their community”.
In the same way, widow women have the same rights and status as any other
woman, including the freedom to marry if they so choose. According to reports, “widows
58
in Buddhist countries have the same rights to remarry as males” . This is a development
of Buddhism relevant to modern society since it is concerned with women’s equal
rights and status.
Buddhism embraces everyone into its “fraternity without making any distinctions
because everybody has an equal right to develop themselves. When it comes to
defending the equality of all men, Buddhism does not dismiss or disregard the inequalities
that exist between individuals due to other variables such as inheritance, environment,
59
or past karmic influences” . Although human beings may differ in their interests and
capacities “because of their diverse historical growth, their essential needs are
fundamentally the same on all three levels: material, psychological, and spiritual. Aside
from that, the Buddha felt that everyone had the right to seek salvation via meditation.
Justiciability entailed the chance for a better life via the exercise of equal rights and
liberties. The existence of a society that denies its members equality and justice would
60
make it impossible for that society to function based on nonviolence” . Violence is the
law of the jungle, and nonviolence is the law of the land, just as it is in the wilderness.
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must be met with justice. Similar to this, “every adult member of the community has the NOTES
freedom to choose their representatives for political or religious governing bodies
when it comes to electing those representatives. It is an absence of justice when this
61
option is denied to a person” .

Conclusion

As a result, we have comprehensively explained the genesis of “the state, society,

politics, property, and other aspects of human society that are critical to the governance
of the human race. The gregarious nature of man is satisfied when he is joined with
members of his own family and members of other families, preparing the path for
social existence. Slowly but steadily, a man comes to understand himself and his fellow
beings, which eventually leads to the establishment of a government by a person, ruler
62
(king), or a collection of governors” . As a result, the social norms, as well as the
boundaries of the governmental administration, have been established. While maintaining
objectivity, “the Buddha stressed the fragility of kingdoms and established the link
between rulers and those they ruled. The fundamental teachings of the Buddha were
impermanence, suffering, and the absence of a self, and these ideas were reflected
throughout all of the master’s teachings and speeches. He pushed for the people’s
63
freedom combined with a realisation for mankind to live in peace and perfection” .
Crimes were discovered, and the perpetrators were brought to justice. Gender equality
is maintained in an indiscriminatory manner. So, the Buddha’s political ideology serves
as a paradigm for future political institutions and organisations and current political
institutions and organisations.

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. According to the Aggañña Sutta, the origin of the state is founded on the
theory of _________ evolution of nature.
2. The delicious Earth was first tasted by living beings with their _________.
3. The primary reason for the disintegration of absolute society, according to
Buddhism, is the deterioration of _________ values.
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NOTES 4. The Buddha’s teachings emphasize the equality and equal rights of all human
beings in _________.
5. The three universal characteristics in Buddhism are impermanence, _________,
and non-self.
B. State True or False:
1. The Aggañña Sutta suggests that the origin of the state can be explained solely
through the evolution of cosmology.
2. The beings initially existed in the World of Radiance, feeding on rapture.
3. The delicious Earth continued to exist indefinitely as the primary sustenance
for living beings.
4. The Buddha’s teachings promote inequality based on race, caste, and gender.
5. Women in Buddhist societies are given equal respect and recognition as men.

7.7 SUMMARY

 Early Buddhist views on political obligation and authority are explored in the
Pali canon and non-canonical literature.
 Pre-Buddhist Vedic and post-Vedic concepts are compared to understand early
Buddhist perspectives.
 Four theological doctrines related to political authority in early Buddhism are
identified: monistic, divine invention, magico-religious, and a mutually beneficial
agreement.
 The concept of kingship in early Buddhism evolves through the Aggañña Sutta,
tracing from a natural state to the establishment of a social order.
 Kingship is seen as a social contract with the Mahasammata elected by the
people to maintain peace and order.
 Buddhist texts suggest the state emerged to impose law and order, differentiating
kingship from other social structures like chiefdoms.
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 Kingship evolved to maintain justice, indicating that economic growth alone NOTES
cannot eliminate societal issues like theft.
 The Buddhist concept of kingship focuses on moral and ethical governance
rather than divine or cosmic authority.
 The Aggañña Sutta of Digha Nikaya describes the origin of the state through
cosmic and anthropological evolution.
 Initially, beings existed in the World of Radiance, feeding on rapture and traversing
space.
 As the world evolved, beings were drawn to the delicious Earth, resulting in
changes in their appearance and societal biases based on skin color.
 Primitive living beings consumed various natural substances like fungi, creepers,
and rice as their primary sustenance.
 Gender differentiation and sexual behavior emerged over time, leading to the
formation of social units and the development of civilization.
 The concept of societal cooperation and the distribution of properties marked
the beginning of social relationships and systems.
 Buddhism attributes the disintegration of absolute society to the deterioration of
moral values.
 The Buddha’s teachings emphasize the equality of all humans regardless of race,
caste, gender, or wealth.
 The principles of Tilakkhana (impermanence, suffering, non-self), metta (loving-
kindness), and the law of Kamma are central to promoting equality.
 The Buddha challenged caste-based discrimination and advocated for the
inclusion of all castes in his monastic community.
 Buddhist doctrine is less discriminatory towards women compared to other
religions, providing equal spiritual development opportunities.
 Buddhism supports the equal rights and status of widows and encourages societal
respect and recognition for women.

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NOTES  Everyone has the right to seek salvation and a better life through meditation,
and the denial of equal rights undermines justice and nonviolence.

7.8 GLOSSARY

 Pali Canon: The collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition,

containing teachings attributed to the Buddha.
 Monistic Perspective: A theological view where the ruler’s authority stems
from a cosmic person, implying a divinely constructed social order.
 Divine Invention: A concept suggesting the ruler’s authority originates from
divine creation, portraying the ruler with religious traits.
 Aggañña Sutta: A Buddhist text detailing the evolution of human society and
kingship, providing insights into the origin of the state and social contract.
 Khattiya: A term for the king or ruler in early Buddhist texts, indicating the
evolution of kingship from being a protector of laws to the Supreme Ruler.
 Diggah-Nikaya: A collection of long discourses in the Pali Canon, containing
important Buddhist texts like the Aggañña Sutta.
 Social Contract Theory: A theory in political philosophy that views the
legitimacy of authority or government as stemming from a contract or agreement
among individuals.
 Kamma (Karma) - The law of moral causation, where actions have
corresponding consequences.
 World of Radiance - A realm where beings exist in a luminous state, feeding
on rapture.
 Dukkhatâ - The state of suffering, one of the three universal characteristics in
Buddhism.
 Nonviolence - A principle of peaceful coexistence and justice in society.

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NOTES
7.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions - 1

A. 1. Buddha
2. Khattiya
3. social contract
4. peace
5. cosmic
B. 1. False
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. False

In-Text Questions - 2

A. 1. cosmic
2. fingertips
3. moral
4. society
5. suffering
B. 1. False
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True
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NOTES
7.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is mentioned about political thoughts, rights, and duties in ‘Aggañña Sutta’?
2. Explain the idea of kingship and statehood in Buddhism.
3. What does Buddhism say about socio-political equality?
4. What are the four variants of theological doctrine related to political authority in
early Buddhism?
5. How does the Buddhist concept of kingship differ from Brahminical notions of
kingship?
6. What is the role of the Mahasammata in early Buddhist political thought?
7. How does early Buddhism view the relationship between economic growth and
societal issues like theft?
8. How did the beings initially exist according to the Aggañña Sutta?
9. What natural substances did the primitive living beings consume as their primary
sustenance?
10. What societal biases emerged as beings’ appearances changed?

7.11 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Verma, V.P. 2017. Ancient and Medieval Political Thought. Agra: L.N.
Agarwal Publishers.
 Himanshu Roy & M.P. Singh. 2020. Indian Political Thought. New Delhi:
Pearson Education.
 J.J. Roy Burman. 1996. Hindu-Muslim Syncretism in India. Economic and
Political Weekly, vol.31, No.20 (May 18 1996).

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Endnotes NOTES
1. M. Curtis (ed.) The Great Political Thinkers, Vol. 1, 1961, p. 23
2. Ibid., for more detail, see also A. L. Basham, The Wonder that Was India, 1971 (reprint),
p. 80.
3. Ibid, p. 34.
4. Ibid, p. 259.
5. A. L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, Op. Cit., p. 79.
6. Ibid, p. 85
7. Ibid. or for more detail see also https://openresearch- repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/
1885/10549/2/02Whole_Piyasiri.pdf
8. Ibid.,
9. Ibid., p. 34.
10. Ibid, p. 55.
11. Ibid, p. 69.
12. A. L. Basham, Op. Cit., p. 150.
13. Ibid.
14. A. K. Coomaraswamy, Hinduism and Buddhism, p. 38.
15. Ibid.
16. T. W. Rhy Davids, Buddhist India, 1903, p. 132.
17. V. P. Varma, Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought, Laxmi Narain Agarwal
Publication, Agra, 2011 (reprint), p. 98.
18. Ibid., p. 112.
19. I. B. Horner, Women and Primitive Buddhism, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers, Delhi,
1999, p. 189.
20. Ibid, p. 200.
21. G. P. Malalsekera and K. N. Jayatilleke (ed.), Buddhism and the Race Question, 1958, p. 45.
22. Ibid., p. 55
23. Edmund Stapleton, Buddha and Buddhism, Harper and Collins, New York, 1957, p. 92.
24. Ibid.,
25. B. G. Gokhale, The Early Buddhists View of the State, 1969. P. 59
26. B. G. Gokhale, Dhamma as a political Concept in Early Buddhism, 1968, p. 69.
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NOTES 27. Ibid, p. 23.

28. Ibid, p. 22.
29. G. P. Malalsekera and K. N. Jayatilleke, Op. Cit., p. 55.
30. Ibid, p. 78.
31. Ibid, p. 112.
32. D. N. Bhagvat, Early Buddhist Jurisprudence, 1939, p. 156.
33. R. Heine-Geldern, Conceptions of State and Kingship in South Asia, New York, Ithaca,
1956, pp. 6-7
34. Ibid, p. 78
35. N. Wagle, Society at the time of Buddha Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1966, p. 34.
36. Ibid, p. 35.
37. Manvendra Kishor Das, Political Philosophy of Buddhism (As Depicted in The Jatakas
and Their Communities, Ph. D Thesis, Delhi University, 1989, p. 257
38. Ibid, p. 250.
39. S. A. Padmavati, Buddha and Gandhi, A Comparative Study of their Social and Political
Ideas, Ph.D. Thesis, Delhi University, 1990, pp. 396-398.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid., p. 24.
43. Ibid., p. 78, 89., 99-103
44. Ibid, p. 105, 115, 134-36.
45. Ibid., p. 106.
46. Ibid, p. 56.
47. S. R. Goyal, Indian Buddhism after the Buddha, Kusumanjali Book World Publications,
Rajasthan, 2003, p. 139.
48. Ibid, p. 23.
49. Political Concepts in Early Buddhist Literature, https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/
bitstream/10603/19031/11/11_chapter%201.pdf
50. Ibid., p. 58.
51. G. Omvedt, Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste, Sage Publications,
2000, p. 78.
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53. Ibid, p. 167 NOTES

54. P. T. Yodkhun, An Analytical Study of the Principle of Political Science in the Tipitaka, p.
98.
55. Ibid, p. 89
56. Ibid, p. 123.
56. Horner, op. Cit, p. 245
57. Ibid,
58. Yodkhun, Op. Cit., p. 145.
59. Ibid, p. 250. Abeynayake, Op. Cit., pp. 145-49.
60. Ibid, p. 123.
61. Abeynayake, Op. Cit., pp. 145-49.
62. Ibid, p. 123.
63. Ghoshal, Op. Cit., p. 45, 98, 99-110.

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UNIT VII: THIRUVALLUVAR–ETHICAL LIFE
AND POLITICS

LESSON 8 THIRUVALLUVAR–ETHICAL LIFE AND

POLITICS
Thiruvalluvar–Ethical Life and Politics

LESSON 8 NOTES

THIRUVALLUVAR–ETHICAL LIFE AND POLITICS

Revathy V Menon
Assistant Professor,
Deshbandhu College, DU
Structure
8.1 Learning Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Question on Time and Period of Writing
8.4 Importance of Thiruvalluvar and Thirukural
8.5 Translations of Thirukural
8.6 Personality of Thiruvalluvar
8.7 Essentials from the Teachings of Thiruvalluvar
8.8 Summary
8.9 Glossary
8.10 Answers to In-text Questions
8.11 Self-Assessment Questions
8.12 References/Suggested Readings

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Understand the meaning of question on time and period of writing by
Thiruvalluvar
 Discuss the meaning of importance of Thiruvalluvar and Thirukural
 Explain the meaning of translations of Thirukural

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NOTES
8.2 INTRODUCTION

Western thought focused primarily on man and society and tended to disregard man’s
relationship with his maker; oriental thought reversed this trend and focused more on
man’s relationship to his maker than on man’s relationship to man. Valluvar learned the
most from both schools of thought and his greatest accomplishment was to combine
the two for the first time in thought history.
Thirukkural is one of the world’s oldest ethical works that has survived to the
present day. It has been praised for centuries and is written in understandable Tamil in
the form of couplets. It has been translated into several Indian and European languages.
Due to its ethical precepts, the Tamil-speaking people venerate Thirukkural as the
Tamil Veda (holy text). In comparison, the Sanskrit book Arthashastra by Kautilya is
more well-known. For Indian thought, our studies have been constrained and limited
to the Sanskrit literature as the only ancient work on politics and economics, we need
to move beyond.
When it comes to the word ‘Thirukkural,’ ‘Thiru’ signifies ‘holy,’ and ‘Kural’
means ‘anything short.’ The first line of each Kural has four metric feet, and the second
line has three. Kural Venba is the Tamil name for this style of couplet. Four lines make
up the metrical composition known as Venba. It is generally acknowledged to be the
most challenging form in which to write poetry. Even more, restrictions are placed on
the practitioners of the Kural, a smaller Venba. Valluvar voluntarily gave into the tyranny
of the uniquely developed Kural meter, and by mastering it, he was able to attain the
greatest tension between matter and form. He also empowered words with meaning
by engaging in a focused type of verbal exercise. Here, poetry had evolved into a
dense work of art that was as meticulously carved as the images on the Mamallapuram
rock temples, not a rhyming stream of joyous loquacity. The Kural’s flow is very
modest and dignified, glittering with audacious thought and vivacious style. The Kural
is not an inorganic object that has been mechanically cut. It resembles an organism that
has excellent coordination and has been active for 2000 years.
The couplets implicitly assume that all people in India have the same four life
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porul, inbam, and veedu. These can be interpreted as sensuality, material prosperity, NOTES
upright life, and freedom from the cycle of birth and death in English. However,
Thirukkural only addresses the first three objectives. The fourth goal is assumed to be
attained automatically if one lives in accordance with the ethical standards outlined in
the book.
These couplets are typically credited to a single author who goes by the name
Thiruvalluvar. The weaving caste is referred to as Valluvar (According to some
interpretations, Valluvar is a subcaste of the Paraiyar people in the Indian state of
Tamil Nadu. They serve as the Pallars and Paraiyars of Tamil Nadu’s hereditary priests.
Basically, Valluvar denotes the caste). The Tamil honorific title Thiru is appended to
this to obtain the author’s name. The person’s identity is unknown, even though he is
the subject of various folklore. According to identical ideas found in texts from various
times, multiple authors offer various dates for the work. It could be as old as the
second century BC or as recent as the eighth century AD. Therefore, it is impossible
to be positive about either the authorship or the date. Furthermore, we are unsure if
there were more couplets than what has been passed down to us. Additionally, it is
possible that certain couplets were added afterward. However, we treat it as a single-
authored creation or work.
In both its earthly and cosmic surroundings, he considers the magnificent
spectacle of the phenomenon of man and sees it in its whole in the open skies of
unclouded faith. He pinpoints the sources of interpersonal discord and draws up a
thorough code of conduct that would promote harmony both within and without the
person. He focuses on the emotional ripple effects of human behavior in all human
relationships, such as that between a son and his father, a husband and wife, a citizen
and their government, and a soul and God.
In addition to his efforts to accept the human condition in all its complexity, he
expresses his insightful insights via the flawless perfection of poetry. Sometimes through
drama, sometimes through poetry, he arrives at the highest emotional outcomes. He is
a sophisticated author who supercharges his words with meaning and achieves an
extraordinary conciseness and an insurmountable density through self-control and
aesthetic attention. Because of this, his commentators must extract every bit of meaning
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NOTES he brought to bear on the original. The Thirukkural is made up of 1330 Kurals and
133 chapters. Within this, the porul (material things) and paal (division) among the
three life goals encompass issues relating to politics, economics, and administration.
All these subjects have been interconnected.

8.3 QUESTION ON TIME AND PERIOD OF

WRITING

Thiruvalluvar is thought to have lived between the third and the first century B.C.,
according to evidence. The Chera, Chola, and Pandya dynasties, which ruled over
various regions of Tamil Nadu during this time, maintained extensive diplomatic ties
with a variety of nations, including Egypt, Greece, and Rome in the west, Burma,
Malaysia, and China in the east, Ceylon in the south, and the Himalayan kingdoms in
the north. The age of Valluvar is impossible to estimate with any degree of accuracy.
The age of Thiruvalluvar has been the subject of drastically divergent theories in the
world of Tamil studies. However, there is some literary and historical evidence that
supports this claim, but it is merely indicative and not conclusive. The Manimekalai
and the Silappathikaram are two well-known epics from the Sangam period. There is
internal evidence in these two epics that proves Ilango Adigal, the author of
Silappathikaram, and Sathanar, the author of Manimekalai, were contemporaries. Many
Tamil scholars concur that the Manimekalai and Silappathikaram texts were composed
in the second century A.D. and that the Gajabahu who was worshipped at the Kannagi
temple was the Gajabahu of the second century A.D. The Thirukkural has been praised
in Manimekalai, and the author is described as “Poyyil Pulavan,” or “the poet who is
free from untruth.” Several Thirukkurals have been reverently quoted in Silappathikaram
as well. Thiruvalluvar is referred to in several Sangam writings that are clearly from the
second century A.D. as the “Divine Poet.” These facts indicate that Thiruvalluvar must
have existed prior to the second century A.D.

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NOTES
8.4 IMPORTANCE OF THIRUVALLUVAR AND
THIRUKURAL

Before Thiruvalluvar’s Kural, there was a sizable body of Sangam poetry. There was
Agattiyam, a grammar that had been compiled even earlier, and Tolkappiyam a well-
known Tamil grammar, had been created in the second century B.C. These are the
pathogens and antigens responsible for Thiruvalluvar’s success in Tamil Nadu. After
incorporating the best aspects of Buddhism, Jainism, and Vedic Brahmanism into the
Tamil value system, Thiruvalluvar did three things: he preserved it, codified it, and
expanded upon it. Valluvar, who lived in a time of dogmatic disputes, became an
intellectually free man by looking above the petty arguments of his day to the universal
truths that underlie and unite all religions. He possessed the insight and capacity to
simultaneously comprehend the eternal out of the temporal, the entire out of the part,
and the wisdom to see the part in the context of the complete. With a ferocity unmatched
in poetry, he afflicted the most dominant traditions of the day. He declared with
confidence:
By birth all men are equal;
it is by the differences in their action
that their worth is rendered unequal.
Valluvar’s art is dominated by the idea that love is the pinnacle of human
expression and that pursuing a life based on love is the highest humanly possible virtue.
According to Valluvar, an act of love must be unprompted and unmotivated by the
hope of receiving compensation in the afterlife. He believed that a loving gesture should
be valued for the immediate satisfaction it brings. It has been discovered that Valluvar
created a powerful synthesis of the best aspects of all major religions, choosing from
each of those tenets that he felt were the most wholesome and incorporating them into
the Tamilian way of thinking about spirituality and ethics. This synthesis has been
accomplished with such precision that it does not appear to be at odds with the core
of any religion. As a result, followers of various religions started to identify Thiruvalluvar
as a follower of their own.
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NOTES
8.5 TRANSLATIONS OF THIRUKURAL

The most translated, quoted, and citable piece of Tamil literature is Thirukkural, by
Thiruvalluvar. Dr. Graul, a distinguished German scholar, read the poet’s arrestingly
astute couplet narrated in English. He was so enthralled with it that he learned Tamil so
he could read the Kural in its original form before translating it into German in 1854
and Latin in 1856.
The eminent French scholar M. Ariel describes Thiruvalluvar’s magnificent work
as “a masterpiece of Tamil literature, one of the highest and purest expressions
of human thought”. He continues, “… that which above all is wonderful in the
Kural is the fact that its author addresses himself, without regard to castes,
peoples or beliefs, to the whole community of mankind; the fact that he formulates
sovereign morality and absolute reason; that he proclaims in their very essence,
in their eternal abstractedness, virtue and truth; that he presents, as it were, in
one group, the highest laws of domestic and social life; that he is equally perfect
in thought, in language, and in poetry, in the austere metaphysical contemplation
of the great mysteries of the Divine Nature as in the easy and graceful analysis
of the tenderest emotions of the heart”.
Most of the Kurals were translated into Latin by the Italian Jesuit missionary
Constantine Joseph Beschi (1680 – 1742), who contrasted Seneca’s maxims with
those of Thiruvalluvar in his commentary. The Kural was translated into English and
published in 1886 by the renowned Englishman Dr. G. U. Pope. Dr. Pope used parallel
sections from writers including Horace, Aeschylus, Dante, Shakespeare, Brownning,
Wordsworth, Manu, Burgin, and Catullus in his commentary on the Kural.
The Kural’s translation into European languages appears to have done a lot to
allay European intellectuals’ concerns about the nature and culture of the Indian people,
especially those of European missionaries. The European Christian missionaries held
the opinion that non-Christian cultures have not promoted the values of humility, kindness,
and forgiving wrongs. In contrast to this, Dr. Pope, who performed the English translation
of the Kural in 1886 highlighted that these emotions are well placed in the Indian
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traditions and culture through the Kural. Therefore, it is not surprising that Thirukkural NOTES
is the Tamil book that has been translated the most. In addition to Sanskrit, Urdu,
Marathi, Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, and Malayalam, it has also been translated into Latin,
German, French, Dutch, Finnish, Polish, Russian, Chinese, Fijian, Malay, and Burmese.
In fact, the Thirukkural has been translated into 82 different languages.
For more than 2,000 years, Valluvar’s ideas have dominated Tamil intellectual
life. The Thirukkural is regarded as the Tamil Veda by the Tamil people. The Thiruvalluvar
Malai, often known as “The Garland of Thiruvalluvar,” is a collection of panegyrics
performed by both Thiruvalluvar’s contemporaries and those who came long after
him.

8.6 PERSONALITY OF THIRUVALLUVAR

No contemporary documentation exists from which we could infer Thiruvalluvar’s

personality. However, there are a lot of stories that have been passed down about him
through the generations, as well as some internal evidence in his works that may help
one imagine Thiruvalluvar. Thiruvalluvar, according to tradition, was a weaver by trade.
In some places, it also mentions that the term ‘Valluvar’ refers to a caste of men who
were either priests or soothsayers and used to ride elephants to announce royal
announcements. Valluvar’s prefix, ‘Thiru,’ is a Tamil word that denotes something
sacred. The words ‘Holy Couplet’ and ‘Thiruvalluvar’ refer to the same holy man who
is a member of the Valluva community. He is praised as Deivappulavar; is also known
by the names Nayanaar, Poyyirpulavar, and Perunavalar. Thirukural is a collection of
couplets that discuss morality, politics, and the economy. Thirukural has 133 Athikarams
fewer than 1330 Kurals. Thirukkural is divided into three books: - Book 1: Aram or
Dharma, Book 2: Porul or Artha, and Book 3: Inpam or Kama. In 57 chapters over
the three books, Porutpal openly addresses the monarch and this state in Arasiyal and
Angariyal. One of the classic Tamil writings, Thirukkural, focuses solely on the discussion
of politics.

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NOTES
In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Thirukkural is revered as the _______ Veda.
2. Thiruvalluvar’s couplets are written in the _______ Venba style.
3. The life goal of _______ is assumed to be attained automatically if one lives
ethically according to Thirukkural.
4. Thirukkural has been translated into _______ different languages.
5. Thiruvalluvar synthesized elements of Buddhism, Jainism, and _______
Brahmanism.
B. State True or False:
1. Thirukkural addresses the life goal of moksha explicitly.
2. Thiruvalluvar is definitely known to have lived in the third century B.C.
3. Thirukkural is composed of 1330 couplets.
4. Thiruvalluvar’s identity is precisely known and documented.
5. Thirukkural has only been translated into Indian languages.

8.7 ESSENTIALS FROM THE TEACHINGS OF

THIRUVALLUVAR

Valluvar was an existentialist because, like Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Jean-
Paul Sartre, he believed that the only information that is worthwhile is that which
directly affects the human experience. The sole goal of learning, in Valluvar’s opinion,
is to improve one’s quality of life. He rejected any knowledge as useless that was
unrelated to living and unrelated to learning.
The design and structure of the Kural, which has 133 chapters with 10 Kurals
each, are intriguing to study. The 133 chapters themselves are divided into three
primary categories. The first topic is Arattu Pal, which refers to the book on duty

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or Aram and has 380 Kurals. The second is a 700 Kural book called Porut Pal, NOTES
meaning the book of wealth. The third and last book is Kamathu Pal, which has
250 Kurals and is about sexual affection. The Kural is generally criticised under the
insulated presumption that it is based on the Sanskrit ideas of Dharma, Artha, Kama
and Moksha. Those who have been advocating this hypothesis have had difficulty
providing explanations.
Those who have been advocating this idea have had a difficult time articulating
why Thiruvalluvar neglected to address Moksha (Liberation), which is known in Tamil
as Veedu. G.U. Pope questioned whether Thiruvalluvar’s decision to simply consider
the practical side of things prevented him from explaining Veedu or Moksha. Additionally,
he reasoned that Valluvar might not have been content with the glimpses he had seen
into the future of mankind and had been patiently waiting for the light. The most
reasonable conclusion is that Thiruvalluvar’s categorization was founded on entirely
different ideas than those used in the Sanskritic classification. Thiruvalluvar’s explanation
of Aram differs significantly from the DharmaShastras’ explanation of Dharma in terms
of content.
Contrary to the Dharmashastras, Thiruvalluvar does not specify distinct Arams
for different groups of people. His idea of Aram is one that everyone can relate to. As
a person progresses through several stages of evolution, he assigns that person with
different responsibilities. He outlines the obligations of a person in their roles as a
family member towards their parents, spouse, and children; as a community member
towards his or her favourable, adverse, or neutral neighbours; and as a state citizen
towards the state’s head of state. In each of these connections, he must show
compassionate intent and practice moral behaviour.

The Porut Pal

Politics-related discussion of Artha is the focus of the second book. The king’s moral
outlook is thoroughly lauded. The six components of a kingdom are mentioned. It is
expected of the king to be good, fair, and impartial. The three main vices of the monarchy
are miserliness, vanity and sensuality. It is believed that artha and dharma are
equivalent. Thiruvalluvar, which means discipline in Aram. Aram is the cornerstone of
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NOTES human existence. Politics and society do not really differ all that much, and Aram
connects them. Both Aram (Dharma) and Porul (Meaning) are emphasised in
Thirukkural.
Neither the artha idea in Sanskrit nor the Porut Pal of Thiruvalluvar are
comparable. Only a few chapters in Porut Pal discuss sovereignty and the art of
government, in contrast to Arthashastra’s extensive discussion of these topics.
Additionally, whenever the term “King” is used in the Kural, it refers to a monarch
without any divine authority who is expected to uphold virtue and abstain from vice.
The ruler is portrayed as embodying the values and virtues of the populace. This part
contains several chapters on the special virtues necessary for maintaining and enhancing
interpersonal interactions in the social polity, as well as on the self-respect, truthfulness,
good character, and honor of the citizen. Valluvar, after analysing the inner spiritual
development of the individual in the first book, then moves on to analyse the public
existence of such an individual, vis-à-vis Society, in the second book on Porul. Evidently,
the idea behind Thiruvalluvar is that only a man who has proven his value as an individual
by his moral, cultural and spiritual maturity is suitable for entering the larger world of
public life and filling a useful role there.
The word Dharma can be readily translated to mean “aram” without retaining
its religious sense. The better term is order. Thiruvalluvar tried to suggest that order is
the cornerstone of human civilisation and that wherever order is reflected in human
thought, speech, and action, there will inevitably be advancement and peace. Thirukkural
provides the rules of order for both a man’s internal and external behavior. But sadly,
Thirukkural does not so 57 chapters examine polity from the ruler’s point of view,
whereas Arthashastra and Dharmashastra more often act as guides for the king. Advice
is delivered to the king. The Thirukkural’s last passages are addressed to the general
public. According to several authors, the discussion of civic society is the focus of
Thirukkural. Manu Dharma is not the same as Aram of Valluvar. Aram, according to
Thiruvalluvar, has a socio-political rather than religious significance and finds expression
in the home. It has no connection to Varna at all. Ashrawa, ceremonies, and sacrifices.
In Valluvar’s opinion, love is the driving force behind all good and productive things
that happen in life. Valluvar views the family as the fundamental building block of
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Polity and State NOTES

The political system (statecraft) of Thiruvalluvar is centered on royalty rather than

democracy. So, the king must abide by the laws of justice. Without a hint of realpolitikor
cynicism, Thiruvalluvar describes a state of perfection that will be ruled by a righteous
king. Therefore, Thiruvalluvar’s state is an example of applied ethics.
King is at the core of the state, Valluvar outlines. The fundamental idea of society
is the family. His state is that the family has expanded, and the king’s influence over his
subjects is similar to that of a father. According to Valluvar, freedom is defined as
behavior within the bounds of Aram and is guaranteed by performing one’s moral
obligations. Kural establishes that one must act in accordance with his knowledge and
abilities, always aiming to treat people righteously. This could be characterised as self-
imposed obligations being fulfilled voluntarily. The society of Thiruvalluvar is not divided
into Varnas. Ashramas are not emphasised. It aimed to strengthen the foundational
family unit. Kural laments a householder who seeks sanyasa and gives up the world.
Kural evaluates all people based on their actions rather than their birth or fortune. It is
radical thought in the context of India, and Kural’s vision of the ideal polity focuses on
an organic, self-supporting society.

Role of King, His Attributes, and Justice

Thiruvalluvar assumed an executive-style state led by a monarch in accordance with

the prevalent form of governance of the period. The king has been entrusted with
creating, obtaining, preserving, and distributing wealth. The king is expected to possess
an army, subjects, food, ministers, allies, and forts in order to complete these tasks,
which bears similarities to the Saptanga theory of Arthashastra.
Thiruvalluvar enumerates several favourable traits of the king. These include
boldness, valor, grace, and virtue as well as courage, energy, liberality, wisdom,
diligence, and learning. It is assumed that the king would be cordial and modest.
Thiruvalluvar also enumerates characteristics that lower the king’s qualities. Bias, mean
or meagre, and suppressing attachments are a few of them. Thiruvalluvar portrays a
picture of a nation characterised by law and order and fairness for all. He emphasises the
need for a just government from the king. He exhorts the king to launch a thorough
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NOTES investigation and to administer justice and punishment impartially. He points out that
the scepter ultimately triumphs over the sword in battle. The death penalty for the
wicked is not prohibited by Thiruvalluvar because meeting out punishment is a duty.
Given that the overarching tone of his work is one of non-violence, it is odd that he
would support the death penalty. He mentions a King who is powerless to uphold law
and order, as:
“Wealth is worse far than poverty,
in a realm where the King renders no justice.” (Kural 558)
Tyranny, which Thiruvalluvar fiercely criticises for its damaging repercussions,
is always a possibility in the executive type of governance that he depicts. He compares
an evil and repressive monarch to a killer. He forecasts that the state’s wealth will be
depleted as a result of the king’s brutality and the oppressed people’s grief. He asserts
that a king who engages in violence will perish. He claims that the king’s unfairness
even affects the natural world, ‘...causing the rain to stop and the cows to produce less
milk’. Therefore, injustice will result in complications. Thiruvalluvar clearly asserts that
the tyrant will ultimately lose everything. In a nutshell, Thiruvalluvar envisioned the king
and the state as an organised structure regulated by just laws. He highlights justice as
a fundamental tenet of government management. In a sense, the king is given the
function of a social planner.
Valluvar forbids the King from collecting taxes from the populace by abusing
state authority:
The King that goes a-begging
is like the dacoit, who, armed with a spear,
shouts, “Give”.
Thirukkural envisions an ideal monarchy. As per Thiruvalluvar “He is a lion
among monarchs who owns these things army, people, wealth, counsel, friends, and
forts.” King is expected to adhere to specific requirements as he oversees the nation’s
administration. A King needs to be an intelligent man. King needs to read various
scholarly books to get more educated. He ought to be wise, diligent, and honest,
among other virtues. Apart from everything else, the monarch needs self-control. The
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treasury, protect his wealth, and make judicious use of it. The ruler must possess NOTES
firmness but refrain from becoming harsh. He must act as a god and defend his subjects.
The king ought to be familiar with the nation’s resources and utilise all of them. The
produced goods must be distributed fairly. The people must be freed from extreme
hunger, incurable plagues, and terrible violence under the king’s control.
He urges the State to balance justice with mercy rather than terrorise the
populace. To the King, he says:
Raise the rod high
but let it fall gently upon the criminal,
Of what avail is a tune
if it isn’t en rapport with the song?
of what avail is the eye
if it doesn’t move to and fro with compassion. (Kural 562 & 573)
The monarch should be extremely knowledgeable since it is necessary for the
king “to speak in the assembly without the fullness of knowledge, which is like playing
chess without squares”. He could experience both anxieties and not fear what ought to
be feared. Kural emphasises the ruler’s self-discipline. The golden rule is to always
follow the monarch. If the king corrects his own error, the populace will do the same.
The king should avoid acquaintance with evildoers and always seek out the company
of the wise.
The king’s responsibility to defend the nation’s citizens is his or her most significant
obligation. Realising promptly what always occurs is a king’s primary responsibility.
The king needs to build a strong espionage apparatus in order to learn about what is
happening. The spies are tasked with keeping an eye out for suspicious activity and
informing the king about it. The institution of spies holds a lot of significance for
Thiruvalluvar. According to Valluvar, the king’s two eyes should be the espionage
service and reputable texts on diplomacy.
The king needs to pay attention to the people working there. The idea behind
the fundamental principle of hiring the right person for the appropriate job: “…which
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NOTES dwell happily on that account.” The king must refrain from disregarding his regular
obligations. He should keep in mind the state’s objective and purpose. Kural counsels
the king to set high standards for himself. The ruler must smile and go on even when
faced with setbacks. Further, he advises using a simile to provide an appropriate
solution for both the monarch and the citizen, saying:
The flower of the floating plant
is as high as the level of the water;
a man’s greatness is as high
as the level of his mind (Kural 595)
People are one of the key components of the state. The people retain full power
in monarchies as well. The king ought to consistently follow the wishes of the populace.
The king ought to always be very amiable towards the populace. Valluvar understood
that the power of the state’s sovereign served as the sanction for every virtue and
morality. He states in Kural No. 543:
That which furnishes basic support
to virtue and to scripture
is the sceptre of the king

Administrators of the Kingdom and their Attributes

To efficiently manage the state, the monarch needs advisors, soldiers, and other
authorities. Thiruvalluvar has a lot to say about the responsibilities and characteristics
of these functionaries. He explains how to choose them and take care of them.
Thiruvalluvar advises caution when choosing ministers, describing them as the king’s
eyes. He suggests hiring well-known individuals and giving them a test run. The king
should then delegate jobs without mistrust after that. He is implying that once the king
has faith in an appointee, the king should stop watching him/her closely. He is adamant
that they should not only be “yes men,” but also incisive critics who are not scared to
voice their opinions. He anticipates that the ministers will be knowledgeable, focused,
able to offer timely counsel, pragmatic in their approach, and not places of concealment
for betrayal.
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The administration maintains a staff of envoys and diplomatic missions. NOTES

Thiruvalluvar recommends that the monarch look for an ambassador who possesses
the following traits: friendliness, breeding, loyalty, intelligence, sociability, bravery,
persuasive scholarship and sagacity. He anticipates the ambassador will speak in a
cordial and offensive-free manner. Even if his life is in danger, the ambassador should
insist that his king is righteous.
The state also needs to have espionage capabilities in addition to diplomats. No
spies, no success, is how Thiruvalluvar defines its purpose. Spies serve as the king’s
eyes and are essential for gathering information. Their duty is to keep an eye on the
king’s servants, relatives, and adversaries. As a result, Thiruvalluvar anticipates the
use of spies in both local and international operations. Spies should be beyond
question, bold, trustworthy, and close. They should travel everywhere, even dressed
as holy men, whose capacity to acquire access is superior to that of commoners.
Thiruvalluvar proposes seeking a second source’s confirmation of the spy’s claims in
order to ensure their veracity. It is crucial that spies be strangers to one another for this
to function. Thiruvalluvar instructs the king to never publicly honour a spy in order to
protect their identity.
There cannot be a king without his courtiers. Thiruvalluvar gives some wise
words of advice for the courtiers on how to act. They are not supposed to be too near
or too far from the king. He forbids them from pursuing the king’s secrets or exchanging
knowing glances in front of him. They should have the ability to read the court’s energy
well and offer insightful commentary. They must, of course, treat the monarch
magnificently.
Thiruvalluvar goes into exhaustive detail on the ministry. Valluvar declares, “A
minister is one who is wise in the choice of means and reason and skilled in the
execution of rare enterprises.” The ministry is a crucial component of the state. The
advice provided by ministers to the king as he performs his duties is crucial. The
ministry assists the king based on resource availability and scenario analysis. The ministers
must take care of every other aspect, including the techniques employed to carry out
the king’s policies. Ministers assist the king in overcoming challenges when he meets
them. The king makes judgements with the counsel of his ministers, who also assist in
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NOTES or unattended; otherwise, stress may build among the populace, which could result in
unrest. In order to carry out their duties in a morally upright and honest manner, ministers
need to possess a good understanding of the law. Valluvar asserts: “Far better are
seventy crores of enemies for a king than a minister at his side who intends his ruin.”
A minister must possess competence in order to contribute to the success of
that state. Ministers must be able to persuade the monarch in a persuasive way and
speak with eloquence in order to successfully carry out their tasks. Ministers must also
provide data in a systematic, logical, and meaningful way. Valluvar places a strong
emphasis on ends and means. According to Kural, the use of pure means is crucial in
both favourable and unfavourable circumstances. A solid purpose is necessary. Only
the ministers can demonstrate these.

War, Strategy, and Diplomacy

The king needs to be both good on offense and defense in order to wage war. A fort
was the most effective type of defense at the time. According to Thiruvalluvar, a good
fort will include clear streams, wide-open spaces, hills, and dense woods. Walls that
are tall, thick, and impenetrable must be used to build the fort. In the event of a siege,
it should be challenging to seize and well-supplied with food. It should have a garrison
of strong, combative men. A successful army will outwit its adversaries’ strategies and
advance. Desertion, disaffection, and niggardliness have no place in such a successful
force. Despite the military organisation’s hierarchical structure, Thiruvalluvar asserts
that without strong leadership, the army will disintegrate.
If the king’s army is made up of brave and polite warriors, that is believed to be
the measure of his wealth. Thiruvalluvar lists several qualities that warriors should
have. They must be immune to corruption. They ought not to be bargained away by
anyone. They should unite and overcome death itself. They ought to be courageous,
honorable, and unwavering. Thiruvalluvar praises a soldier’s main virtue, which is
bravery. He says that showing courage under adversity is a sign of manliness. It is
stated that a brave soldier would be willing to forfeit his life for immortality.
Many remarks about military tactics are made by Thiruvalluvar. As the first step
in defeating a foe, he advises picking the appropriate location for combat. However, he
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takes care to highlight that men fighting in their native territory are tough to beat. NOTES
Following the selection of the proper location, the choice of timing is crucial for success.
He instructs the king to grasp the opportunity to launch an attack when the opportunity
to do so is mature. Thiruvalluvar is aware that zeal cannot replace knowledge. He
advises that before taking any action, one should carefully consider the strength of
their own forces, the intended deed, and the locations of allies and opponents. He
suggests avoiding battles with powerful adversaries and siding with the underdogs
instead. Thiruvalluvar gives a comprehensive list of flaws to look for in other monarchs.
It is claimed that kings who are cowardly, naive and unfriendly are readily captured.
Individuals that act in a mistaken, neglectful and shameless manner. It is also believed
that kings who possess blind rage and excessive passion are readily defeated.
Picking and choosing enemies requires strategy. Thiruvalluvar encourages careful
preparation, strengthening, defending one’s own positions and decisive action when
waging battle. He issues a warning that enemies who are hated but unconquered will
strike and overthrow the king. The danger of fighting alone in a hostile environment
must also be avoided. Thiruvalluvar specifically advises turning one of two foes into a
friend if possible. He wisely recommends that people facing difficulty keep all their
choices open.
Contrary to what has been observed, Thiruvalluvar is not a combatant. He is
extremely against taking that stance. He says in a poetic way that war is such anathema
that it ought not to be yearned for. When Thiruvalluvar writes that the world is safe
under a ruler who can turn enemies into allies, one can tell that his heart is truly in
favour of peace. In light of this philosophy, Thiruvalluvar adopts a pragmatic stance
devoid of any pessimism.
For diplomacy, Ambassadors, in Valluvar’s view, are essential. Kural outlines
the requirements for becoming an ambassador. “A loving native, high birth, and manners
that captivate princes,” are listed as prerequisites for an ambassador. An in-depth
knowledge of politics is crucial for the ambassador. He needs to communicate
effectively. Valluvar claims that he is the ambassador who bravely seeks the welfare of
his sovereign, even if it requires sacrificing his life.

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NOTES Forts & Fortification

The Thirukkural contains a separate chapter on forts. Strong, impregnable forts with
high height and thickness are required. The fort is home to all weapons and equipment
required for battle. It goes without saying that this stronghold is crucial for defense as
well as for those who assault toes. A fortress needs to have a fort of walers, a clearing,
a hill, and a neighboring forest. It cannot be conveniently kept because of the way it is
constructed. Within the fort is everything that would be required for survival in an
emergency. The army, its bravery, and its defense of the fortress are all very important.
It should be impossible to corrupt the army. They must always resist together. The
army should be able to repel the enemy’s advance.

Allies

When analysing the value of allies in the international arena, Kural believes that friendship
is the hardest one to win because, in Valluvar’s opinion, it is the best weapon against
one’s enemies. According to Thirukkural, friendship is what keeps things from going
wrong, encourages people to choose the correct path, and shares in suffering during
difficult times. The king must know who his enemies are, both inside and outside the
state. There is no benefit to the king in maintaining good ties with his subjects on their
own; he must do so. Kural defines the welfare state and the king as the welfare king,
who, through his compassion and good judgement, vanquishes evil and upholds peace
and advancement.
Philosophers like Valluvar are known for their positive interactions with all living
things. They have the capacity to both receive and provide devotion. Friendship forces
new viewpoints and breaks down the rigidities of isolated pride. On the other hand,
individuals who have alienated themselves are unable to re-enter the sources of their
own being for nourishment since they have lost the ability to do so. Therefore, Valluvar
is justified in asking:
Is there anything more difficult to achieve
than friendship?
Is there anything as protective against foes
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According to Thiruvalluvar, friendship is tested most effectively in times of difficulty NOTES

because most friends like to gather around you when times are good and forsake you
when times are tough. Thiruvalluvar offers the following pearl of knowledge:
There is some good even about adversity,
for it gives you a measuring rod
with which
you may unstintingly measure your real friends.
Friends,
who are descended out of the true stock of love,
cease not to love
even those who have betrayed them.
Solitude is better
than the company of those
who, like the unbroken colt,
throw the rider down to the ground
in the midst of the battle-field. (Kurals 796, 807 & 814)
The friendship of those who would adore you in secret but despise you in public
is severely discouraged by Valluvar. In fact, the Kural contains five chapters in which
Valluvar delves deeply into the psychology of friendship and exposes the superficiality
of life to reveal its gruesome reality.

Economy

A full treatise on economics is not in Thiruvalluvar’s commentary on the economy. The

crucial issues of poverty and prosperity are instead the focus; he criticises poverty and
considers how to advance prosperity. He expresses a vision of collaborative work
done for society’s overall good. Although Thiruvalluvar does not address the causes
of poverty, he strongly condemns it. He claims that being poor is not fun. It does not
offer a way to be saved. Being poor is a miserable state. The words of a poor man are
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NOTES meaningless. Even a mother would frown at a poor person, Thiruvalluvar writes in a
poignant couplet.
Thiruvalluvar places agriculture at the center of all activities. He exalts the farmer
as the provider of the world’s food. He calls farming the ideal profession. He claims
that ploughmen never turn away beggars. He counsels farmers to weed and protect
the crop more than to irrigate it, and to apply manure instead of plowing. The works of
the physiocrats of a later era seem to support Thiruvalluvar’s belief that agriculture
was the most significant economic activity.
Several interpersonal skills were highlighted as resources for fostering economic
prosperity among the elements that influence it. His production function acknowledges
the value of human abilities as production components in contemporary parlance. The
capacity to learn and gain knowledge is one such ability. Lifelong learning is encouraged
by Thiruvalluvar. The building up of human capital is what we refer to as nowadays.
Insanity is condemned by him. The uninformed, according to him, are like salty soil:
there but completely useless. He compares the taught to people who only have two
wounds on their faces, using a gruesome metaphor, while the unlearned have two
eyes. He describes knowledge as a form of riches and says it never diminishes.
Thiruvalluvar calls the sense of hearing “the wealth of signs of wealth” since it is one
method of learning. Men are fed through the ear, he says, therefore they should keep
their senses open to emerging knowledge. The attainment of wisdom, which
Thiruvalluvar refers to as an inner fortress, is the aim of study. The wise are also
visionary. They basically have everything. According to Thiruvalluvar, excellent
company strengthens a sound mind.
A productive economy also requires human labour. Thiruvalluvar provides
suggestions for attracting and keeping staff. In a move that echoes a later generation’s
idea of marginal productivity, he calls on companies to hire people who will increase
income. He advises hiring managers to look for staff that are knowledgeable, wise,
and obedient. The employee begs the employer not to mistrust him once it is established
that he is conscientious. As we already observed, the advice offered to monarchs is
also beneficial to normal people. In addition to effort and knowledge, Thiruvalluvar

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emphasises the need of energy in the pursuit of prosperity. He asserts that if a person NOTES
is vigorous, prosperity will find its way to them. A strong mind is another asset since
people with strong wills are not deterred by failure. He exhorts one to set lofty goals in
every situation. He also recommends conducting thorough cost-benefit analyses before
beginning any project. Thiruvalluvar emphasises his point by drawing a comparison
between the effects of vigor and those of sloth. He claims that sloth will eliminate
virtue, increase immorality, and demolish one’s home. Sloth, forgetfulness, and
procrastination are some of the harmful factors.
Thiruvalluvar appears to be aware that sound health has a role in economic
activities. He offers sound, common-sense guidance on maintaining good health. He
recommends eating in moderation and only after a previous meal has been completely
digested. He advises physicians to consider the patient, the condition, and the passage
of time. This would be referred to as holistic care in modern parlance. Thiruvalluvar
advises against drinking wine. Additionally, he opposes gambling. He points out that
gambling causes a person to lose reputation, sorrow, and family possessions. There
will be difficult times in life. To maintain a balanced viewpoint, Thiruvalluvar counsels.
He warns against becoming excessively overjoyed or overly depressed in times of
sadness. This instruction is reminiscent of Buddhism’s ‘middle way’. He suggests making
light of misfortune when it occurs. Nothing else has a better chance of defeating it.
He understands the value of having a social conscience. Without excellent men,
society will collapse, he claims. The pursuit of community advancement is regarded as
magnificent. People from all around the world will swarm to those who are engaged in
social work. He presents an idealised view of the economy as a result. At the center are
farmers. People who are awake and in moderation are skilled at interacting with others.
They labor diligently and with vigor. Not only is wealth spent, but it is also distributed.
People have private interests, yet they also care about society and are charitable.
Large cities play no role in his economy. Almost nothing is discussed regarding the
state’s role in the economy. Thiruvalluvar hence advocates for minimal to no government
involvement in economic matters. He tends to favour collaboration over competition
while pursuing economic goals. Therefore, it is appropriate to refer to his economy as
a cooperative semi-socialist commonwealth.
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NOTES Conclusion

Its capital was probably restricted to the southern region of the subcontinent because
it was written in Tamil. It does, in fact, contain influences from the Arthashastra, which
academics point out had a considerably wider audience because it was written in
Sanskrit. However, Thiruvalluvar differs from Kautilya in a number of significant ways.
Here, we list a handful of them. On power, Kautilya went into detail. Justice was
emphasised by Thiruvalluvar. Additionally, Thiruvalluvar appears to grant the state a
relatively minor role in the economy. On the other hand, the condition of Kautilya had
a substantial effect on the economy. The Artha Shastra was written with a sense of
reality and worldliness. Contrarily, Thirukkural endures throughout a treatise on moral
behaviour. As a result, its impact is best observed in how frequently common people
adhere to its principles. Thiruvalluvar’s political and economic theories have several
noteworthy characteristics. Thirukkural is not a sophisticated work on statecraft, in
contrast to Kautilya’s Artha Shastra. The general ethical precepts that underpin the
work are the source of the behavior it promotes. Thiruvalluvar did not seek to assist
any one ruler in gaining control, as Kautilya is thought to have sought to do. His articles
are intended to serve as general advice for anyone in charge of the state. He does not
go into detail or particulars. He uses terse language to make his points because his
language and form are so brief.
The government, monarchy, and community are expertly explained by Valluvar.
Sociological ethics are covered in the Kural. It establishes standards and promotes
social harmony, brotherhood, and accommodation. Among the members of the society,
it aimed to promote amity, peace, and kindness. In the form of morals and messages,
the illustrious and cherished author Valluvar has instilled moral and social teaching to
uphold peace, brotherhood, and justice. In Tamil ethical literature, Thirukkural holds a
prominent position. Although it is not a book on political theory in the strictly defined
sense, it does contain social, moral, and political directives. The aura of dogmatism is
completely absent. When issuing political injunctions, Kural uses a moderate tone. Its
instructions are clear and simple to comprehend.

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NOTES
In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Thiruvalluvar believed that the only worthwhile information is that which directly
affects the ________.
2. The three sections of Thirukkural are Arattu Pal, Porut Pal, and ________.
3. Thiruvalluvar’s concept of Aram is applicable to everyone and focuses on
________ behavior.
4. According to Thiruvalluvar, the king should possess attributes like boldness,
valor, and ________.
5. Thiruvalluvar places ________ at the center of economic activities.
B. State True or False:
1. Thiruvalluvar’s classification includes the concept of Moksha.
2. Thirukkural suggests that the king should have divine authority.
3. Thiruvalluvar considers poverty a significant social issue.
4. The concept of Aram in Thirukkural is more socio-political than religious.
5. Thiruvalluvar recommends having ministers who are “yes men.”

8.8 SUMMARY

 Western thought focused on man and society, oriental thought on man’s

relationship with his maker; Valluvar combined both.
 Thirukkural is an ancient ethical text in Tamil, translated into many languages,
revered as the Tamil Veda.
 Thirukkural’s style uses short, dense couplets with a unique meter, balancing
form and meaning.
 The text addresses the life goals of dharma, artha, and kama, assuming moksha
is attained through ethical living.
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NOTES  Thiruvalluvar’s identity and the exact period of the Thirukkural’s composition
are uncertain.
 The text covers human relationships, politics, economics, and personal conduct,
promoting harmony and love.
 Valluvar synthesized elements of Buddhism, Jainism, and Vedic Brahmanism
into Tamil ethics.
 Thirukkural has been widely translated and praised for its universal ethical
precepts.
 Thiruvalluvar’s personality and exact life details are unknown, but he is
traditionally considered a weaver and a revered holy figure.
 Thiruvalluvar valued knowledge that directly impacts human life and rejected
unrelated learning.
 His work, Thirukkural, comprises 133 chapters divided into three sections:
Arattu Pal (duty, 380 verses), Porut Pal (wealth, 700 verses), and Kamathu Pal
(sexual affection, 250 verses).
 Thirukkural’s classification differs from the Sanskritic Dharma, Artha, Kama,
and Moksha, excluding Moksha (liberation).
 Thiruvalluvar’s concept of Aram is universally applicable, focusing on moral
responsibilities in various human roles without discriminating among different
groups.
 The book emphasizes virtues in governance, portraying the king as a non-divine
leader expected to uphold justice and virtue.
 Thiruvalluvar’s notion of Aram (duty) is socio-political rather than religious,
distinct from Manu Dharma.
 His political views centered on monarchy, advocating a just and ethical ruler
akin to a social planner.
 The role of the king includes safeguarding wealth, maintaining law and order,
and upholding justice, which involves fair punishment.

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 The king must be wise, diligent, and self-disciplined, supported by ministers NOTES
chosen for their abilities and integrity.
 Military strength is essential, with strategic warfare and a well-fortified state
being crucial elements.
 Thiruvalluvar emphasizes the value of allies and friendships, advocating for
alliances and peace.
 He provides practical advice on managing ministers, diplomats, and spies for
effective governance.
 Thirukkural advocates for economic prosperity, placing agriculture at the center
of economic activities and condemning poverty.

8.9 GLOSSARY

 Thirukkural: An ancient Tamil text consisting of ethical couplets.

 Moksha (Veedu): It refers to liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
 Kural Venba: The metrical style of Thirukkural couplets.
 Tamil Veda: A term used to describe Thirukkural, indicating its reverence in
Tamil culture.
 Porut Pal: Wealth or material prosperity, the second section of Thirukkural.
 Kamathu Pal: Sexual affection or desire, the third section of Thirukkural.
 Moksha: Liberation or release from the cycle of rebirth; not addressed in
Thirukkural.
 Realpolitik: Politics based on practical and material factors rather than moral
or ideological considerations.
 Espionage: It refers to spying or gathering intelligence.
 Physiocrats: It refers to 18th-century economists who emphasized agriculture
as the source of wealth.
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NOTES
8.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions - 1

A. 1. Tamil
2. Kural
3. Moksha
4. 82
5. Vedic
B. 1. False
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. False

In-Text Questions - 2

A. 1. human experience
2. Kamathu Pal
3. moral
4. virtue
5. agriculture
B. 1. False
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. False
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NOTES
8.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Describe Thiruvalluvar’s perspectives on the State.

2. Highlight Thiruvalluvar’s opinions on kingship and justice.
3. Evaluate the Thirukkural notion of politics critically.
4. What are the four life goals assumed in Thirukkural?
5. How is Thiruvalluvar traditionally described in terms of occupation and caste?
6. What is unique about the Thirukkural’s poetic structure?
7. Which three life goals does Thirukkural address?
8. What has been the global impact of Thirukkural in terms of translation?
9. What are the three main sections of Thirukkural and how many verses do they
contain?
10. How does Thiruvalluvar’s concept of Aram differ from the DharmaShastras?
11. What is the primary role of the king according to Thiruvalluvar?
12. Describe the importance of friendship in Thiruvalluvar’s philosophy.
13. What does Thiruvalluvar consider the ideal profession, and why?

8.12 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Altekar, A. S. 2002. State and Government in Ancient India. Motilal

Banarsidass Publishers.
 Bhagwan, V. 1976. Indian Political Thinkers. New Delhi: Atma Ram & Sons.
 Dasgupta, A. K. 2002. A History of Indian Economic Thought. Oxfordshire:
Routledge.
 Gupta, R.C. 2001. Great Political Thinkers East and West. Agra: Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Education Publishers.
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NOTES  Mohanty, D. K., & Rajan, S. S. 1997. Indian Political Tradition. New Delhi:
Anmol Publications.
 NagaRajan, K. V. 2005. Thiruvalluvar’s Vision: Polity and Economy in
Thirukkural. History of Political Economy, 37(1), 123-132.
 Parthasarathy, S. 2013. Rendering Thirukkural in LATEX–An Experiment in
Creating Large, Bi-Lingual Documents.
 Pope, G. U., Drew, W. H., Lazarus, J., & Ellis, F. W. 1886. Thirukkural:
English Translation and Commentary. London: W.H. Allen & Company.
 Thiruvalluvar, P. S. 1991. The Kural.
 Wright, D. 1996. Some Reflections on Thiruvalluvar’s Kural. South Asia:
Journal of South Asian Studies, 19(1), 161-167.

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UNIT VIII: BASAVANNA

LESSON 9 BASAVANNA
Basavanna

LESSON 9 NOTES

BASAVANNA
Revathy V Menon & Satya Prakash
Assistant Professor
Deshbandhu College, DU
Structure
9.1 Learning Objectives
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Life and Development
9.4 Philosophy through Poetry and Vachanas
9.5 Democracy
9.6 Duties
9.7 Religion and Secularism
9.8 Kayaka
9.9 Summary
9.10 Glossary
9.11 Answers to In-text Questions
9.12 Self-Assessment Questions
9.13 References/Suggested Readings

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Give a brief description of the ancient philosopher Basavanna’s philosophy
through poetry and Vachanas (writings in the Kannada literature).
 Evaluate Basavanna’s idea against social injustices existing at that time.
 Discuss ideas of democracy, duties assigned to men; idea of religious duties and
secularism.

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9.2 INTRODUCTION

Today’s problems with humanity are more complex than ever before. Man possesses
unparalleled strength and wisdom, without a doubt, yet these accomplishments have
also sparked unmatched change, which has made life even more perplexing. The world
around us is constantly evolving. More than at any other time in our history, we are in
dire need of spiritual outreach currently. We can learn from the great poets and saints
of the world how to develop the spiritual resilience required to escape the rut of
mundane daily life. One of India’s greatest spiritual teachers, Basaveshwara or
Basavanna, was a saint, poet, and impassioned social reformer from the state of
Karnataka.
Basavanna’s political ideas are complex and cannot be traced in one segment,
for that one needs to critically analyse various of his ‘vachanas’ (writings in the Kannada
literature) in-depth, and through this one can see his diverse vision of social, political,
cultural, and so on the ideology of the great Indian philosopher. The peculiarity of his
vachanas is that they cannot be restricted to a single theory or ideology but each of the
vachana provides varied meanings in relation to the time and space of concern.
Furthermore, they need to be interpreted properly to obtain the correct meaning.
Basavanna was a philosopher, statesman, poet in the Kannada language, and
social reformer born during the rule of the Kalachuri-dynasty under Bijjala I in
Karnataka, India. He majorly contributed to the 12th-century socio-economic-religious-
political revolution through his poetry, known as Vachanas, and raised social awareness.
He disregarded superstitions, rituals, and discrimination based on socioeconomic class
and gender. He created new institutions for the public, such as the Anubhava Mantapa
(also known as the “hall of spiritual experience”), which invited people from all
socioeconomic classes to openly debate both mundane and spiritual issues. Veerashaivas,
or ardent, heroic worshippers of Shiva, is the name of the new spiritual movement he
founded and inspired. The Shaiva Nayanars traditions of the 7th to 11th centuries
were the mainstays of the Tamil Bhakti movement, which continues today. Basava
promoted devotional worship that rejected temple worship and Brahmin-led procedures
and favoured individualised direct worship of Shiva using techniques like wearing icons/
symbols that are unique to oneself like a small linga.
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“Basavanna is the Indian independent thinker. He fought against the social NOTES
injustices. He tried to abolish the caste system through freedom of speech and reason.
He advocated that by birth everyone is equal, women are equally competent with
men, those who wear ‘Linga’ are equals, they can eat together and marriage among
them is valid,” quotes Arthur Miles in his book The Land of Lingam.

9.3 LIFE AND DEVELOPMENT

Around A.D. 1131, Basavanna was born into a prominent Brahmin family in
Ingaleswara-Bagevadi (now in the Bijapur District of Karnataka). His father,
Gramanimani, served as the Agrahara’s leader at Bagevadi. His wife Madalambe,
devoted much of her time to Nandiswara, the main deity of Bagevadi. He had an older
sister named Nagamma and an older brother named Devaraja, who were significant
participants in Basavanna’s later religious and social activities. He was blessed with a
symbolic Linga and initiated into the new path by an acclaimed Shaiva saint named
Jatavedamuni, also known as Ishanya Guru, who arrived from Kudala Sangama as
soon as he was born.
Basava showed glimpses of greatness and uniqueness even as a young person.
He was a bright, independent child who was inquisitive. He was raised in a traditional
Brahmin family and had opportunities to consider the strict customs and rituals that the
orthodox adhered to with great rigor. He discovered that superstitions and dogmas
held men and their minds in a strong grip under the pretext of religion. Even the temples
had evolved into exploitative hubs. Basava noticed these things. He had to deal with
his first crisis when he was eight years old. He vehemently objected to his parents’
preparations for his Upanayana, which is an initiation or thread ceremony. He asserted
that at the time of his birth, he had already received Linga’s initiation. He left his
parents’ home and headed for Kudala Sangama as his father insisted, he take part in
the event. Some scholars claim differently, that when the rite was completed, Basava
left his house for Kudala Sangama at the age of sixteen and threw away the sacred
thread. Few others believe that no ceremony was held at all. But one thing is for
certain—his Upanayana and the following observance associated with it could not be
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NOTES compromised, as they had only come to represent caste dominance. He further stated
that the Linga was worn solely for religious purposes and not as a caste symbol.
Anyone could wear it, regardless of caste, creed, or sexual orientation.
Thus, even at a young age, he recognised the potential of the significant symbol
of Shiva to help advance social and religious equality. As a result, he was drawn to
Veerasaivism, which saw Lingadharana, or the wearing of a Linga on the body, as
initiation, or Deeksha. His time at Sangama provided him with a fresh perspective and
new life for his thoughts. Sangama was the perfect location for Basavanna to complete
his education and accomplish his long-held goal. Ishanya Guru was a famous scholar
of spiritual ideas who favoured Lingadharana (wearing the Linga on the body) over
Vedic sacrifices and ceremonies. He was likely of the Kalamukha School of the Saiva
faith. He discovered Basava to hold the promise of a remarkable career. Basavanna
undertook years of intense study and spiritual reflection under his enlightened direction.
This time in his life was crucial because it was during this time that his future goals and
paths were formed.
He researched in-depth expositions of numerous religious beliefs and ideologies,
as well as the Vedas, Upanishads, Agamas, Puranas, and Kavyas. His revolutionary
intellect critically examined them and worked to put the concepts and goals that appealed
to him into action. Being a renowned Bhakta himself, he studied the Saiva saints’
devotional hymns with great zeal. As he strove to convey his ardent adoration through
Vachanas, the poet in him began to emerge.
The state of politics in Karnataka was changing at that time. When Tailapa III
was crowned emperor, the Chalukyas of Kalyana (now known as Basava Kalyana in
the Bidar District of Karnataka) were in more dire straits than before. Tailapa III
urged Basavanna to accompany him to Kalyana and accept the position of empire
minister, but it was refused as he had no desire to gain power or take part in the
uprising that followed. He headed deeper into social and religious pursuits. He worked
extensively to bring forth the vision he had at Kudala Sangama. Without regard to
caste, creed, or sexual orientation, the entrances of the Dharma were opened to all.
Anubhava-Mantapa, the socio-religious academy he founded, attracted hundreds of
saints and seekers of the spiritual from across the nation.
In the essential cause of universal enlightenment, dharma evolved into a living
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history of religion. The greatest miracle that Basaveshwara is credited with is elevating NOTES
the average man and the outcast to the celestial heights of spiritual realization. The
referred to Varnas were no longer of concern to Basavanna. To end this Varna divide
was his constant effort. For instance, the system of marriage, in his opinion, was perfectly
legitimate. He claimed that once Madhuvarasa joined the Sarana community, neither
he nor Haralayya fit the definition of a Brahmin or an untouchable. They overcame
Varnas when they converted into Bhaktas and began wearing lingas.
As a forerunner and an enigmatic mystic, in addition to being a social reformer,
Basaveshwara was able to see how these events were part of the divine plan. Basavanna
gained the respect of King Bijjala of Kalyana by being the most effective Bhandari—
the chancellor of the State Exchequer. However, he was Bhakti-Bhandari in the field
of spirituality, the keeper of the priceless relic of devotion. Contemporary epigraphs,
religious writings like the Puranas by Veerasaiva authors, as well as Basavanna’s own
words and those of his contemporaries like Siddarama, Channabasavanna,
Akkamahadevi, Allama Prabhu, and others of the Anubhava Mantapa are important
sources for restoring his life story.
The teachings of Basaveshwara take on a unique significance in the backdrop
of the social transformation and religious awakening in contemporary India. Indian
society is currently undergoing change attributable to its emphasis on the expansion of
education and a scientific attitude, as well as its democratic and nationalist ideologies.
It is affected by the dominant global current of thought. Some of our outdated beliefs,
institutions, and practices, such as castes, creeds, and rituals, as well as our old values
and institutions are changing our thought patterns so drastically that it seems impossible
for them to continue. Although Basavanna lived eight hundred years ago, his teachings
are still relevant today because he comes across as entirely modern and pragmatic. If
only that teaching had been adhered to, we would have a very different picture of
Indian society today. Basavanna foresaw several modern prophets, including Swami
Dayananda, Swami Vivekananda, and Gandhiji, in the essence of what he believed.
He could legitimately be said to be the forerunner of a New Era in India and Karnataka.
The best way to understand his ideas about the socio-economic-cultural situations of
society is to interpret his vachanas. It is important to note two things here: (1) that
these are not exclusively political views of Basavanna, and (2) the way we interpret his
vachanas, accordingly will determine the meaning.
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NOTES
9.4 PHILOSOPHY THROUGH POETRY AND
VACHANAS

The rarest occurrence of a great man and a great poet is Basaveshwara. He was a
magnificent man who combined the qualities of a mystic, social reformer, free thinker,
and prophet of a new age in one person. His primary focus was not the creation of
literary works, but rather the achievement of the ultimate life aims and laying the
foundation for the highest good of the average person. His enormous undertaking was
to spread timeless principles and values among people and to deliver the divine message
to every heart and home. Every emotion or idea that sparked his intellect, inspired his
intellect, or bloomed in his heart was thus given expression in the straightforward yet
potent Vachana form.
Prose is what Vachana can be defined as, but in this context, it takes on a new
meaning as a form of expression and creates a new genre that is exclusive to Kannada
literature. Although Sharanas’ Vachanas are written in prose, they have a poetic voice.
They could be described as succinct prose-lyrics since they combine prose’s rhythmic
articulation with poetry’s lyrical charm. Although vachanas do not follow any set
guidelines for metre or rhythm, they do have a unique rhythm that is linear, occasionally
non-metrical, and intense depending on the thought content and emotional fervor of
the individual vachana.
The Vachanas, which Basaveshwara stated while pursuing spirituality, serve as
a living record of intuitive insight and a guide to behavior that will help one achieve the
highest level of spiritual realisation. His Bhakti strikes a balance between nivrtti, the
withdrawal from all activity, and pravrtti, the engagement in worldly activities. The
inner and exterior lives of a man are perfectly in harmony. It is a rare instance of the
three facets of human personality—thought, feeling, and action—coming together in a
joyful synthesis. The highest euphoric experience that a spiritual aspirant can achieve
was obtained by Basaveshwara. He was not able to achieve it by giving up the outside
world or by taking the ascetic route. He respected the world, which he accepted. The
everyday pursuits of life had never denied him.

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NOTES
9.5 DEMOCRACY

Basavanna, the pioneering thinker, is credited with establishing the democratic process.
He is a legitimate Democrat in that respect, as his contribution, i.e., ‘Anubhava
Mandapa’ in Kalyan, is the ideal illustration of a legislative body. Its members came
from every sphere of life. As “Sharanas,” who are sincere and legitimate citizens, he
addressed them, the Anubhava Mandapa’s talks and deliberations allowed Sharanas
to freely express their opinions. They all used to actively engage in its proceedings and
the team was led by Basavanna. Further, we could find out that before deciding, he
listened to everyone. That demonstrates a democratic leader’s actual character.
Basavanna performed in accordance with the guidelines set forth by the Anubhava
Mandapa. It was a representative, constitutional body. Its regulations apply to all its
members. The majority rule applied to the decisions made in this body. The minority,
however, was never persecuted. In a certain sense, the Anubhava Mandapa had a
legal system. Although the other Anubhava Mandapa members cooperated with
Basavanna, according to Ranganath Divakar, “.... he (Basava) was the real leader, the
chief, a driving force and the central figure for all the discussions.” This assertion
demonstrates how much he resembled the group’s democratic leader. However, it
should be noted that he never forced his opinions on anyone. However, it should be
noted that he never forced his opinions on anyone. All member’s opinions were taken
into consideration before a decision was made on any matter. The fact that he was “....
the one who wishes the betterment of every living creature” demonstrates how he was
genuinely concerned for everyone’s welfare. He created the idea of a welfare state
around the beginning of the 12th century. He envisioned the creation of a new political
society in which every person would be valued regardless of caste, faith, race, or sex.
Basavanna firmly believes that a state’s most valuable resource is its ability to
attract and retain good citizens. The state’s happiness is a function of its citizens’
happiness. According to Basavanna, a state’s greatest valuable resource is its ability to
attract and retain good citizens. The state’s well-being is an extension of its citizens’
well-being. State authority was derived from popular power. According to Harihara,
Basavanna defends the idea of social welfare in his Basavaraj Devar Ragale, which
endeavors to convey the narrative that Sharanas and the noble people have equal
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NOTES rights and authority over the King. The King is in no way superior to the common
person. Everyone has an entitlement to the state’s property, not just the King.

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Basavanna founded the _______________to promote open discussions on
spiritual and mundane matters.
2. The___________of Basavanna combine prose and poetry, reflecting his
spiritual insights.
3. Basavanna’s teachings emphasized equality, opposing _________________.
4. The practice of wearing a _________ is known as Lingadharana.
5. Basavanna envisioned a ______________valuing citizens equally regardless
of caste, creed, or gender.
B. State True or False:
1. Basavanna believed that only Brahmins could wear the Linga.
2. Anubhava Mantapa was a socio-religious academy that excluded lower castes.
3. Basavanna’s vachanas require careful interpretation to understand their diverse
meanings.
4. Basavanna’s philosophy solely focused on spiritual enlightenment.
5. Basavanna’s teachings are considered relevant even in contemporary Indian
society.

9.6 DUTIES

Most political thinkers agree that freedom and duty are contemporary notions. However,
Basavanna discusses the responsibilities of each person. He assigns his citizens seven
obligations, or Sapta Sutras. He intended to convey through this passage that it is
forbidden to steal, kill, lie, be angry, insult others, exalt oneself, and criticise others. It
results in the soul’s purification. We can create a powerful and stable nation if we treat
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Vachana: Kalabeda Kolabeda Husiya Nudiyalu Beda Muniya Beda Annyarige NOTES
Asahya Padabeda, Tanna Bannisabeda, Idiru Haliyalu Beda Ide Antaranga
Shudhhi, Ide Bahiranga Shudhhi, and Ide Kudal Sangama Devanolisuva Pari.
Meaning: Don’t steal, don’t kill, don’t tell lies, don’t get angry, don’t insult
others, don’t praise yourself, and don’t condemn others. This is inner purity,
this is outer purity, and this is the path to please our Lord Koodala Sangamadeva.

Freedom

He believes that anarchy is established by terror. The Sharanas must have all forms of
freedom if the anarchy is to be ended and the rule of law established. He is a fervent
advocate for individual freedom. He claims that everyone is free to express their
opinions. In the Anubhava Mandapa, freedom of speech and expression was a
widespread practice. Members of the Anubhava Mandapa used to actively participate
in the proceedings, regardless of caste or gender. Before drawing a conclusion, all
opinions were considered. Even female members, such as Aydakki Lakkamma, used
to offer advice and critique their husbands’ opinions. For instance, the call made by
Lakkamma to his husband Aydakki Marayya in one of the vachanas to not gather
more rice than necessary is quite clear; further, she commands him to give back to
society the additional rice he has already gathered.

Equality

The idea of equality in Basavanna is highly distinct and specific. No one is superior to
the Shivabhakt, and no one is inferior, as demonstrated through the vachana: Enagintha
kiriyarilla Shivabhaktarigintha hiriyarilla; meaning no one is superior to me, and
no one is superior to the disciple of God; depicts his passion for equality. His primary
goal in creating his vachanas was to create an egalitarian society. He encountered
numerous obstacles and resistance from the priestly elite because of this. Another
vachana: Evanarava Evanarava Ennadirayya, Eva Nammava Nammava
Ennirayya; meaning: Never inquire about him; simply state that he is our man; depicts
his intention and care for the creation of an equitable society. He refers to all the
Sharanas as Aiyya/Akka/Avve which is the utmost respect accorded to a person in
Indian society.
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NOTES He was the first intellectual to place equal value on women. Women had to stay
within the four walls of the house throughout their lives. He nevertheless compels them
to attend and take part in the Anubhava Mandapa’s activities. The Anubhava Mandapa
contained more than 35 female members, including Akkamahadevi, Sule Sankavve,
Nilambike, Gangambike, Kadire Remmevve, Muktayakka, and Kottanad Somavva,
to name a few. In his opinion, the source of purity/supremacy is not caste but character.

Emancipation of Women

The emancipation of women was a significant accomplishment. The Vedas and other
religious texts were forbidden to women and Sudras. Within such circumstances, Basava
adamantly asserted that there was no difference in religion between men and women.
For anyone, male or female, who would come with a pure heart and sincere intent, he
threw wide the doors of spiritual pursuit. Because of this, we encounter several female
saints, like Akkamahadevi, Akkanagamma, Neelambike, Gangambike, Lakkamma,
Lingamma, and Mahadevamma, whose names are already connected to high spiritual
achievements.

9.7 RELIGION AND SECULARISM

In addition to proclaiming that everyone had equal access to religion, Basaveshwara

had to strive to free it from the control of scriptural and sacerdotal authorities. What if
you read the Vedas and listened to the Shastras? He asks, what if you recite your
beads or perform your penance. He fervently objected to the Vedic ceremonies, yet
he embraced the Upanishads’ revelation of the truth. Basava questioned, “What kind
of religion can it be without compassion? If it failed to accept any form of accommodation
regarding the ritualistic animal sacrifice included in sacrifices. He protested the priestcraft
that was behind sacrifices, other rites, and rituals that further promoted unwavering
love and directed devotion to a single supreme divinity. He opposed polytheism and
the worship of several deities. He adhered to rigorous monotheism, which was reflected
in various vachanas. God is only one, though he goes by many names, and a devoted
woman only knows one Lord, he says.
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He condemns the worship of several gods and goddesses, such as Mari and NOTES
Masani, for frivolous purposes. Here, Basavanna makes a clear distinction between
the religion of love and selfless devotion and the religion of fear and superstition. He
promoted the Veerashaiva religion’s doctrine that there is only one God, who takes
the form of Ishtalinga. Accordingly, his view of God is so high and persuasive that it
once attracted even the most cynical individuals. He transcends the Brahma, Vishnu,
and Rudra trinity. By the grace of the Guru, the absolute Almighty—who has taken on
the shape of Ishtalinga—has grown to be worshipped. It is a belief in an impersonal
God. The Guru creates an image of Sunya, or perfection, and presents it to the seeker
as Ishtalinga while inhaling Shadakshari, a six-letter mantra, into his ears.
As we saw in the progression of the Bhakti of Basaveshwara, this Ishtalinga,
which is regularly worshipped on the palm, captures the seeker’s complete spirit and
aids in his further evolution into Pranalinga and Bhavalinga. Basavanna emphasised the
importance of the seeker focusing all of his devotional efforts on the Ishtalinga with
single-minded trust. As a result, Basava was able to eliminate priestly craft and temple
worship, which had evolved into the sources and vehicles of exploitation. Worship is a
close relationship between the devotee and the deity. In Ishtalinga, this is accomplished
immediately since there is no intermediary between the Linga and the Bhakta.
Being a rationalist, Basava only supported religions that aided spiritual endeavors
and rejected irrational beliefs and superstitious practices. Many false beliefs about
astrology, lucky or unlucky omens, and the power of days, weeks, or stars were
deeply ingrained in the brains of the vast majority. As a result, he revolted against
anything that defied logic and worked to alter the mental confusion and physical
exhaustion that were the norm at the time. He was unable to treat the Dharmashastras—
or any other book, for that matter—as a sacred text that demanded unquestioning
submission. He could not stand the vices of the favoured classes and made a strong
protest of all caste and class divisions, which in the context of his day seemed to be a
very revolutionary act.
The Anubhava Mandapa was a secular organisation where all castes and
communities of Sharanas used to congregate. For instance, Madhuvarasa belonged to
the Brahmin community; Kakkayya and Channayya were untouchables; prominent
women members like Akkamahadevi, Nilambike, and Muktayakka were also members
of the Mandapa and its discussions and deliberations. Therefore, it was the ideal Self-Instructional
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NOTES secular body. Without a doubt, we must state that Basava founded a secular organisation
during the 12th century. Allama Prabhu, a member of the Natawara caste, served as
its leader and moderator for the entire session. Purity of mind and purity of behavior
were of the utmost importance to him. He valued the method just as much as the goal.
He gave the spiritual practice known as “Kayaka,” which took on a special significance
considering the accomplishments of the Sharanas of his day. It was endowed with
purity of mind and conduct.

9.8 KAYAKA

‘Kayaka’ is a phrase for honest manual labor, although it refers to much more than
only work done to support oneself. One could argue that Basavanna’s concept of
“Kayaka” was a significant addition to practical philosophy. Due to Basavanna and
other Sharanas’ preaching and practice of it, it took on a new dimension. It was given
flawless coordination of mind and deed by Basavanna. And he himself was both a
thinker and a doer. The idea is so all-encompassing that it may be used anywhere.
First and foremost, it is a profession or a job for survival. It is what Gandhiji
refers to as “bread labour.” “Nature has intended for us to earn our bread by the
sweat of our brow,” asserts Gandhiji. Everyone, whether wealthy or poor, must perform
physical or manual labour in some kind. So why shouldn’t it manifest itself as fruitful
work? In the same spirit, Basaveshwara states that everyone should do some job to
meet the requirements of society. No one has the right to live a parasitic existence,
whether they are a Bhakta, a Guru, or a Jangama, taking advantage of the labour of
others. Its fundamental tenet is that each man should strive for both material and spiritual
advancement. Its fundamental tenet is that every man should use his “Kayaka” to
achieve his material and spiritual advancement and that sloth and beggarliness have no
place in society.
The democratic ideal of freedom of occupation was another significant feature
of Kayaka that Basava promoted. He rebelled against the Karma doctrine, which
held that a man’s profession was predestined by his birth; Basavanna opposed any
discrimination based on a person’s sex, gender, or line of work. The people’s minds
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had a spiritual and social awakening because of this significant social revolution. Kayaka NOTES
altered the custom of valuing men according to their occupations. No profession was
higher or inferior to another, according to Basaveshwara, and the value of a means of
subsistence was determined by honesty and sincerity. This is Kayaka’s guiding principle.
The third crucial element of equality is that it has been announced that all professions
are equal.
By uprooting the traditional Varna or caste hierarchy, Kayaka embodies the
values of equality for all men, human dignity, and the dignity of employment. It is
consistent with democratic values. Equitable wealth and work distribution are its main
objectives. Basavanna’s ideal society is free from beggarliness and idleness. This could
be referred to as the Kayaka social structure. Everyone works here to fulfil their
physical, mental, and emotional demands, which results in a full growth of a person’s
inner capacities. No type of exploitation—economic, social, or religious—is accepted.
Each person works to the best of his or her ability and contributes the earnings from
their career to society.
There is no greed, which means that there is no artificial scarcity, social injustice,
or social tyranny. All people, including untouchables, have equal access to opportunities
in all spheres of life. There are no blind beliefs or rituals centred on the temple and
priestcraft because everyone seeks redemption through a spiritual pursuit of individual
efforts without any middleman. The triple Dasoha, or dedication to the Guru, the
Linga, and the Jangama, combines work and worship inseparably, transmuting the
mercenary drive into the spiritual motive.
With the help of Kayaka’s message, people were liberated from long-standing
societal and religious superstitions and were once again able to think for themselves
and act independently. It can provide new insight and open the door to finding solutions
to the issues facing our scientific age if it is viewed from the right angle. By uprooting
the traditional Varna or caste hierarchy, Kayaka embodies the values of equality for all
men, human dignity, and the dignity of employment. It is consistent with democratic
values. Equitable wealth and work distribution are its main objectives. Basavanna’s
ideal society is free from beggarliness and idleness. This could be referred to as the
Kayaka social structure.

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NOTES Communism

His version of communism, which he calls Kayaka, is centered on labor. Physical

labor is what he performs at work. Except for those who work, no one has a right to
food. It is not necessary for someone who is working to perform Gurudarshan or Ling
Pooja. Any religious activity cannot benefit from money earned without labor. He
believed that one should simply collect the property for his daily necessities. He opposed
gathering up assets for tomorrow. If he makes more money, it should be used for
social advancement since it belongs to society. He holds the view that wealth should
be wisely split and distributed among the people in society. Service to others is, in his
opinion, service to God.

Non-Alignment

India’s foreign policy is based on non-alignment and the roots can be traced back to
Basavanna’s non-alignment principle which he gave to humanity.
Vachana: Lokada Donkava Niveke Tidduviri, Nimma Nimma Tanava
Santaishikolli, Nimma Nimma Manava Santaishikolli, Nere Maneya Dukhakke
Aluvavara Mechha Kudal Sangama Deva.
Meaning: Why should you try to mend? The failings of the world? Assuage
your bodies first, each one of you! Assuage your minds, each one! Lord Kudala
Sangama Does not approve, those who bemoan, the neighbor’s grief.
It is secure for a country to conduct commerce if we apply this vachana to
foreign policy. It exhorts the nations to refrain from meddling in the internal affairs of
other nations and to stop worrying about their rise or collapse. For any state to succeed,
it must prioritise its own business. Politicians and political parties fall under the same
category.

Slavery

Slavery is a practice that is as old as humanity itself. Even in Western political philosophy
Aristotle has supported slavery for personal reasons. Never were slaves accorded
human rights. They were viewed as the masters’ property. It went against the fundamental
tenets of the Basavanna. He asserts that all Kudal Sangama followers and devotees
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are on an equal footing. Basavanna argues that this institution is inhumane. His vachana NOTES
shows how slaves were treated in his time:
Vachana: Nadevarayya Vadeyaru Tanu- Mana-Dhanad mele, Nudivarayya
Vandu Nimisha Baradidde, Jarivarayya Vadeyaru Mana banda Pariyali, Shiva
Shiva Anivarayya Mandeyannuri Pranad Vadeyarayya Kudal Sangama Deva
Nimma Sharanaru
Meaning: There was no freedom for slaves. They simply must carry out their
masters’ instructions. Without their masters’ instruction, direction, and command,
they are powerless.

Corruption

In the 12th century, corruption was a severe problem, which Basaveshwara was aware
of. He cautions people about the negative impacts of corruption. He makes it abundantly
apparent in his words that accumulating wealth without cause or justification is sinful
and bad for society.
Vachana: Papiya Dhana Prayaschitakallade Satpatrakke Salladayya, Naya
halu nayagallade, Panchamrutakke Salladayya, Namma Kudal Sangana
Sharaniragallade Maduv Artha Vyarthakanayya.
Meaning: The sinner’s wealth serves no worthy cause. Only to expiate his
sins! A dog’s milk serves only a dog, not for a five-fold both. Mark, Sir! The
wealth you render anyone, but our Kioala Sanga’s Sharana’s is given in vain.

Defection

Anti-defection legislation is a 20th-century construct. However, Basavanna already

illustrates the fickle nature of human nature in the 12th century. He claims that when a
person discovers someone who appeals to him, he speaks like him. This is very similar
to how current politicians switch parties like chameleons for various personal reasons.

Conclusion

The value of Basavanna’s contribution to Indian political thinking is obvious when

considering all these factors. He gave liberalism, egalitarianism, communism, and
secularism new meanings. The world will benefit much from his notion of love and care Self-Instructional
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NOTES for the Sharanas (citizens) if the current politicians adopt it. His idea of using public
funds for general welfare will surely result in the establishment of the state’s true welfare.
Without a doubt, Basavanna is one of the world’s finest humanists.
(Note: All Vachanas and meanings are for referral purposes only. The meaning may
defer with the context and time of consideration.)

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Basavanna’s Sapta Sutras prohibit stealing, killing, lying, anger, insulting, self-
exaltation, and ________.
2. Anubhava Mandapa promoted freedom of ________ and ________.
3. The principle of ________ refers to honest manual labor for self-reliance.
4. Basavanna’s version of ________ centered on labor and equitable distribution.
5. In his vachanas, Basavanna condemned the accumulation of ________ without
cause or justification.
B. State True or False:
1. Basavanna believed that character, not caste, was the source of purity.
2. Anubhava Mandapa excluded women from participating in discussions.
3. Basavanna’s concept of Kayaka emphasized the importance of parasitic
existence.
4. Basavanna supported the practice of slavery as part of his teachings.
5. Basavanna advocated for a single deity worship and criticized polytheism.

9.9 SUMMARY

 Contemporary humanity faces complex problems, despite remarkable

achievements.
 Basaveshwara (Basavanna), an Indian spiritual teacher and social reformer,
from Karnataka, offers valuable lessons in spiritual resilience.
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 His vachanas (writings) reflect diverse political, social, and cultural ideologies NOTES
and require careful interpretation.
 Born around 1131 in a Brahmin family, Basavanna was initiated into Lingadharana
(wearing the Linga) early and opposed traditional caste-based rituals.
 He founded the Anubhava Mantapa, promoting open discussion and individual
worship of Shiva.
 Basavanna emphasized equality, opposing caste and gender discrimination, and
advocated that all wearing the Linga are equal.
 His philosophy aimed to integrate spiritual enlightenment and social reform.
 Basavanna’s vachanas combine prose and poetry, capturing his spiritual insights
and advocating balanced engagement with the world.
 Anubhava Mantapa, created by Basavanna, is considered a precursor to
democratic legislative assemblies.
 Basavanna envisioned a welfare state valuing citizens equally, regardless of caste,
creed, or gender, advocating for the well-being of all.
 Basavanna outlined seven duties (Sapta Sutras) for his citizens, prohibiting
stealing, killing, lying, anger, insulting, self-exaltation, and criticism of others.
 Freedom of speech and expression was a fundamental principle in Anubhava
Mandapa, including participation by women.
 Basavanna promoted equality, stating no one is superior or inferior based on
caste, emphasizing character over caste.
 He supported the emancipation of women, giving them equal access to spiritual
pursuits and religious activities.
 Basavanna advocated for a single deity worship and criticized ritualistic practices,
promoting rationality over superstition.
 Anubhava Mandapa was a secular organization with diverse membership,
emphasizing purity of mind and behavior.
 Kayaka (honest manual labor) was essential for self-reliance and societal
contribution, rejecting parasitic existence and promoting equality in professions.
 Basavanna’s idea of communism centered on labor, opposing accumulation of Self-Instructional
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NOTES  He supported non-alignment in foreign policy, emphasizing self-priority and non-

interference in others’ affairs.
 Basavanna condemned slavery, treating all followers equally.
 He warned against corruption, stating it was sinful and harmful to society.
 Basavanna acknowledged human fickleness, similar to modern-day political
defections.

9.10 GLOSSARY

 Vachanas: Writings by Basavanna in Kannada literature, encompassing varied

social, political, and spiritual themes.
 Anubhava Mantapa: A socio-religious academy founded by Basavanna for
open discussions on spiritual and mundane matters.
 Veerashaivas: Followers of the spiritual movement founded by Basavanna,
emphasizing direct worship of Shiva.
 Lingadharana: The practice of wearing a Linga as a symbol of spiritual initiation.
 Upanayana: A traditional thread ceremony in Hindu culture, symbolizing
initiation.
 Kudala Sangama: A place in Karnataka where Basavanna completed his
education.
 Democratic Process: A system where decisions are made through participation
and majority rule.
 Welfare State: A government that prioritizes the well-being and equal treatment
of its citizens.
 Kayaka: The principle of honest manual labor for self-reliance and societal
contribution.
 Ishtalinga: A personal deity form worshipped in Veerashaiva tradition.

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 Communism (Basavanna’s): A concept centered on labor and equitable NOTES

distribution of wealth.
 Non-Alignment: A principle of foreign policy emphasizing non-interference in
other nations’ affairs.

9.11 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions - 1

A. 1. Anubhava Mantapa
2. vachanas
3. caste and gender discrimination
4. Linga
5. welfare state
B. 1. False
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True

In-Text Questions - 2

A. 1. criticism of others
2. speech, expression
3. Kayaka
4. communism
5. wealth

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NOTES B. 1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. True

9.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Critically evaluate various ideas of Basavanna in the context of democracy and

state administration.
2. Examine the values and norms of egalitarian society created by Basavanna in
ancient India.
3. What is the significance of Basavanna’s vachanas?
4. How did Basavanna view traditional caste-based rituals?
5. What was the primary focus of Basavanna’s philosophy and teachings?
6. Describe the role of Anubhava Mantapa in Basavanna’s vision.
7. What are the seven obligations, or Sapta Sutras, outlined by Basavanna?
8. How did Basavanna’s concept of Kayaka contribute to society?
9. What was the significance of Anubhava Mandapa in Basavanna’s philosophy?
10. How did Basavanna promote equality in his teachings?
11. What was Basavanna’s stance on religious rituals and superstitions?

9.13 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Dejagow. 2004. Basava Samnithe. Shivara Threeshwara.

 Desai, P. B. 1968. Basavçúvara and His Times. Banglore: Basava Samithi.
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 Hunsal, S. M., & Reddy, C. R. 2004. The Lingayat Movement. Banglore: NOTES
Basava Samithi.
 Jalihal, M. A. 2011. Concept of Religion in Whitehead and Basaveshwara: A
Comparison. Tattva Journal of Philosophy, 3(2), 37-45.
 Jangam, R. T. 1985. Basaveshwara and the Ideal of Social Equality. Basava
Journal, Bangalore, 9(3), 14-20.
 Maheshwaraiah, H. M. 2006. Basaveshwara and His Philosophy. Journal of
the Karnatak University: Humanities, 46, 15.
 Pai, A., Rao, S., & Naik, G. R. Basaveshwara.
 Palekar, S. A. 2002. Basaveshwara and Human Rights. Jaipur: ABD
Publishers.
 Ramanujan. 1994. Basavanna. Indian Literature, 70-73.
 Reddy, K. V. 1985. Basaveshwara and His Religious Rationalism. Basava
Journal, 9(3), 21-25.
 Waghmare, N. 2013. Basaveshwara and Dr. BR Ambedkar’s Views on
Eradicating the Untouchability.
 Waghmare, N. 2015. Basaveshwara and Jotiba Phule as Social Reformers.
 Yaravintelimath, C. R. 1987. The Caste Eradication Vacanas of Sri
Basaveshwara.
 Yaravintelimath, C. R. 2010. Basavanna the Universal Light. Basava Samithi.

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UNIT IX: ADI SHANKARACHARYA: ADVAITA

LESSON 10 ADI SHANKARACHARYA: ADVAITA

Adi Shankaracharya: Advaita

LESSON 10 NOTES

ADI SHANKARACHARYA: ADVAITA

Dr. Syamala K,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Philosophy,
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit
Dr. P. I. Devaraj,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Philosophy,
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit
Structure
10.1 Learning Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Epistemology of Advaita Vedanta
10.3.1 Perception or Pratyaksa
10.3.2 Inference or Anumâna
10.3.3 Testimony or Sabda
10.3.4 Comparison or Upamâna
10.3.5 Postulation or Arthâpatti
10.3.6 Non-Cognition or Anupalabdhi
10.3.7 Advaita Theory of Error
10.4 Sankara’s Adhyâsabhâsya
10.5 Refutation of the Different Theories of Error
10.6 Summary
10.7 Glossary
10.8 Answers to In-text Questions
10.9 Self-Assessment Questions
10.10 References/Suggested Readings

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NOTES
10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Examine the epistemology in the philosophy of Advaita
 Analyze the importance of Sankara’s Adhyâsa bhasya
 Discuss about the refutation of different theories of error by Advaitins

10.2 INTRODUCTION

In the history of Indian Philosophy, the place of Sankaracharya is both permanent and
high. He was gifted with extra-ordinary intelligence, a deeply penetrating mind, critical
insight, logical reasoning, philosophical analysis, religious purity, sublimity of renunciation,
and profound spirituality. His contribution to Indian philosophy and to Vedic religion
and culture is unparalleled. The credit of establishing Advaita Vedânta as a sound
philosophical system goes to Sankaracharya. He was a champion for knowledge and
dedicated his life to selfless service (nishkâma karma) and devotion to God (bhakti).
Hence, his life can be considered as ample proof that selfless service and devotion
may go well with spiritual enlightenment (jñâna). Although he disclaimed originality, he
brought about a revolution in the minds of men, the salutary effects of which can be felt
even today. This was made clear by Dr S. Radhakrishnan when he stated, “His
philosophy stands forth complete, needing neither a before nor an after …. whether
we agree or disagree or differ, the penetrating light of his mind never leaves as wherever
we were.” (Indian philosophy, Vol. II, p.446) He emphasized the monistic tendency of
Upanishads and developed it into a systematic philosophy of Advaita. Sankara appeared
on the firmament of Indian thought at a time when the country was caught in a churning
process-politically, socially, and culturally. It was in such a chaotic atmosphere that
Sankara put forth his life-giving philosophy of the Non-dual Brahman of the Upanishads.
His writings show great intellectual power, logical precision, and emotional profundity.
According to Swami Prabhavananda, “by means of his remarkable clearness, his
supreme wisdom and his profound spirituality he has so stamped himself upon Vedânta
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sorrowful heart of a large segment of mankind.”(The Spiritual Heritage of India, p.279) NOTES
He thus set a model in thinking and exposition which subsequent philosophers in India
have striven to follow.
Here in this unit, we will deal with epistemology of Advaita along with Sankara’s
Adhyâsa bhâsya and his refutation of different theories of error.

10.3 EPISTEMOLOGY OF ADVAITA VEDANTA

The main feature of Advaita Vedânta is to understand Brahman, the Supreme Reality.
To understand or realize Brahman, one has to overcome ignorance by attaining
knowledge, be liberated, and be in a vigilant state at the conscious level. Sankara
repeatedly asserted that the Absolute can be realized only through knowledge and
knowledge alone while action and devotion are subsidiary.
According to Sankara, knowledge is the disappearance of the ignorance. While
it is always existent, the ignorance keeps it covered and unnoticed. Though Advaitins
regards all means of knowledge and all knowledge acquired through them as unreal
from the transcendental standpoint, they do not deny their importance in the practical
world before one gets the transcendental knowledge. Thus, Advaita recognizes
knowledge only in the empirical level. It believes in the self-validity of knowledge.
The mechanism of knowing involves a knower or pramata, means of knowledge
or pramana, and object of knowledge or prameya which give rise to valid knowledge
or prama. In Vedanta, ‘prama’ means the knowledge which is un-contradicted. Advaita
Vedânta recognizes the six pramânâs or sources and criteria of valid knowledge.
They are as follows: Perception or pratyksa, inference or anumâna, testimony or
sabda, comparison or upamâna, postulation or arthâpatti, non-cognition or
anupalabhdi. Let us have a look into these pramânâs separately.

10.3.1 Perception or Pratyaksa

It is knowledge gained by the senses. According to Advaita, in the perception of an

external object, the mind goes out through the sense organ. For example, when the
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NOTES the shape of the flower which modifies into the thought ‘flower.’ This modification is
known as vrtti. The capacity of mind to illumine an object is because of the reflection
of the consciousness (Brahman) in the mind. But the knowledge of self or Brahman
cannot be gained by perceptual cognition because Brahman cannot be objectified.
Brahman is self-evident luminous being and its knowledge is gained through
svarupajnana or knowledge of the nature of self. On the other hand, knowledge of
other objects is gained through vrtti jnana or empirical knowledge.

10.3.2 Inference or Anumâna

Inference is the means of inferential knowledge. Knowledge derived through anumana

is not direct, since it makes use of previous knowledge obtained from other sources of
knowledge like perception, testimony etc, and enables one to explore further knowledge.
Inferential knowledge is produced by the knowledge of invariable concomitance or
vyapti. The latent impression of the invariable concomitance is the intermediate
operation or vyapara. The inferential knowledge that ‘the hill has fire’ arises when one
sees the smoke (hetu) in a hill (paksha), which arouses the latent impression of the
invariable concomitance ‘when there is smoke, there is fire’. By this application, one
gains the inferential knowledge that the hill has fire (sadhya). Though the Advaita
philosophy recognizes this pramana, it holds that Brahman cannot be known through
inference because of the absence of hetu to determine Brahman.

10.3.3 Testimony or Sabda

In Advaita, Veda has been admitted as an independent pramana. Vedas are impersonal
and eternal. Vedas begin with the beginning of the creation and disappear with its
disappearance. God begins the creation along with the Vedas. After destruction or
pralaya, they remain in the mind of God. Advaita recognizes God as the author of
Veda in a special sense. It is not his work in the literal sense. Like everything else,
Vedas also disappear at the end of cycle and God repeats it at the beginning of the
next cycle. As far as its content is concerned, it is independent of God i.e. apouruscaya.
According to Nyaya, God is the sole author of Veda while Vedas are self-existent as
per Mimamsa. In Advaita, we find a midway position between Nyaya and Mimamsa.
According to it, the purpose of the scriptures is attribute less Brahman or Nirguna
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Brahman which is known by scrutinizing the intention of scriptures based on six indicating NOTES
marks. They are introduction-conclusion, repetition, uniqueness, result, eulogy, and
logical presentation. The mahâvâkyâs reveal the identity meaning by the application
of exclusive-inclusive implication.

10.3.4 Comparison or Upamâna

This is the knowledge gained by analogy. It is an independent source of valid knowledge.

The example is as follows: ‘A man does not know what a gavaya is. He learns from a
friend that gavaya is an animal similar to the cow. Subsequently, he goes to the forest
and sees an animal which is like a cow. He remembers the information he received
regarding this animal. Now he knows that this is the animal called ‘gavaya.’A connection
between a name and the thing it signifies is established. It arises through the previous
knowledge of the resemblance between the two things. It is non-perceptual source in
the sense that it is not reducible to perception because of the two objects involved in
the judgment only one is now being perceived. Similarity cannot be said to be the
object of memory alone. It is not knowledge by inference either because inference
always requires a universal premise stating invariable relation between two terms no
such premise is employed here. Hence, Advaitins regard upamâna or comparison as
an independent source of knowledge. But they held that Brahman cannot be known
through comparison since there does not exist a similar second thing like Brahman.

10.3.5 Postulation or Arthâpatti

This is the knowledge gained by superimposing the known knowledge on an appearing

knowledge that does not occur with the known knowledge. Through this pramana,
we discover a fact as a result of a contradiction between two facts already known to
be well established. One employs postulation in order to account for an observed fact
which cannot be otherwise explained. This is explained by the well-known example of
Devadatta. Devadatta does not eat during the daytime but he is fat – these are known
facts. So, we postulate that he eats during the night. It is to be noted that postulation is
neither perception nor inference. It is not perception because we have not perceived
him eating in the night. It is not inference also because there is no invariable connection
between growing fat and eating at night. Hence, Advaitin regards arthapatti as an
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NOTES independent source of valid knowledge and make use of it to prove the falsity of the
world. The scriptural statement ‘the knower of self transcends sorrow’ reveals falsity
of world by application of postulation.

10.3.6 Non-Cognition or Anupalabdhi

It is knowledge gained by negation. It is our immediate cognition of the non-existence

of an object. For instance, an umbrella which is expected to be in a particular corner
of a room is not seen there. We know about the non-existence of umbrella through this
separate pramana of anupalabdhi. According to Advaita Vedânta, non-cognition
cannot be reduced to any of the other five pramanas i.e., perception, comparison,
inference, testimony, or postulation. Hence the Advaitin regards non-cognition as an
independent source of valid knowledge.

10.3.7 Advaita Theory of Error

Advaitin accepts an objective factor in all knowledge. The object is objectively given
even in illusory knowledge. Only its status is different from the objective content of
valid knowledge. When a person mistakes a rope for a snake, he does have some
knowledge - the knowledge of the illusory snake. An illusory object is described as a
‘private object’ whereas a real object is content of public knowledge. While the rope
is perceived by all who may look at it, the snake is perceived only by the man who has
the illusion. Secondly, an illusory object endures only so long as the perception of it
endures. It comes into being along with its knowledge and disappears along with it.
But the real objects exist prior to their being known and continue to be the same
afterwards.
The illusory object is not completely unreal for the totality non-existent or unreal
entity cannot make itself known, i.e., the illusory object cannot be expressed either as
sat or as asat. It is anirvacaniya or inexpressible. Hence the advaita theory of error
is described as anirvacaniyakhyati (perception of sat asat vilakshana).
Three orders of reality are recognized by Advaita - (1) Pratibhâshika or illusory
level, (2) Vyavahârika or empirical level, and (3) Paramârthika or absolute level.
The lowest level is the illusory level where we recognize the false snake. The illusory
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rope. It is the level of vyvahârika or empirical existence. But ultimately, it is an NOTES

appearance of Brahman. For Advaitin, Brahman is the highest or ultimate level of
reality.
In the same manner, the Advaita philosophy states that the world of plurality is
super imposed on non-dual Brahman due to ignorance. Plurality is the cause of sorrow
and on wake of Brahman-knowledge in the paramarthika or absolute level; plurality
vanishes just as the snake vanished and one realizes the non-dual nature of the self and
attains liberation. Many charges are levelled against Sankara, the great philosopher,
but when we go deep into his thoughts, it reveals the fact that they are all baseless. This
was clearly pointed out by Dr S. Radhakrishanan when he stated that, “It is impossible
to read Sankara’s writings, packed as they are with serious and subtle thinking, without
being conscious that one is in contact with a mind of a very fine penetration and
profound spirituality…. His philosophy stands forth complete, needing neither a before
nor an after…. whether we agree or differ, the penetrating light of his mind never
leaves us where we were.”

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. The credit of establishing _________ as a sound philosophical system goes
to Sankaracharya.
2. Sankaracharya believed that the Absolute can be realized only through
_________ and knowledge alone.
3. According to Advaita Vedânta, the six pramânâs or sources and criteria of
valid knowledge are perception, inference, testimony, comparison, _________,
and non-cognition.
4. _________ is knowledge gained by analogy and is considered an independent
source of valid knowledge in Advaita.
5. The Advaita theory of error is described as _________, which is the perception
of sat and asat vilakshana.
B. State True or False:
1. Sankaracharya dedicated his life to selfless service and devotion to God.
2. Sankaracharya’s writings are only significant for their emotional profundity, Self-Instructional
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NOTES 3. In Advaita Vedânta, pratyaksa or perception is considered the only source of

valid knowledge.
4. The Vedas, according to Advaita, are eternal and impersonal, and are considered
an independent pramana.
5. The illusory object in Advaita, such as the snake in the rope-snake example,
can be described as sat (existent) or asat (non-existent).

10.4 SANKARA’S ADHYÂSABHÂSYA

Adhyasabhasya is the prologue to Sankara’s commentary on Vedântasutras. More

than a commentary, it is an independent piece of work which is very important in many
ways. It is a short work with less than fifty lines and is divided into five sections.
Sankara presents his views without citing any traditional text or authority to support it.
Sankara is neither propagating a new school of thought nor is he attacking any school
of thought. The concept of superimposition or Adhyâsa was already presented in the
Advaita system and its literature prior to Sankara’s rendering of it. Through this
prologue, he only wanted to restore the true interpretation of the Vedânta tradition as
it is contained. Sankara tried to synthesize and co-ordinate the different views in Vedas
and Upanishads and tried to remove the vagueness in it. So, he begins his commentary
on Brahmasutra with an analysis of superimposition or Adhyâsa. Hence, he held that
the main purpose of the Upanishads is to provide the knowledge or vidya which will
eliminate darkness, avidyâ, or ignorance which is in the nature of ‘reality transfer’ or
Adhyâsa. After that, he explains the concept of Adhyâsa and now we will look into it.
Sankara has distinguished between the self and the not-self and has warned
against confusing the two to be the same. In the field of ‘I’ and ‘thou’, subject and
object are opposed to each other in nature like light and darkness. When it is proved
that they cannot exist inter-dependently, it appears to be still more illogical that their
characteristics can be imposed on one another. Thus, neither the self nor its
characteristics can be imposed upon one another. This false imposition is known as
Adhyâsa. In the words of Sankara, ‘the imposition of something in the form of memory
that has been seen earlier or somewhere else is Adhyâsa. Thus, Adhyâsa is an illusive
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perception but an important concept in Advaita Vedânta. The cause of the illusion is NOTES
the confusion of the imposed with that on which it is imposed. The present object
cannot be imposed; hence the imposition is of some object seen earlier. The object of
imposition is somewhere else and that is why imposition is illusion. Thus, Adhyâsa is
the result of the mixture of truth and untruth. Besides the definition of adhyâsa already
given, Sankara gives yet another definition of adhyâsa saying that, ‘the appearance of
something in something other than it is known as adhyâsa. When one sees rope as
snake and the silver as nacre, it is adhyâsa. Something has been perceived as something
else.
Similarly, when a man sees the self in the not-self, i.e., body, intellect, etc. which
are entirely different in their nature from the former, it is said to be adhyâsa. According
to Dr S. Radhakrishnan, “To attribute to the real what is different from it is what
Sankara calls adhyâsa, or attributing to one thing what is different from it. Adhyâsa is
defined as the appearance of a thing where it is not. When the light appears double, or
when the rope appears as a snake, we have adhyâsa. All knowledge of finite things is
in sense the negation of pure being since objects are imposed (adhyasta) on the eternal
consciousness. The most striking instance of this adhyâsa is the confusion of subject
with object where we attribute to the Âtman activity, agency and enjoyment.”(Indian
Philosophy, Vol. II, p471) “Sankara gives three definition of adhyâsa or superimposition,
which are essentially the same. The first definition is: adhyâsa is the appearance of
something previously observed which is now revived like a memory image, in something
else given now. The definition demands that there must be three things in error (i)
something given now is the ground, present before us and real, on which some other
thing is super-imposed; (ii) something previously observed which in itself may or may
not be real, but now is not before us and is therefore unreal in the sense of not-given,
is the object superimposed due to its impression being unconsciously revived like a
memory-image; and (iii) the fact of appearance itself which is terminated by subsequent
right cognition of the ground. The second definition is: adhyâsa is the appearance of
the attributes of something in something else. It means that error is an illegitimate
transference of the ‘what’ of something to the ‘that’ of something else. The third definition
is: adhyâsa is the (apparent) cognition of a thing in something else where in fact it does
not exist. This shows that error is wrong cognition or misapprehension due to super-
imposition of something on something else. These three definitions are different ways
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NOTES of expressing the same thing and all imply the three factors mentioned above. Error is
essentially the super-imposition of the unreal (not given) on the real (given).” (The
Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy, pp, 169-70). The self is not a known object,
because it is the object of the concept of ‘I’. In the concept of ‘I’, the self is seen as the
doer and the enjoyer. The self is the object of immediate experience because by its
disappearance, the whole universe will be in dark.
Ultimately, Sankara maintains that the self is the object of immediate experience.
Saririka or embodied self is the self in the vyavaharika context but the self in reality
or asaririka is absolute and infinite. When we perceive the infinite self as the limited
self or jîva, it is Adhyâsa. Sankara holds that the relation between mind and self also
involves adhyâsa because this relation is false as there cannot be any relation between
the self and the non-self. In spite of the self being the only reality, the not-self can be
imposed upon it. This adhyâsa is the basis of the workings of Mâyâ. In brief, the
adhyâsa is of the nature of ignorance. Its work is to create the sense of doer and
enjoyer in the self. Its proof is the common experience of everyone. According to
Sankara, the scholars have called the above behavior as ignorance, while the
understanding of the real essence of things after knowledge is said to be Vidya. Ignorance
or Avidyâ is neither existent not non-existent. It is indescribable. All the objects of the
empirical world are due to Avidyâ. Avidyâ is false knowledge. It is the cause of the
power of Mâyâ. It overshadows the self and the Brahman. It remains in the Jîvas in the
form of karmas. It is due to Avidyâ that the jiva does not know his real form. Avidyâ is
eternal and natural, but it can be destroyed through knowledge. It is the worldly behavior.
Adhyâsa is not avidyâ, but consequence. Both Avidyâ and Jîva are eternal. Liberation
from Avidyâ is necessary for the destruction of Adhyâsa. This liberation from Avidyâ is
precisely the aim sought by the study of the Vedânta scriptures.

10.5 REFUTATION OF THE DIFFERENT THEORIES

OF ERROR

The theory of error is called Khyâti vada. It stands for invalid or erroneous knowledge.
Error is the reverse of valid knowledge. In the case of valid knowledge, the presumption
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mode. In case of error, we become aware of the object as what it is not. In error, an NOTES
object is cognized as having certain characteristics that really fall outside of its being,
thus, it is wrong apprehension in which the object is taken for what it is not. For
example, we mistake a snake to be a rope. This happens because the characteristics
of a snake are found in the rope. Similarly, we mistake a shell erroneously as silver. As
different philosophers gave different explanations to the problem of error, we have
different theories of error. Some of them are Âtmakhyati vâda, Asatkhyati vâda, Akhyati
vâda, Anyatha khyativada, Anirvacaniya khyati vâda etc.Anirvacaniya khyati (perception
of sat asat vilakshana) is the theory of error advocated by Advaita Vedânta. We
have explained it when we dealt with Advaita epistemology. The other theories are
refuted in Sankara’s Adhyâsa bhâsya. Let us have a brief look into it.

Atmakhyati vâda (Self Apprehension)

This is the theory of error advocated by Yogâcâra school of Buddhism. Âtmakhyati

means that the error is the superimposition of the form of cognition on the so-called
external object, which is unreal, for the real is only the momentary cognition. According
to Sankara, as the external world is an object of experience through the senses, it
cannot be considered as altogether non-existent. He held that the philosophers of
Vijñâna vâda were not able to establish their position conclusively. They were committing
blunders while trying to establish their position of the internality of ideas. Advaitavadins
were of opinion that there cannot be any ideas without its external existence. When the
Vijñânavadins tried to prove the internality of ideas stating that ‘what is internal appears
as external’, they were actually proving its externality. So, the Advaitins were of opinion
that in order to distinguish between valid and erroneous as perception, we need both
inner consciousness and external objects. Otherwise, we will not be able to distinguish
between them and so, the valid perception and erroneous perception will be the same.
Sankara and his followers thus rejected Âtmakhyati vâda of Vijñâna vâda.

Astakhyati vâda (Apprehension of non-existence)

Asatkhyati vâda is the theory or error advocated by Mâdhyamikâ Buddhism. It is also

called Sûnyakhyati as it is upheld by Sûnya vâda of Buddhism. According to this
theory, a non-existent thing (e.g. silver) is apprehended as existent in an illusion. An
illusion apprehends a non-existent object or asat. So, this theory is called Asatkhyati.
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NOTES Error is due to the mistake of conceiving the non-existent for the existent. But this view
is rejected by the philosophers of Advaita They hold that there cannot be any cognition
of what does not exist. For e.g.: the horn of a rabbit cannot be seen either in reality or
in illusion because it is absolute non-existence which can never be apprehended as
existent and cannot produce knowledge. To solve this, the Mâdhyamikâ Buddhists
hold that it is very essence of cognition to manifest the unreal. But if the very essence
of cognition is real, its manifestation can never be unreal and they are put into trouble.
Hence, the Advaitavadins reject the theory of error as well.

Akhyati vâda (Non-apprehension)

Prabhakara’s theory of error is akhyati vada and this is similar to the Samkhya theory
of error which is called viveka khyati. According to Akhyati vada, there is no invalid
cognition. Error is only partial truth or imperfect knowledge. Error is one of omission
only and of commission. It is due to non-discrimination between two cognitions and
their separate objects. Prabhakara holds that when we mistake an acre for a silver
coin, we have two cognitions – the perception of nacre and the memory of cognition
of silver. Neither of these are untrue. The element of error lies in the fact that we fail to
notice that there are two jñânas here, that is of perception and memory. Sankara in his
Adhyâsa bhâsya criticizes this view of Prabhakara and says that Prabhakara fails to
make the distinction between the cognition of nacre and the memory of silver. Actually,
they cannot be turned into a positive experience here and now. Prabhakara’s view of
‘non-apprehension of the difference between those very two is self-contradictory.
Where there is non-apprehension of difference, it cannot be of the form ‘between the
two’. There it is held that the arguments of Akhyativadins are not proper and so it is
rejected.

Anyatakhyati or Viparitakhyati (Misapprehension)

Kumarila Bhatta’s view of error is known as Viparita khyati, which is in essence the
same as Anyatâkhyati of Nyaya Vaisesika. Here, we are dealing it together. In Nyaya,
error is the comprehension of a thing as other than what it is. For example, when a
person mistakes a rope for a snake, the idea of the snake perceived in the past is in our
memory and is confused with the object. The rope which is given here is perceived as
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having the qualities of a snake which is given elsewhere. The subject of the erroneous NOTES
judgment is always real. Error occurs only with respect to the predicate. The predicate
is true elsewhere and not here. Error occurs because of wrong association of qualities.
Kumarila also explains error as one of commission. Error, according to him, is wrong
apprehension of one object as another object. It is partial misrepresentation. It is not
akhyati or non-apprehension, but it is Viparita khyati or misapprehension. It occurs
because of the wrong relation between the object and sense organ which perceives
them.
The Advaita philosophers are not in agreement with the above view of error also.
According to them, so far as the existence of error is concerned, it is bound up with its
perception by someone, in the same place, and never perception in different places. The
perception in the same place occurs only in superimposition. When error arises, it is
entirely a new creation because of avidyâ which projects the unreal in the case of the
real. So ‘anythva’ or ‘otherwiseness’ cannot refer to any cognitive activity, according to
the Advaitins. Hence, they reject this theory of misapprehension also. They consider it as
incomplete and so, cannot give us an explanation of the real nature of error.
From the above account, it becomes clear that the Advaitans rejected almost all
theories of error advocated by the different systems of Indian thought. They considered
Anirvacaniya khyati to be the only thing that can give a better explanation of what
error actually is.

In-Text Questions - 2

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. Adhyasabhasya is the prologue to Sankara’s commentary on ____________.
2. Sankara begins his commentary on Brahmasutra with an analysis of
____________ or Adhyâsa.
3. According to Sankara, the main purpose of the Upanishads is to provide the
knowledge or vidya which will eliminate darkness, avidyâ, or ____________.
4. In the concept of ‘I’, the self is seen as the ____________ and the enjoyer.
5. According to Dr S. Radhakrishnan, attributing to the real what is different
from it is what Sankara calls ____________.
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NOTES B. State True or False:

1. Sankara’s Adhyasabhasya is an independent piece of work rather than just a
commentary.
2. The concept of Adhyâsa was introduced by Sankara for the first time in his
Adhyasabhasya.
3. Sankara believes that ignorance or avidyâ can be both existent and non-existent
at the same time.
4. According to Sankara, the self and the not-self can have their characteristics
imposed upon each other.
5. Sankara’s theory of Adhyâsa supports the notion that error is the
superimposition of the unreal on the real.

10.6 SUMMARY

 The credit of establishing Advaita Vedânta as a sound philosophical system

goes to Sankaracharya. He was a champion of knowledge and dedicated his
life to selfless service (nishkâma karma) and devotion to God (bhakti). Hence,
his life can be considered as an ample proof that selfless service and devotion
may go well with spiritual enlightenment (jñâna).
 The main feature of Advaita Vedânta is to understand Brahman, the Supreme
Reality. To understand or realize Brahman, one has to overcome ignorance by
attaining knowledge, be liberated, and be in a vigilant state at the conscious
level. Sankara repeatedly asserted that absolute can be realized only through
and knowledge alone and action devotion are subsidiary.
 Advaita Vedânta recognizes the six pramanas or sources and criteria of valid
knowledge. They are as follows: Perception or pratyksa, inference or anumâna,
testimony or sabda, comparison or upamâna, postulation or arthapatti, and
non-cognition or anupalabhdi. Advaitin accepts an objective factor in all
knowledge. Even in illusory knowledge, the object is objectively given. Only its
status is different from the objective content of valid knowledge.
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 When a person mistakes a rope for a snake, he does have some knowledge- NOTES
the knowledge of the illusory snake. An illusory object is described here as a
‘private object’ whereas a real object is content of public knowledge. While the
rope is perceived by all who may look at it, the snake is perceived only by the
man who has the illusion.
 Secondly, an illusory object endures only so long as the perception of it endures.
It comes into being along with its knowledge and disappears along with it. But
the real objects exist prior to their being known and continues to be the same
afterwards.
 The illusory object is not completely unreal for the totality non-existent or unreal
entity cannot make itself known, i.e. the illusory object cannot be expressed
either as sat or as asat. It is anirvacaniya or inexpressible. Hence, the advaita
theory of error is described as anirvacaniyakhyati (perception of sat asat
vilakshana).
 Adhyâsa bhasya is the prologue to Sankara’s commentary on Vedântasutras.
More than a commentary, it is an independent piece of work which is important
in many ways. It is really a short work with less than fifty lines. It is divided into
five sections. Sankara presents his views without citing any traditional text or
authority to support it. Sankara has distinguished between the self and the not-
self and warned against confusing the two to be one.
 In the field of ‘I’ and ‘thou’, subject and object, which are opposed to each
other in nature like light and darkness, when it is proved that they cannot exist
inter-dependently, it appears to be still more illogical that their characteristics
can be imposed on one another.
 Thus, neither the self nor its characteristics can be imposed one another. This
false imposition is known as Adhyâsa. Sankara maintains that the self is the
object of immediate experience. Saririka or embodied self is the self in the
vyavahârika context but the self in reality or asaririka is absolute and infinite.
When we perceive the infinite self as the limited self or jiva, it is Adhyâsa.
 Sankara holds that the relation between mind and self also involves adhyâsa
because this relation is false as there cannot be any relation between the self and
the non-self. In spite of the self being the only reality, the not-self can be imposed
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NOTES  In brief, the adhyâsa is of the nature of ignorance. When the Vijñânavadins tried
to prove the internality of ideas stating that ‘what is internal appears as external’.
They were actually proving its externality also.
 So, the Advaitins were of opinion that in order to distinguish between valid and
erroneous as perception, we need both inner consciousness as well as external
objects. Otherwise we will not be able to distinguish between them. The valid
perception and erroneous perception will be the same. Sankara and his followers
thus rejected Âtmakhyati vada of Vijñâna vada.
 But this view is rejected by the philosophers of Advaita and they hold that there
cannot be any cognition of what does not exist. For e.g.: the horn of a rabbit
cannot be seen either in reality or in illusion because it is absolute non-existence
which can never be apprehended as existent and it cannot produce knowledge.
 To solve this, the Mâdhyamikâ Buddhists hold that it is very essence of cognition
to manifest the unreal. But if the very essence of cognition is real, its manifestation
can never be unreal and here also they are put into trouble. Hence the
Advaitavadins reject the theory of error also.
 Sankara in his Adhyâsa bhasya criticizes this view of Prabhakara and says that
Prabhakara fails to make the distinction between the cognition of nacre and the
memory of silver. Actually, they cannot be turned into a positive experience
here and now. Prabhakara’s view of ‘non-apprehension of the difference between
those very two is self-contradictory because where there is non-apprehension
of difference; it cannot be of the form ‘between the two’.
 It is held that the arguments of Akhyativadins are not proper and so, it is rejected.
Kumarila Bhatta’s view of error is known as Viparita khyati, which is in essence
the same as Anyatâkhyati of Nyaya Vaisesika. The Advaita philosophers are
not in agreement with the above view of error also.
 According to them, so far as the existence of error is concerned, it is bound up
with its perception by someone, in the same place, and never perception in
different places. The perception in the same place occurs only in superimposition.
 When error arises, it is entirely a new creation because of avidyâ which projects
the unreal in the case of the real. So ‘anythva’ or ‘otherwiseness’ cannot refer
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to any cognitive activity, according to the Advaitins.
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NOTES
10.7 GLOSSARY

 Atman: The Ultimate Reality, sometimes loosely used in the sense of individual
soul
 Khyati vada: Theory of error
 Pramana: Means of knowledge
 Adhyâsa: A false superimposition
 Bhâsya: Commentary or exposition of any text in ancient Indian literature
 Jñâna: Learning and knowledge of any subject

10.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions - 1

A. 1. Advaita Vedânta
2. knowledge
3. postulation
4. Upamâna
5. anirvacaniyakhyati
B. 1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. False

In-Text Questions - 2

A. 1. Vedântasutras Self-Instructional
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NOTES 2. superimposition
3. ignorance
4. doer
5. adhyâsa
B. 1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True

10.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Highlight the importance of Adhyâsabhâsya

2. Give a brief account of Arthâpatti.
3. What do you mean by Âtmakhyati vâda?
4. Briefly explain the Nyaya theory of Error.
5. Examine the importance of Anircaniya khyati in Advaita Vedânta.
6. Explain the important tenets of the epistemology of Advaita Vedânta.
7. Examine the concept of Adhyâsa in the philosophy of Sankara.
8. Elucidate the refutation of different theories of error by the Advaitins.

10.10 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Balasubramanian, R.1976. Advaita Vedanta. Madras: University of Madras.

 Comans, Michael. 2000. The Method of Early Advaita Vedanta. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass.
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 Hiriyanna.1985. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Motilal NOTES

Banarsidass.
 Krishnamurthy, V. 1989. Essentials of Hinduism. New Delhi: Narosa Publishing
House,
 Puligandala, R. 2008.Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: D.K.
Printworld
 Prabhavananda, Swami. 1981. The Spiritual Heritage of India. Madras: Sri
Ramakrishna Math,
 Radhakrishnan, Dr S. 2014. Indian Philosophy, Vol.I & II. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press
 Raju. P.T. 1985. Structural Depth of Indian Thought. New Delhi: South
Asian Publishers
 Sharma, Chandradhar. 2006. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass
 Sinha, Jadunath. 2006. Indian Philosophy, Vol.I &II. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
 Article
 Devaraj, Dr.P.I, & Syamala. K. Dr Is Sankara a Philosopher, Theologian, or
a Social Reformer, in International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational
Research, Vol. I, April 2012.

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UNIT X: KABIR AND GURU NANAK:
SYNCRETISM

LESSON 11 KABIR AND GURU NANAK: SYNCRETISM

Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism

LESSON 11 NOTES

KABIR AND GURU NANAK: SYNCRETISM

Dr. Gurdeep Kaur
Assistant Professor
Sri Guru Gobind Singh College of Commerce, DU
Structure
11.1 Learning Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Understanding the Concept of Syncretism
11.4 Sant Kabir Das
11.5 Guru Nanak
11.6 Summary
11.7 Glossary
11.8 Answers to In-Text Questions
11.9 Self-Assessment Questions
11.10 References/Suggested Readings

11.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Understand the concept of syncretism
 Trace the background to the genesis of syncretism
 Explain Sant Kabir’s contribution to the syncretic tradition
 Highlight the role of Guru Nanak in context of syncretism

11.2 INTRODUCTION

Diversity has been the hallmark of Indian civilisation since times immemorial, the existence
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NOTES practices, rituals, value systems, etc. that have always remained as the defining features
of India. Throughout India’s history, religion has been an important part of the country’s
culture. The presence of multiple religions undoubtedly gives vibrancy, but at the same
time, it proves challenging to establish peaceful coexistence among people of varied
religious orientations. Instances of religious, cultural and ethnic conflicts are found in
every phase of India’s history; however, despite such instances and episodes of violence,
India takes pride in its long tradition of religious pluralism, ranging from peaceful co-
existence to actual inter-mixing or syncretism. On revisiting the history of medieval India,
one finds the smooth blend of different cultures and beliefs that was facilitated through
the policies, principles and the acts of various rulers of those times. And an equally
important role towards promoting syncretism was played by the religious movements of
medieval India- Bhakti and Sufism. The Bhakti and the Sufi movements were responses
to the anti-syncretism and religious orthodoxy that were social realities in those times.
The proponents of both movements transcended religious and communal boundaries
and promoted the interests of humanity at large. Both movements revolted against all
forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood, priesthood, baseless rituals, blind
superstitions, and hypocrisy, and attempted to create a new world order in which spiritual
bliss was the ultimate goal. In a conflict-ridden society divided on cultural, religious and
caste grounds, both the Bhakti and the Sufi saints spearheaded the task of unifying,
enlightening and reawakening of people. The Bhakti and Sufi saints reminded people of
their ethical obligations toward one another. The devotional songs and poetry of the
Bhakti and Sufi saints are a clear reflection of the syncretic tradition.
The present lesson is a modest attempt to highlight the pioneering role played
by two most prominent Bhakti saints–Sant Kabir Das and Guru Nanak towards
syncretism. However, before discussing their role, it is important to understand the
concept of syncretism and factors that help in the growth of syncretic trends.

11.3 UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF

SYNCRETISM

‘Lesson in diversity’ is the defining feature of Indian politics, and the reflection of the
Self-Instructional same is through the intermingling of cultures, practices, dance, and art forms. Religion
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the social system that is often influenced by external developments and forces. This NOTES
results in religious and cultural syncretism. Some of the examples of syncretism evident
in medieval India’s language, art, architecture, literature, etc. will help the readers
understand the concept better.
Many of the Sanskrit literature and epics, like the Upanishads, Bhagwat Gita,
Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated to Persian by the Mughal rulers to facilitate
the learning and acquiring knowledge from the same by the Persian readers. The
combination of Hindu and Persian architecture during the medieval period resulted in
creation of a new indigenous architecture. The finest monuments, forts, palaces, and
landscaping that are a combination of Indian and Mughal architecture styles continue
to be the rarest examples of uniqueness in style and magnificence to this day. The
amalgamation of Hindu and the Persian art forms created the Kangra School of
paintings. The shrines and dargahs built across India are a representation of the syncretic
tradition where people irrespective of their different faiths and cultures continue to visit
and pay obeisance even today. During the Mughal rule, Hindus and Muslims interacted
both formally and informally, artists, saints, preachers, craftsmen, painters, traders
migrated to India from Persia and other parts and their interactions with their Indian
counterparts encouraged syncretic tradition in their respective domains. The Shehnai
players of Benaras had been playing the instrument as an evocation to the god Shiva,
sitting outside on the steps of the temple. The Islamic traditions have also incorporated
elements from Hindu traditions. The Sufi shrines are known for their genre of specific
musical traditions that have taken birth on the Indian soil. On the level of mystical belief
and experience, an astonishing syncretism emerged between Hindus and Muslims,
especially in the poetry of Kabir and of Guru Nanak.
The word syncretism has roots in the Latin word syncretismus, drawing on Greek
synkretismos, which means ‘Cretan federation’. Syncretism is popularly known as the
combination of different beliefs or faiths. Syncretism includes the merging or assimilation
of several originally different traditions, especially in the theology of religion, thus asserting
an underlying unity and allowing for an inclusive approach to other faiths. The Oxford
English Dictionary defines syncretism as “the amalgamation or attempted amalgamation
of different religions, cultures, or schools of thought. According to the Encyclopedia of
Social and Cultural Anthropology “it is the hybridization or amalgamation of two or more
cultural traditions” Syncretism refers to the fusion of two or more thought systems. It
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NOTES It can also be explained as the blending of the aspects of different cultures or religions
into something new. Often, this process creates an entirely new culture/ religion/subculture.
The main features of any syncretic occurrence are:
 A common community, such as a geographic community or a social group.
 Interactions of different cultures in the same community.
 Exchange of cultural ideas or features between different subgroups in the
community.
 Eventual fusion of prominent cultural ideas from two or more cultures into a
unique cultural philosophy or lifestyle.
The intermingling of culture, religions, and philosophies under the process of
syncretism may or may not destroy the old ones but creates a new one. Such fusions
are commonly observed in the field of religion. Religious syncretism
 It is possible when the religions move away from the essentialist doctrines
and are willing to absorb beliefs from their environment.
 It promotes peace, harmony, coexistence, tolerance, and reconciliation.
 It brings about innovation and emergence of new sets of ideas/traditions/
value systems with or without destroying the existing ones.
 An important channel for dealing with religious diversity because it crosses
boundaries and allows hybridity/hybridization.
 Outcome of one or multiple factors.
Medieval India documents the emergence of syncretic traditions that were an
outgrowth of the anti-essentialist movements. Political, social and historical situations
played an important role in the emergence of such movements as people during the
13th to 16th century were victims of oppression and exploitation on grounds of religion,
caste, gender, class etc. Orthodoxy, blind ritualism, dogmatism, patriarchy,
proselytisation, social hierarchy carried out many atrocities against people of lower
caste, women and other marginalised sections. From the 14th century onwards in
India, the emergence of Sufism and Bhakti as reform movements attempted to redefine
social and religious values and played a role in fostering feelings of solidarity and
brotherhood between people of Hindu and Muslim communities. Some of the features
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 Insistence on Bhakti or pure devotion. NOTES

 Promoted monotheism (oneness of God).
 Believed in freedom from the cycle of life and death. They advocated that
salvation could be obtained only by deep devotion and faith in God.
 Stressed the singing of hymns with deep devotion.
 Connected with the common people by preaching and devotional songs in
the local language.
 Condemned caste system, gender inequality, patriarchy, Brahminical order,
idol worship and ritualism.
 Stood for equality for all men.

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Indian civilization is known for its rich history of ________ diversity.
2. The Bhakti and Sufi movements opposed religious ________ and ritualism.
3. Syncretism involves the fusion of different ________ or cultural traditions.
4. The Kangra School of paintings is an example of the blending of ________
and Persian art forms.
5. The shrines and ________ built across India represent syncretic traditions.
B. State True or False:
1. Syncretism in medieval India often led to the destruction of existing cultural
traditions.
2. Bhakti and Sufi movements in medieval India promoted monotheism and
condemned caste and ritualism.
3. Syncretism refers to the rejection of all forms of religious and cultural blending.
4. Medieval Indian syncretism was influenced by interactions between Hindu
and Muslim communities.
5. Syncretic traditions are limited to religious practices and do not influence art
or architecture.
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NOTES
11.4 SANT KABIR DAS

One of the most prominent figures related to the Bhakti movement was Sant Kabir
Das. He is well known for his outstanding contribution towards initiating religious
reforms and guiding mankind to search for eternal truth. As a good observer, he made
note of all derogatory social and religious practices and outrightly rejected them. As a
critique of the then existing social disorder and malpractices, Kabir Das sang hymns
and couplets to enlighten people and tried to show them the right path. He rejected the
traditional symbols of religion and the rituals associated with the religion like Temple
and mosque, idol worship, bathing in holy water, reverence for scriptures, fasting,
asceticism, and condemned the authority of priests and mullahs He instead laid emphasis
on a strict ethical code of life both for the Guru and the householder. He questioned
and criticised the authority of Brahmas and Mullahs alike for their insistence on empty
rituals and practices like fasting, roza, etc. Kabir instead preached religion of love,
compassion, brotherhood, peace and humanity which he strongly held was possible
by constantly repeating the name of the One God whom he identified as Rama, Hari,
Govind, Allah, Khuda, Sahib, etc. To him, different religions were nothing more than
the different paths to leading to one God. His own path of love and devotion to God
was one which could be followed by all, irrespective of their religions.
Kabir’s philosophy of life and his outright rejection of the contemporary
inequalities, injustices and social disorder made him a legend. Kabir sought to liberate
mankind from narrow divisions and guided them towards moral upliftment. Hazari
Prasad Dwivedi affectionately coined the term the ‘people’s philosopher’ for Kabir.
Tagore had called Kabir ‘Muktidoot’ and his poems as ‘Chir adhunik’ (ever modern).
Dr. Ambedkar often from various platforms admitted to being the follower of Gautam
Buddha, Kabir and Mahatma Phule as he was immensely influenced by the social
philosophy of Sant Kabir Das. Evelyn Underhill, an English Anglo-Catholic writer,
and pacifist known for her numerous works on religion acknowledged Kabir’s
contribution as a great religious reformer, and the founder of a sect to which millions of
northern Hindus still belong.
Sant Kabir Das is a well-known mystic saint poet of Bhakti cult (devotion) of
medieval India. Although there are disagreements over Kabir’s date and place of
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birth, most however, agree that he was born in the city of Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. He NOTES
was a 15th century poet, and a contemporary of Sikander Lodi (1489-1517) and is
known for his radical ideas. He belonged to a family of weavers (Julaha) who were
indigenous converts to Islam but were strongly influenced by his teacher, the bhakti
leader Ramananda. Kabir used local dialect and simple everyday language to reveal
the hidden truth and arouse the conscience of the listeners. He spent most of his life in
solitude and meditation, his oral preaching is a reflection of his sober and spiritual
temperament. There is a dearth of information about the biography of Kabir however
from his composition it can be concluded that he himself did not write any treatise and
that his oral preaching was faithfully carried forward by his followers.
“I don’t touch ink or paper,
This hand never grasped a pen.
The greatness of four ages
Kabir tells with his mouth alone.”
It can be concluded that he himself did not write any treatise and that his oral
preachings were faithfully carried forward by his followers in various historical periods.
Kabir’s Dohas (couplets) and Bhajanas (devotional songs) of the finest spiritual, lyrical
and poetic quality are compiled and are preserved with reverence in the Adi Granth,
Panchvani, Sarvangi, Bijak and the Granthavali that continue to hold relevance in
present times. He transcended the bounds of religion, rose to greatest heights both in
his spiritual thoughts and actual practice. He did not associate himself completely with
either Hindus or Muslims.
He was popular among both Hindu and Muslim masses alike because he
connected well with the feelings and sentiments of the people during his travels far and
wide. He visited Persia, Afghanistan and other places in the Middle East before settling
down to end his days in Maghar in Northern India and conveying the message of love,
empathy, oneness of God and fellow feeling to all. With a very inclusive approach and
a philosophy that reflected the aspirations of the socially and economically marginalized
of both the Hindu and Muslim communities he played a vital role in laying the foundation
of a strong culture of syncretism. Kabir’s apparently simple ‘Dohe’ contains the essence
of the great philosophical ideas of syncretism. On close examination of Kabir’s thoughts,
principles and mode of preaching, it is found that he adopted a syncretic approach
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NOTES worship and blind rituals but his views on Brahma and Maya were borrowed from
Hindu Dharma. He was influenced by Sufi mysticism and their idea of minimalist living.
From the teachings of his Guru Ramanand, he incorporated the elements of nonviolence,
morality, and bhakti. He was equally influenced by Buddhism regarding the idea of
salvation as freedom from the cycle of birth & death. His life and acts symbolized
syncretism - Muslim Parents but Hindu Guru, called his supreme God- Rama;
considered a great Hindu saint. He combined ideas, traditions, and practices from
different strands of Hinduism and Islam. The iconoclastic saint, Kabir is a symbol of
syncretic culture in India.
Kabir, a Nirgun Saint: He did not align himself with any religion, preached worshiping
the formless. He strongly advocated for the faith that was driven by a sense of oneness
and community and was devoid of any desires for personal gain.
“Sab mera main sab ka,
Tahaan doosra nahin
(All are mine, I belong to all,
There is no other),” says Kabir.
According to Kabir, the supreme reality is One although it has been called by
different names such as Sahab, Allah, Khuda, Rama, Rahim, or Brahma. Wisdom, he
believed, lies in getting at the basic unity underlying the multiplicity of names. In his
opinion bhakti or devotion is one’s emotional, pure, unalloyed, and personal connection
with God. The mode of devotion is not to be prescribed or dictated by anyone. Under
the influence of Sufism, Kabir denounced idolatry, image worship and polytheism, and
adopted the strong monotheism of Islam. But he outrightly rejected the spiritual
significance of dance and music as practiced by the Sufis nor did he attach merit to
reading of scriptures. He instead recommended listening to the naad or music within.
Chahe geeta bachiye ya padhiye quran, tera mera pyaar hi har pustak ka
gyaan!
(Whether one reads the Geeta or the Quran, all holy texts essentially speak
of love.)
According to Kabir, the search for the divine should be conducted inside one’s
own self and not outside. To him, worshiping a stone idol or shouting in the mosque is
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Kabir preached equality for all men: He emphasised the unity of God following NOTES
which he strongly condemned inequality practiced on irrational grounds. Egalitarianism
was another principle of Islam which Kabir accepted under the influence of Sufism.
Kabir forcefully and with reasoned arguments denounced the Hindu caste system.
Many of his couplets are an expression of his thoughts and ideas. He played a pioneering
role in reconciliation between the Hindus and the Muslims by also addressing mixed
gatherings of both Hindus and Muslims and making disciples from both. He did not
tolerate division between man and man for social reasons; he urges all to be humane
and good to all. He stood for social equality, imparting with force and preaching by
practice of his Guru, Ramanand.
Jati pati puchai na koi
Hari ko bhaje so Hari ka hoi
It means none shall inquire into thy caste. He who shall recite the name of the
Lord will be claimed by Him.
Spoke against age old religious and social practices: Kabir strongly condemned
the practices that were then a part and parcel of Hindu and Muslim ways of life such as
animal sacrifice, lust for magical powers, idol and temple worship, repetitions of
mantras, pilgrimages, fasts, worshiping innumerable Gods and Goddesses, bathing in
the holy waters, monopoly of the religious leaders. He highlighted the faults with self-
styled Sufis, Yogis and sanyasis and condemned social practices like the sati system
and child marriage too. He held that God who dwells in the heart of every being can be
pleased not by rituals or ceremonies but through complete self-surrender to Him.
Jaise til mein tail hai,
Jyon chakmak mein aag
Tera sai tujh mein hai,
Tu jaag sake to jaag
(Just as the sesame seed contains oil
And fire is within the flintstone,
Your God is within you,
Wake up if you can),”
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NOTES Though his vocabulary is replete with Hindu spiritual concepts, he strongly
opposed dogmas prevalent in Hindu religion. He opposed superstitions of all kinds
and to break the blind belief that when people die in Maghar, they go to hell, he himself
settled in Maghar during his last years and breathed his last.

Promoted religion of humanity

Kabir’s idea of one God and one-humanity is truly Islamic. He strongly advocated for
Hindu- Muslim unity, and besides that he held that humanity is the true religion which
means helping people; fellow feeling, being kind, fair, generous to all is the true religion.
In the Upanisadic style, Kabir tells us that the Hindus and the Muslims are only different
manifestations of the same substance. By using terms employed by both systems,
Kabir tells us that it is only the difference in names, and all are the children of one God,
the purpose of all religions is to promote humanist approach among all. Kabir was free
from religious prejudices against either. He followed the path of mysticism, the bhakti,
and the Sufi tradition. Though infamously religious in outlook, he was not a slave to
either Hinduism or Islam. He refused to accept the sanctity of both Vedas and Quran
to be the revealed scriptures and at the same time denounced the Brahmins and the
mullahs alike to be sole custodians of their religious rights and authority. Sant Kabir
stressed that the purity of heart and soul and service to mankind are more important
than performing rituals or following religious edicts. He says in a doha:
Bada hua to kya hua, jaise ped kahjoor Panthi ko chaya nahin, phal lage
ati door
What use is a date palm which grows tall? It gives no shade, and its fruits
are quite far-off and inaccessible.
Another famous couplet of Kabir encapsulates his humanist philosophy sending
across the message of love and affection.
Pothi padh padh kar jag mua, Pandit bhayo na koye, dhai akshar prem
ke, jo padhe so Pandit hoye
Meaning that one who understands love and masters the art of winning the
hearts of people is a learned scholar. Kabir henceforth rejected organised religion and
emphasised on a humanistic approach.
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Encourages on performing worldly duties NOTES

In the Hindu tradition sannyasa or renunciation from the material world is considered
the final stage of the ashram systems. But Kabir denounces renunciation as he argues
that in the guise of sanyasa, young people get disillusioned and deceive themselves into
thinking they have renounced. He believed that liberation lies not in leading an isolated
life but in taking this life as a battlefield and not escaping from fighting. Kabir opined
that one should aspire to be liberated while living life and performing one’s duties
towards fellow beings. Kabir had full faith in the Hindu doctrines of rebirth/
transmigration and karma and stood for purity of life, high moral code, truthfulness,
mercy, self-discipline and control, complete self-surrender to God and devotional
worship for the attainment of salvation (Mukti). Thus, he has tried to bring out the
fundamental unity of Islam and Hinduism.
Kabir was undoubtedly an innate thinker and social reformer who was much
ahead of his time. He spent his entire life establishing a well-knit society by spreading
awareness about certain practices that were doing more harm than good. Kabir was
an oral mystic poet who speaks of inner sound and light, who urges meditation, devotion,
and nonattachment, and who reminds people relentlessly of death and the transitory
nature of all relationships. Equally important is his role as a social critic and satirist who
reminds us of the injustice of caste, the omnipresence of greed, the stupidity of puffed-
up authority and hypocritical religiosity. His unique and novel way of attacking the
odds, challenging the hegemonies of his times and appealing to the masses to establish
a fair, egalitarian society based on humane values has indeed gained him recognition
beyond time and space, making him relevant even today.

11.5 GURU NANAK

Guru Nanak laid the foundation of one of the youngest of the world’s major religions,
namely Sikhism. He is known as a Bhakti saint, like Kabir. Kirat Karna -earning one’s
living by working honestly; Naam Japna - remembering and reciting God’s name through
meditation and Vand Chakna - selflessly serving and sharing income, resources, etc.

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NOTES with everyone, including the less fortunate- were the philosophical basis of Guru Nanak’s
teachings. The voice of Guru Nanak was a voice of compassion, love, empathy, co-
existence and a plea for peace and unity in the conflict ridden and divided society of
those times. He strongly opposed the empty ritualism, derogatory social practices,
orthodoxy, victimisation of poor, weak and women on social and economic grounds.
Guru Nanak’s religious philosophy stood in opposition to the Vedantic philosophy and
drew elements from the Nirguna saints for its theological opposition to the caste system.
Guru Nanak carried forward the legacy of Kabir’s thought that rejected caste and
religious differences espousing opposition to scriptural knowledge and rituals. He
travelled far and wide during his lifetime, and spoke strongly against injustices and
inhuman practices in the name of caste, religion, gender, class etc. His teachings were
carried forward by the successive nine Gurus both in theory and practice. The followers
of the teachings of Guru Nanak and his successors came to be known as the Guru’s
disciples or Sikhs.
Guru Nanak was born in a Khatri family at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib) in the
district of Seikhpur (now Pakistan) to parents, Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta. Guru
Nanak’s birth in 1469 in the then divided Punjab was at a time when the socio-
political environment was in a flux. Although Guru Nanak was born in a Hindu family,
he had the opportunity to learn Hindi, Sanskrit, and Persian. The recorded accounts
of Guru Nanak’s life describe him as an extraordinary person who used to surprise the
elders and teachers with his expansive knowledge, understanding, and rational thinking
on all matters, especially spiritual ones.
In his growing age, he raised reasonable arguments about the prevailing rituals
and customs of the society and even refused to participate in such rituals and ceremonial
activities which he found were baseless and orthodox. And one such was when he
refused to put the sacred thread (Janaeu) on the “Upanayana ritual”. He was married
and had two sons. In his early twenties, Nanak moved to Sultanpur, an important
town on the main road between Lahore and Delhi, where he worked as a clerk in the
Lodi administration. From his early childhood, he was more interested in living in
solitude but at the behest of his father, Mehta Kalu, he engaged himself in various
professions and engaged with people of different faiths, many of whom could identify
the miraculous side of Nanak. He led the normal life of a householder but was more
inclined to spend time in company of spiritual people who could satisfy his inquisitiveness
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to understand the real purpose of life. When he was about thirty years old, he had an NOTES
experience that he described as a revelation—a direct encounter with God that shaped
the rest of his life. He travelled far and wide throughout his life and spread the message
of peace, harmony, unity, tolerance, equality, and justice to all people at all places.
During the last years of his life, he settled in Kartarpur on the bank of the river Ravi,
where he put into practice whatever he preached throughout his life.
In the times of Guru Nanak, Hindus and Muslims were living in proximity and in
continuous formal and informal interaction with one another. Their interaction resulted
in periods of cooperation and syncretism, and periods of religious discrimination, hatred,
intolerance, and violence. People learned various languages like Hindi, Persian, and
Sanskrit as did Guru Nanak. During his travels to different places Bhai Bala, a Hindu
and Bhai Mardana, a Muslim were his lifelong companions. Mardana belonged to the
Mirasi community, a caste of Muslim bards who used to play rabab, a Persian string
musical instrument of Afghan origin to give music to Guru Nanak’s devotional hymns.
Guru Nanak outright denounced the atrocities of the ruler and condemned the rituals
and ceremonies that were derogatory, inhuman, and promoted inequality. People in
those times were divided on the grounds of religion, caste, gender, and class. He took
the challenge to establish peace and harmony by showing the right path towards
coexistence.
The divine hymns of Guru Nanak praised the “One”, the Supreme Lord, who
cannot be defined by human categories or confined to human institutions. He brought
together the religious doctrines of Hindus and Muslims, in a spirit of reverence,
acceptance, regard and cordiality. Guru Nanak acknowledged the Muslim Allah and
the Hindu Lord of the Universe in the belief that both are one. He never criticised any
religion but remained forever critical of the atrocities of rulers and the practices, rituals
forced upon them by the religious leaders to exploit the downtrodden, poor, meek,
helpless and ignorant people. With his noble ideals and humanitarian values, he played
a pioneering role in bringing Hindu Muslims together, spreading the message of peace,
love, compassion, tolerance and harmony. He became the revered Guru of both Hindus
and Muslim masses alike as can be authenticated by a popular proverb among people
that describes Nanak as the Guru of Hindus and the Pir of Muslims.
“Guru Nanak Shah Fakir Hindu ka Guru, Mussalman ka Pir”
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NOTES Teachings of Guru Nanak

Monotheism
Guru Nanak preached the truth of monotheism. There is only one God (Ik Onkar)
who dwells in every creation. God is one and formless. He is Nirguna devoid of all
attributes. He is absolute. God is the creator, sustainer, and destroyer of the Universe.
According to Guru Nanak, we may remember him differently by using various names
like Ram, Rahim, Govind, Gopal, Hari or Jagadish but the truth that God is only one,
is undeniable and permanent. Guru Nanak discarded the polytheism of Vedic rishis
and rejected the hierarchy of gods and goddesses in Hinduism. The Sikh faith founded
by Guru Nanak is strictly monotheistic in its belief system, which represents combining
the elements of the Nathpanthi movement and Sufism, but with adaptations and
innovations, not in their original form which has given new meaning to old concepts.
Guru Nanak Bhakti or true devotion, is the only way of establishing communion with
God and this was also the way of the Vaishnava Bhakti saints too. They both happen
to be monotheists, but there was one fundamental difference in perception. The God
of Nanak was non-incarnate and formless (nirankar), eternal (akal) and ineffable (alakh).
The monotheistic bhakti of Nanak, therefore, was nirguna bhakti and not saguna –
which was the case with the Vaishnavites who believed in various human incarnations
of God. Guru Nanak adopted the notion of bhakti from the Vaishnava bhakti tradition
but gave it a nirguna orientation.

Universal Brotherhood and Amity

Guru Nanak preached universal brotherhood and amity among people. He rejected
the then followed customs, religious traditions along with their entire stream of dogmas
and doctrines. like the concept of God, the incarnation of God, the caste system,
transmigration and karma, soul and salvation, hell and heaven, gods and goddesses,
and idol worship. Guru Nanak denounced oppressive rulers and their allies too. He
raised his voice for universal liberty and the establishment of a benevolent rule of
justice for all and gave to the world a unique, revolutionary and liberating philosophy
of universal humanism based on liberty, love, respect, justice, and equality, applicable
to all. He advocated abolition of all distinctions based on caste, religion, and creed.
He proclaimed:
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Call everyone high, none is low, the only potter (One Lord) had fashioned NOTES
alike. And his light pervades all creation (SGGS, M 1, p. 62)
He did not preach his ideals but also gave a practical shape to his teachings in
this regard. He introduced the systems of Sangat (holy congregation), langar
(community kitchen) and pangat (persons sitting together in rows to eat) encouraging
all high or low; men or women; rich or poor; Hindu or Muslim to sit together. With
such practices and institutions a spirit of brotherhood, co-existence, service, love and
respect for all were fostered and they soon became symbols of equality and fraternity
which till today are an intrinsic part of the Sikh way of life.

Rejected renunciation and promoted the philosophy of spiritual salvation

Guru Nanak strongly rejected renunciation and held that salvation is possible while
engaging in the worldly affairs and performing one’s duties towards family and
community. According to Guru Nanak, the world is part of God’s creation and reflects
divine purpose. Man must live in it and is expected to remain unaffected by impurities
(lust, greed, anger, selfish desires, slandering). Further, man must engage in good deeds
and improve upon the human condition through love, compassion and service. Guru
Nanak thus brought marriage and family within the ambit of religion. Guru Nanak
believed that spiritual salvation of the soul is possible not by withdrawing to jungles
and living life of an ascetic but by continuing to perform duties in this world itself and
man need not wait for heaven for deliverance. God’s grace can be attained through
contemplation/ remembering of his name that would enable one to fight the evils within
-lust, anger, greed, attachment and ego which would facilitate one’s salvation- the
ultimate goal. To explain his thoughts, Guru Nanak gives the analogy of lotus that
remains dry in the water and thus shares the message that one must live in this world
and yet remain untouched by the impurities. This aspect of his teachings is brought out
best in the Siddha Goshti, the verses that describe his meeting with several ancient
sages in the mountains.

Opposed formalism and promoted humanitarianism

Guru Nanak rejected formalism and orthodoxy in religion and stressed that man’s spiritual
growth combined with reasoned, rational, inclusive and fair approach towards all is
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NOTES more important than performing ceremonies and rituals. Guru Nanak urged his followers
to give precedence to ethical and humane values in place of materialism and self-centred
approach. Guru Nanak was a humanist thinker who advocated for equality, justice,
liberty and development of all. He sought to liberate the ordinary populace from the hold
of the priestly classes, whose interest lay in making religion abstruse and inaccessible and
establish society based on inclusive and democratic principles. According to Guru Nanak,
true religion lies in upholding the virtues of equality, justice, and dignity of all life; it lies in
the affirmation of one race and one brotherhood; it lies in selfless service, making a living
through righteous ways; sharing the possessions- money and resources with others
especially the needy. Guru Nanak stressed practical virtue over formalism.

Initiated the tradition of Inter faith dialogue

Guru Nanak was a pioneer of inter faith dialogue. He did not criticise any religion or
ritual but from his early childhood, he took the bold step to understand the logic and
reason behind the religious practices and rituals, which he felt was extremely necessary
to dispel ignorance and blind faith. As a young child Guru Nanak had his first open
di-a-logue with his teacher Gopal Pandit and also engaged in a polite di-a-logue with
his Mus-lim teacher Maulvi Ku-tubudin. During his travels, he promoted the culture of
dialogue among various religious groups, whether it was the yogis of the Himalayas or
the maulvis of Mecca. His message is that all religions have merit, and it is necessary to
learn from each other to ensure harmonious living. The culture of inter faith dialogue
initiated by Guru Nanak was essentially important for peaceful co-existence between
people of diverse faiths in addition to promoting the environment of learning from one
another, thus facilitating growth of syncretic tradition too.

Gender equality

In times of Guru Nanak, patriarchy received religious sanction and women were
relegated to an inferior position. They were victims of many socially ill practices like
sati, child marriage, polygamy, purdah among other. Guru Nanak made a radical
departure from Hinduism by openly speaking against the unequal barriers that the
Hindu society had erected between man and man, and between man and woman. The
Sikh Gurus laid the foundations of a healthy, egalitarian, and progressive social order.
He not only condemned the established religious social order of the time that victimised
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women but also challenged the established orthodoxy with the radical assertion that NOTES
women were worthy of praise, respect and honour. Guru Nanak asserted that without
women life would cease to exist- she is the birth giver, nurtures and cares for all and
that both men and women are infused with the same divine light. Instead of being
denigrated and mistreated, women should be cherished and respected. Guru Nanak
was progressive thinker and a social reformer who confronted the conservative outlook
with reason and a scientific approach.
Guru Nanak, the first guru of the Sikhs led a modest life of profound spiritual
devotion and divine wisdom. He spent his life bringing people of diverse faiths together,
spreading messages of love, kindness, benevolence, tolerance, and harmony. Guru
Nanak’s philosophy is rational, scientific, reasonable, wise and the core values are
humane. His successors carried forward the message of Guru Nanak both in letter
and spirit, faithfully preserved in the holy scripture, Sri Guru Granth sahib ji. The Sikh
philosophy is indeed thought-provoking and imbued with a depth of wisdom and
continues to provide direction to the followers of the faith irrespective of time and
space. Guru Nanak laid the foundation of a religion that was novel in approach and
practices as he stressed on three cardinal principles- Naam Japna, Kirat Karna and
Wand Chakhna and established the institutions of Sangat, Langar, Gurdwara and Pangat
that continue to play an important role in the Sikh way of life.

Conclusion

Syncretism emerged in response to historical contexts of cultural exchange, conflict,

and interaction, often as a means of fostering social harmony and mutual understanding
among disparate groups. The genesis of syncretism is deeply rooted in periods of
intense cross-cultural encounters, where the blending of practices and beliefs often
served as a bridge between different communities. Sant Kabir’s contribution to the
syncretic tradition is particularly noteworthy. His poetry and teachings embody a
synthesis of Hindu and Muslim devotional elements, advocating a path of personal
spirituality and devotion that transcends sectarian divides. Kabir’s focus on a universal
divine presence and his critique of ritualistic practices exemplify how syncretism can
promote spiritual unity and tolerance. Similarly, Guru Nanak’s role in the context of
syncretism was pivotal. As the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak sought to integrate
elements of Hinduism and Islam while emphasising a monotheistic and inclusive vision.
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NOTES His teachings fostered a syncretic approach that challenged established norms and
sought to unify diverse communities under the common tenets of truth, equality, and
devotion to one God. The exploration of syncretism through the contributions of Sant
Kabir and Guru Nanak reveals a rich tradition of blending and harmonising diverse
spiritual and cultural elements. Their efforts underscore the power of syncretism in
bridging divides and fostering an inclusive, tolerant society. Understanding their
contributions provides valuable insights into how syncretic traditions can shape and
enrich cultural and religious landscapes, promoting unity and mutual respect.

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Kabir Das believed that different religions are merely different paths to the
same _____.
2. The teachings of Kabir Das are preserved in scriptures like the Adi Granth
and _____.
3. Kabir rejected _____ and emphasized a strict ethical code for both the Guru
and the householder.
4. Kabir Das was influenced by the Bhakti leader _____.
5. Kabir Das settled in _____ during his last years and challenged superstitions
associated with the place.
B. State True or False:
1. Kabir Das wrote several treatises on his teachings.
2. Kabir Das believed that the repetition of God’s name was crucial to spiritual
practice.
3. Kabir Das was a proponent of idol worship.
4. Kabir’s teachings emphasized humanity and the unity of all religions.
5. Kabir Das advocated for a life of renunciation and isolation from society.

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NOTES
11.6 SUMMARY

 Indian civilization has a rich history of religious diversity, leading to a vibrant but
challenging coexistence among different religions.
 Despite episodes of religious conflict, India has a tradition of religious pluralism
and syncretism.
 Medieval Indian rulers and religious movements like Bhakti and Sufism promoted
syncretism, blending different cultures and beliefs.
 Bhakti and Sufi movements opposed religious orthodoxy, ritualism, and social
divisions, advocating for spiritual bliss and human unity.
 Syncretism, or the blending of different beliefs and practices, has shaped India’s
art, architecture, and literature, evident in examples like Mughal translations of
Hindu epics and the fusion of Hindu and Persian architecture.
 Syncretism involves the interaction and fusion of diverse cultures, often creating
new cultural or religious systems without necessarily destroying existing ones.
 In medieval India, syncretic traditions emerged as responses to social oppression
and exploitation, promoting feelings of solidarity and brotherhood among different
communities.
 Bhakti saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak played key roles in fostering syncretism,
emphasizing devotion, monotheism, equality, and opposition to caste and
ritualism.
 Sant Kabir Das was a prominent figure of the Bhakti movement, known for his
religious reforms and teachings against social and religious malpractices.
 He rejected traditional symbols and rituals of religion and emphasized a strict
ethical code, focusing on love, compassion, and humanity.
 Kabir believed in one God and preached that different religions are merely
different paths to the same divine truth.
 Known as the “people’s philosopher,” he influenced many, including Dr.
Ambedkar, and his works are preserved in various scriptures.
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NOTES  Kabir was born in Varanasi, belonged to a family of weavers, and was influenced
by the Bhakti leader Ramananda.
 His oral preachings, compiled by his followers, remain relevant today,
transcending religious boundaries.
 Kabir’s teachings combined elements from Hinduism and Islam, promoting
syncretism and unity.
 He opposed idol worship, caste hierarchy, and blind rituals, advocating for a
minimalist lifestyle and internal spiritual search.
 Kabir emphasized equality and condemned social inequalities, advocating for
humanity as the true religion.
 He rejected renunciation, promoting the performance of worldly duties with a
focus on moral and spiritual growth.
 Kabir’s legacy includes his contribution to religious reform and his role in
establishing a culture of syncretism in India.

11.7 GLOSSARY

 Syncretism: The combination or amalgamation of different religions, cultures,

or schools of thought.
 Bhakti Movement: A medieval Indian movement emphasizing devotion to a
personal god and rejecting caste and ritualism.
 Sufism: An Islamic mystical tradition focusing on the inward search for God
and shunning materialism.
 Pluralism: The existence of multiple groups, beliefs, or values within a society,
often with an emphasis on their coexistence.
 Medieval India: The period in Indian history from the 8th to the 18th century,
characterized by the rise of various dynasties and the development of a syncretic
culture.

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 Dargah: A shrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure in Islam, NOTES
often a Sufi saint.
 Monotheism: The belief in a single, all-powerful God.
 Nirguna: A concept of God without form or attributes.
 Adi Granth: The primary scripture of Sikhism, also known as Guru Granth
Sahib.

11.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions - 1

A. 1. religious
2. orthodoxy
3. religious
4. Hindu
5. dargahs
B. 1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False

In-Text Questions - 2

A. 1. divine truth
2. Bijak
3. rituals
4. Ramananda
5. Maghar Self-Instructional
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NOTES B. 1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False

11.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is understood by religious syncretism?

2. What historical characteristic has been a hallmark of Indian civilization?
3. How did the Bhakti and Sufi movements respond to religious orthodoxy in
medieval India?
4. What are some examples of syncretism in medieval Indian art and architecture?
5. How did syncretic traditions emerge in medieval India?
6. Write a brief note on Kabir’s life and philosophy.
7. What were some key beliefs of the Bhakti saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak?
8. How has syncretism proven to be useful? Substantiate your answer with
examples.
9. Guru Nanak played an important role in bringing people of different religions
together. Do you agree? Discuss it considering his contribution and message.
10. How did Kabir Das’s teachings contribute to religious syncretism in India?
11. Why did Kabir Das reject renunciation and what alternative did he propose?
12. How did Kabir Das address the social inequalities of his time?

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NOTES
11.10 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Dwivedi, H.P. 2013. Kabir: A Critical Study. New Delhi: Raj Kama.
 Roy, H. 2017. Political Ideas of Kabir, in Singh, M. and Roy, H. ed. Indian
Political Thought (2nd Edition). New Delhi: Pearson.
 Verma, V.P. 2017. Ancient and Medieval Political Thought. Agra: L.N.
Agarwal Publishers.
 Himanshu Roy & M.P. Singh. 2020. Indian Political Thought. New Delhi:
Pearson Education.
 J.J. Roy Burman.1996. Hindu-Muslim Syncretism in India. Economic and
Political Weekly, vol.31, No.20 (May, 18, 1996).

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UNIT XI: ABUL FAZAL: MONARCHY

LESSON 12 ABUL FAZAL: MONARCHY

Abul Fazal: Monarchy

LESSON 12 NOTES

ABUL FAZAL: MONARCHY

Prashant Barthwal
Assistant Professor
Sri Aurobindo College, DU
Dr. Shashikant
Assistant Professor
Delhi College of Arts & Commerce, DU
Structure
12.1 Learning Objectives
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Fazal’s Royalty for the State
12.4 Fazal’s Societal Division
12.5 Fazal’s Ideal Sultan-Akbar
12.6 Discourse of Justice
12.7 Army and Land Revenue System
12.8 Summary
12.9 Glossary
12.10 Answers to In-Text Questions
12.11 Self-Assessment Questions
12.12 References/Suggested Readings

12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, students should be able to:

 Discuss the state and saltant of Fazal.
 Examine the justice system, ideal state and system of army and land revenue.
 Evaluate how Akbar tried to implement the advises of Fazal in his ideal
administrative activities in his renowned work Akbar Nama. Self-Instructional
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NOTES  Know about Akbar, who consistently talked about the welfare of his people.
 Describe how Fazal showcases a high degree of tolerance and open-mindedness,
as well as a strong sense of justice.

12.2 INTRODUCTION

Many distinguished historians contributed to the study of Medieval India, and Abul
Fazal (1551–1602) is one of the most well-known among them. There are several
reasons for this, including the prominence of intellectual themes in his writings, his
persistence in appealing to reason in “the face of religious and cultural norms, and a
novel approach to his goal”1. It was impossible for him to maintain his “historical
outlook without being deeply entangled with the political, social, economic, and religious
realities of the time period under consideration”2.
Even though Fazal has not left a treatise on political theory in the traditional
sense, it is not difficult to evaluate him as a political thinker. We must first enlighten
ourselves of the prejudices that his ornate style has fostered in some of his critics’
minds to arrive at an accurate assessment of his contribution to political philosophy. If
we take a closer look at Fazal’s Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, the only two works
that provide us with direct knowledge of the subject, we will discover that he is not
always so rhetorical in all of his writings3. In the Ain-i-Akbari, in particular, it is matter
of fact and straight forward for the most part, though not occasionally as dry as dust as
a gazetteer. No matter how significant Fazal’s influence on Akbar’s political theory
and policies may have been, we would be well not to exaggerate the extent of that
influence. In addition to Akbar’s own character, several other variables shaped his
government and gave shape to his state4. Those who recall the events of that day will
remember that Fazal entered the arena after his patron and friend and left it before the
emperor died. Political concepts in Islam originate from a variety of sources. Historically,
some of it may be traced back to pre-Islamic sources, and a significant portion of it
was founded on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. The division of India into
numerous smaller kingdoms at the start of the Mughal Empire resulted in a significant
deal of political instability regularly. Finally, after a long battle, the Mongol king Babar
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Abul Fazal approached history from a logical and secular perspective. A novel NOTES
methodology for collecting facts and marshalling them based on critical examination
was also implemented by him5. With chapters on “administrative norms, methods, and
topographical accounts of various historical research and writing provinces, he
substantially extended the area”6.

12.3 FAZAL’S ROYALTY FOR THE STATE

There is no higher dignity in God’s eyes than that of royalty, and those who are wise
drink from the fountain of its auspiciousness. For those who seek further evidence, the
fact that royalty is both a remedy for the spirit of rebellion and the reason why subjects
obey is ample proof of the point made. It can even be seen in the meaning of the name
Padshah7, in which Pad represents stability and possession, and Shah denotes origin
and lordship. Thus, a king is the source of all strength and possession in a society. If
monarchy did not exist, the whirlwind of strife would never subside, and greedy ambition
would never be able to restrain themselves. Under the weight of “the world, this immense
marketplace, would lose its affluence, and the entire planet would become a barren
wasteland”8. However, in the light of imperial justice, some choose the route of
obedience with joy, while others abstain from violence out of dread of punishment,
and some are forced to choose the path of righteousness out of need. Shah is also a
name given to someone who outperforms his peers, as evidenced by words such as
Shah-swar9 and Shah-rah10; it is also a term applied to a bridegroom, in which case
the world, in the role of the bride, betrothed herself to the king and became his
worshipper. Shah is also a name given to someone who outperforms his peers, as
evidenced by words such as Shah-swar and Shah-rah. Men who are foolish and
short-sighted are unable to distinguish between a true king and a greedy tyrant. This is
also not surprising, given that both have a vast treasury, a large army, cunning servants,
obedient people, an abundance of wise men, many skilled workers, and a bunch of
means of enjoyment in common. Men with greater insight, on the other hand, see a
distinction11. The items that have just been listed are long-lasting in the former, but they
are of limited duration in the latter’s case. Moreover, the former does not identify with
these things because his goal is to alleviate oppression and provide for everything
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NOTES pride, the slavishness of men, and the desire for pleasure; as a result, instability,
unsettledness, strife, oppression, faithlessness, and robbery can be found in every
corner of the world12.
Fazal views royalty as “a divine light or perhaps the reason behind the art of
perfection for the Sultan”13. This is referred to as Farr-i-Izidi14 (the divine light) in
modern language, while it is referred to as Kiyan Khura15 in ancient language. In its
presence, men bow their heads in adoration and place their foreheads on the ground
as if they were submitting to God. However, if the Badshah discriminated against
“people based on their caste, religion, or social class, he could not be considered a
decent ruler. According to him, the monarch had been endowed with magical powers,
and it was impossible to stand against him or share his authority with anyone else. As
a result, everyone is required to obey his orders”16. In Abul Fazal’s opinion, Akbar
was the ideal king, which is why he referred to Akbar as “a complete man who could
never make a mistake”17.
The agent of God was not permitted to discriminate between the numerous
religious beliefs represented in the society. The development of a theory to support a
tolerant religious policy was urgently required at this time. No specific religion was
granted sovereignty; this was not the case. It took on an all-encompassing nature.
They believed that “Religions were fundamentally the same, with different paths. Abul
Fazal used logic in Islam”18 and the Shariat19. While Barani was doing so, he could
not come up with an explanation for their authority over others. He argued that the
principle of monarchical sovereignty was more applicable in a multi-religious society
such as India. Because the monarch was supreme above all religions, sovereignty was
not associated with any religion in this context. The excellent ideals of different faiths
were advocated by him, and as a result, he brought together people of other faiths to
work for world peace. He needed to maintain such characteristics by establishing a
religious affiliation that was right for him. He brought relief to himself and his people by
releasing them from the shackles of their own thinking. From Abul Fazal, we can
deduce that a sovereign must be tolerant of current ideologies. He should recognise
his people’s old methods as necessary and complimentary to modern life. Abul Fazal
explained Akbar’s views on social reform by portraying him as having a logical approach
to the issue. Fazal claimed that he did so because he wished to build a “Hindustan”
that would stand out more confidently in the international community20.
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NOTES
12.4 FAZAL’S SOCIETAL DIVISION

To put it another way, he described sovereignty and the state in terms of society.
Following this, he divided “the population into four groups: warriors, craftsmen, and
merchants; learned; and others. The learning class, according to him, was the third
most significant. He degraded this class based on the socioeconomic reality of his
period”21. Based on the Greek tradition, he also divided human beings into three
categories: noble, base, and intermediate, according to their characteristics. Nobles
were individuals who possessed superior intelligence, sagacity, administrative ability
or composition of eloquence, and personal courage to carry out military duties. Various
occupations were represented in the base and intermediate portions. These were the
characteristics of self-centered people who carried out their activities primarily for
their own benefit rather than the benefit of others.
The views of Abul Fazal on human beings, particularly the lower classes, whom
he referred to as “base” or “ignorable,” echoed in significant part the prejudices of the
contemporaneous upper classes, according to Satish Chandra. According to this
interpretation, individuals belonging to aristocratic families and the upper castes should
not aspire to a portion of state authority22. Those in charge of running the state should be
reserved for noble families and the upper castes. As a result of the predominance of
wicked sectors in society, royal tyranny was justified because only a monarch who
possessed the required traits could maintain control over these sections of society. Second,
for Fazal, it was “the most significant element for any Sultan who had been indulged with
the sacrosanct features of Farr-i-Izidi which help to bring the societal stability by not
allowing any personal struggles”23. It was also his responsibility to “restore balance and
contribute to the world’s flourishing by combining individual talent with respect for others”24.
As a result, maintaining one’s proper station in life required stability and even dignity”25.
Akbar is recorded as saying that the Daroghas should keep a close eye on their flock to
ensure that no one out of covetousness abandons their own trade or occupation. In
another place, we are told that “Akbar admired Shah Tahmasp’s”26 assertion that- “When
a tedious takes to learning, he does it at the price of his errands27”.
The divinity of sovereignty defied all attempts to limit the power and authority of
the sovereign in the most obvious way. Abul Fazal divides one of his many classifications
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NOTES whose loyalty to the king, Akbar, is unwavering and undemanding are the noblest of
souls, and this is a virtue in and of itself. Akbar is the noblest of souls28. These individuals,
who have built a business out of their service and have demonstrated their commitment
in exchange for tangible benefits, are placed below them on the hierarchy of importance.
The worst of “the worst show no signs of loyalty. Defeating rebels becomes a cleansing
procedure for the ruling elite in mediaeval court literature”29. It was not only those who
defied imperial authority which constituted the rebellious, according to Abul Fazal;
“even those who snubbed to capitulation to the Mughal glorious rule”30, constituted
rebels because “they were defying the divine destiny manifested in history’s teleology”31.

In-Text Questions - 1
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. Abul Fazal was a historian and political thinker in __________ India.
2. The two significant works of Abul Fazal are __________ and __________.
3. Fazal viewed __________ as a divine light essential for societal stability.
4. According to Fazal, sovereignty should not be associated with any specific
__________.
5. Fazal divided society into __________ groups based on their characteristics
and roles.
B. State True or False:
1. Abul Fazal left a traditional treatise on political theory.
2. Ain-i-Akbari is a straightforward and factual document for the most part.
3. Fazal believed that a king should discriminate based on caste and religion.
4. Abul Fazal’s views on human beings echoed the prejudices of the
contemporaneous upper classes.
5. Fazal did not advocate for a tolerant religious policy.

12.5 FAZAL’S IDEAL SULTAN-AKBAR

Fazal stated in his most renowned Akbar Nama that Akbar was consistently brilliant
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and open-mindedness, as well as a strong sense of justice. He brought stability to “the NOTES
state and promoted excellent governance to ensure and empower the economic growth,
peace, and the safety of his people”32. He confirmed that everyone could practice
their religion freely. His political beliefs were unambiguous, and they were geared
toward the expansion of the state’s borders. As a result, Abul Fazal used moral
arguments to defend his imperialist policies. In the words of Harbans Mukhia, Abul
Fazal sees “the sovereign principally as a patriarchal figure who bestows absolute
power to his illegitimate children33”. Everything that the ruler does, all presents Mansabs
or awards granted to his nobles, princes, or peasants, are all considered favours; no
one gains anything by their own merits or efforts. Abul Fazal’s, on the other hand,
binds the king to provide paternal care to his citizens as part of his authority. It appears
that Abul Fazal’s favourite term for the monarch is “subjects have been committed to
the king by God,34” which he uses in conjunction with the metaphors of shepherd,
gardener, and physician. Buddhism, Greco-Roman, ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, and
biblical philosophy are a few of the cultures and streams of thought included in this
concept. Obviously, enumeration of the necessary characteristics of a ruler has been a
fundamental issue in mediaeval political thinking. In Barani’s words, a fierce ambition
to conquer and rule virtually depleted all of these traits. For Babur, successful governance
meant that the town walls were strong, the subjects were prosperous, provisions were
on hand, and the treasury was fully stocked. Although there are several discussions of
kingship “in Abul Fazal’s writings, the common thread is the blend of paternal love
towards his subjects and the observance of absolute peace without discernment; the
other conditions vary depending on the context, and at times they are out of step with
one another”35. There is a more excellent vision to Abul Fazal’s view of “sovereignty
than simply listing the characteristics of a king. The True King must grasp the spirit of
the age,36” says Abul Fazal.

12.6 DISCOURSE OF JUSTICE

It was also the king’s responsibility “to provide justice to his subjects, always punish
those who wronged them, and guarantee that justice was used to benefit the innocent”37.
He believes that “a king should be kind and harmonic during administering justice and
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NOTES that he was sent to earth by God to bring about peace and justice for all. He serves as
“a conduit for their well-being. Therefore, he should always maintain his neutrality and
ensure that no one is harmed because of his actions. His judgements should be
transparent, and he should make every effort to establish a civilised society during his
reign39”. People’s fundamental necessities should be taken care of by him. When it
comes time for the monarch to pass judgement, he should strive to put himself in the
shoes of the culprit. He should consider every part of the circumstances surrounding
the crime and make his judgement only after doing so. According to tradition, if “the
Sultan desired to expand the goodness of his realm, he should always praise good
people and punish offenders for promoting the good action in future by them”40.
According to Abul Fazal’s fundamental concept, the king should not be reliant
on any religious figure. Instead, a high moral standard should be maintained, and he
should be aware of the moral and spiritual aspects. With the help of Iranian traditions,
he attempted to demonstrate this concept of state and sovereignty. The idea of justice
for all, he believes, should be free of any bias in a holy religious society and should
apply to all people, regardless of their religious affiliation. Therefore, he advocated for
the eradication of Jizyah41. He persuaded us that Akbar’s conquests were not motivated
by spiritual or religious differences but rather by the need for justice because Indian
politics was founded on fairness and tolerance, which he referred to as Dar-ul-Sulh42
(the Way of the Sulh).
Humayun did not have the opportunity to update the previous administration.
By understanding the Delhi Sultanate, Akbar amended the constitution and instituted a
system of government and administration for the kingdom43. At the district and sub-
district levels, he did not make any modifications to the administrative structure. His
land revenue system was nearly identical to that of his predecessor. What distinctive
or novel enabled the Mughal Empire to become more potent than the Delhi Sultanate
is essential. So, what were those innovative policies that allowed Akbar to rule such a
significant and stable political and administrative framework for a long time? To provide
excellent governance, it is necessary to have a robust and well-planned administrative
organisation. The absence of fear of a vicious assault is also vital for the state’s well-
being and stability. All of this would not have been feasible in Akbar’s empire if the
state had not been supported by clever and devoted officers and soldiers, as the state
could only beat the enemy with their assistance44. Despite popular belief, the Mughal
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modified the official designations of the individuals involved. His construction of a NOTES
provincial administration, which was modelled after the central system of government,
was his most significant achievement. To ensure better control, explicit norms and
regulations were developed. Abul Fazal believed that advocates held the highest
position among all of the officers in his administration. According to him, advocates
should possess characteristics that enable them to simultaneously resolve the king’s
private and social concerns.
Following the division of the state into numerous levels, as depicted in “Kautilya’s
Arthashashtra, each group had a variety of officers. They were all personally responsible
for the state’s operation and liable to the king”45. As a result, they were always working
to improve the general public’s lives. The Ain-i-Akbari contains the same notion as
the Ain-i-Akbari. Akbar split his empire into three divisions: the Subas, the Sarkars,
and the Mahall’s. He appointed a chain of officers at various levels, all of whom were
under the jurisdiction of ministers at the top of the hierarchy46. Because the officers’
religious beliefs were not allowed to interfere with their administrative duties under this
arrangement, it was adopted by his successors and him. Because Akbar desired a
sovereign rule, he placed a high value on it. Therefore, he organised and centralised
the administration of his company. Under the king’s rule, there were petty landowners
known as Zamindars or Jagirdars, who were responsible for their respective lands.
Other chieftains were frequently restrained by the monarch and his army (landlords).
A class is known as Bhumia also received some land from the Jagirdars as a reward.
The Bhumia were the legal owners of the property, and as such, they were exempt
from paying any taxes on it. However, his domain was always considered inferior to
that of the Jagirdari47. The monarch also had direct sovereignty of “apart from the rest
of the kingdom. The majority of this property would be near the capital. During the
Sultanate, this system thrived”48. The Mughals did not interfere with it since the
landowners (chieftains) retained control of the lands by keeping them in possession of
individuals aligned with the rulers of Delhi:49.
Throughout the Mughal Empire, there was a comprehensive and centralised
patrimonial system. They gave many kinds of ranks and hierarchies in this system,
which was based on the Mansabdari system of Persia50. These levels were divided
into two categories: Zat and sawar. Each Mansabdar was vested with certain powers
(Zat) and commanded a mounted force of horses (Sawar)51. The ruler granted him
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NOTES Akbari. Those who were deserving received presents from the system at the time. All
the Mansabdars were directly responsible to the ruler. They were also in charge of
collecting revenue on the king’s behalf and were paid in cash52.
Abul Fazal divided the Mansabdars based on the availability of their numbers
and strength53. Through this arrangement, a community with many classes between the
people and the ruler came into being, and a hierarchical system was established54. To
summarise, Indian civilisation during the Middle Ages had a complex structure of rank
and position based on military strength. The Military might be elevated to the level of
a status symbol, and the entire framework was built around it55. The Mughals followed
this pattern to maintain peace in their kingdom, and they made no attempt to change
things.
Abul Fazal was a firm believer in the importance of hierarchy, but he was more
concerned with the need for talent in the kingdom. He was unconcerned by a person’s
social background, even if they were exceptionally gifted. He claimed that Akbar was
moved by the spirit of the time because he recognised and rewarded genius in people
of all social classes”56. It is important to note that “the Mughals did not inhibit with the
Indian caste structure and did not attempt to disrupt the fundamental outline of Indian
civilisation. They also did not inhibit with the administration of justice, economy, and
finances”57.

12.7 ARMY AND LAND REVENUE SYSTEM

Akbar’s administration and his land revenue system were continuations of the Delhi
Sultanate’s administration. The provinces of Akbar were divided into two groups: the
Sarkars and the Parganas. In each Sarkar, several Parganas were subdivided. There
was a Shiqdar in charge of general administration and an Amil in land assessment and
income collection58. There were a variety of other positions available, such as treasurer,
Qanungo, and others. During the harvest time, “there was a great army assigned to
look after the matters of production59”. The land revenue system served as the
foundation for the state’s financial infrastructure.
The income policy of Akbar was based on the dahsala system60, which was a
Self-Instructional ten-year scheme. It was “a logical progression from the method of measurement
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introduced by Sher Shah-the region between modern-day Lahore and Allahabad, NOTES
until the 19th century”61. As a result of this arrangement, state demand was expressed
as a cash rate based on locally produced goods and locally priced goods. The Dahsala
referred to average production and prices during the previous ten years, not a ten-
year settlement. It was calculated from scratch, then averaged in cash using new data
from the last decade. Clearly, the greatest demand was for land revenue. As a result,
the peasants were stressed. This was the most pressing condition that where “the
peasants were obliged to meet under menace of severe implications, including eviction
and loss of life, if they did not meet the demand”62.
It was introduced in several regions, including “Lahore, Allahabad, Gujarat,
Malwa, Bihar, and Multan, and was based on the extent way”63. Crop sharing was the
second approach employed. Finally, the collection of revenue could be accomplished
by a variety of alternative means in other domains. It took many intelligent inspectors
to check all these ways, and they all failed.
Abul Fazal relates that during Akbar’s reign, the emperor instituted a system of
collecting taxes on an individual basis. This arrangement permitted the farmer to pay
their tax based on the amount of produce they had harvested. Thus, in exchange for
whatever produce he obtained, he merely had to pay the tax. This system differed
from the previous one, which was used in the Mughal Empire, where an entire village
was required to pay the tax as a single unit of payment. In this arrangement, every
farmer was required to pay the tax regardless of whether he produced a productive
crop. This was because the tax was to be shared evenly among all farmers.
Consequently, when Akbar became emperor, he modified the system, taking
steps to improve the living conditions of farmers in the process. For example, a farmer
might pay his tax based on the amount of produce he produces or his financial situation.
However, “the tax collection authority rested with the zamindars or landlords and the
ameer. They exploited farmers by making them pay the tax even when a drought,
flood, or other natural disaster was imminent”64. The zamindars and landlords ignored
Akbar’s orders not to collect tax during natural calamities. Akbar took several
preventative actions to ensure that farmers were not exploited in the future. He kept an
eye on the zamindars to see who was taking advantage of the situation and who was
not. As a result, he “successfully reimbursed some of the money to the farmers who
had been forced to pay the tax”65; however, he was unable to maintain control over his Self-Instructional
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NOTES entire kingdom, and this type of exploitation of the peasantry became popular among
the landlords as a result. During Akbar’s reign, this practice was still practised in many
parts of India.
Akbar possessed a big and powerful army, which he used to ensure the smooth
operation of government and administration. The Mughal army was made up of “cavalry,
infantry, artillery, elephants, and camels, among other things”66. However, there was
no straight forward method of determining the size of Akbar’s army. The Mansabdars
were responsible for maintaining troops by their commitments, which were represented
by their sawar rank. It was written in 1581 by Montserrat that there were 45 thousand
cavalries, five thousand elephants, and many thousands of infantry, all of whom were
paid directly from the royal treasury.

In-Text Questions - 2
A. Fill in the blanks:
1. ________ was a prominent historian of medieval India.
2. The __________ was a detailed record of the administration under Akbar.
3. Fazal viewed royalty as a __________ light.
4. The __________ system was a land revenue system introduced by Akbar.
5. Akbar maintained a large and powerful __________ to ensure smooth
governance.
B. State True or False:
1. Abul Fazal left a treatise on political theory in the traditional sense.
2. Akbar’s administration was characterized by decentralization and inefficiency.
3. Fazal believed in the importance of talent over social background in
governance.
4. The dahsala system was based on the average produce of the past ten years.
5. Jizyah was a tax historically levied on Muslims in Islamic states.

Conclusion

Abul Fazal, on the other hand, was Akbar’s valued courtier, and he had a genuine
Self-Instructional admiration and awe for the emperor. During his early years, he and his family were
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which shaped his solid belief in religious tolerance. This proved to be the foundation of NOTES
a long-lasting friendship with Akbar, which continues to this day. Few could deny that
Akbar possessed the finest and noblest characteristics of mind and heart, which were
unquestionable. It is no surprise that Abul Fazal recognised in Akbar the attributes of
a ruler, philosopher, and hero. To defend, justify, and exalt Akbar and his acts, Abul
Fazal was compelled to do so by his official position as well as his personal beliefs
about religion and politics.
Akbar and Ashoka were forced to engage in a series of battles at “the beginning
of their reign to solidify their positions and expand the scope of their empires. However,
once they had attained stability, they proposed notions of peace, religion, and
brotherhood”67. Several questions arise in this context: Why did Akbar require the services
of Sulh-kul during his reign as king? Wasn’t he able to manage his administration promptly?
Was it essential for him to introduce Deen-i-Ilahi? Were you under the impression that he
was influential in keeping peace and order throughout his vast empire? It is possible that
he invented the concepts of Sulh-Kul and Deen-i-Ilahi to make his subjects happy and
inspire confidence in other groups like the Rajputs and Marathas to do so.
However, even though Abul Fazal rarely mentions Akbar’s mistakes or “the
inadequacies of his policies, he was undeniably one of the greatest intellects and theorists
that the nation has ever shaped”68. As a result, his concept of the social compact and
his notion of divine origin of sovereignty are flawed. In fact, he is said to have combined
“Hobbes and James I’s perspectives in his writings (and he went much beyond James
I in his claim for the sovereign)”69. However, the fundamental rationality that underpins
Abul Fazal’s ideas ought to be respected, if not admired. It is safe to say that “no one
else in India has ever lectured sovereignty in the same way”70 as he did.

12.8 SUMMARY

 Abul Fazal was a prominent historian and political thinker of Medieval India.
 His works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, reflect his logical and secular
approach to history.
 Fazal viewed royalty as a divine and essential institution for societal stability.
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NOTES  He emphasized the importance of a just and tolerant ruler who does not
discriminate based on religion or social class.
 Fazal’s societal division included warriors, craftsmen, merchants, learned
individuals, and others, reflecting the socio-economic realities of his time.
 He believed that only noble and aristocratic families should hold state authority,
justifying royal tyranny to maintain societal order.
 Fazal’s philosophy was influenced by Greek traditions and aimed at creating a
balanced society with respect for individual talents.
 Abul Fazal was a prominent historian of Medieval India, noted for his intellectual
themes and novel approach in his writings.
 Fazal’s works, Akbar-Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, provide insight into his political
thought and influence on Akbar’s policies.
 Fazal viewed royalty as divine and essential for societal stability.
 He believed that the ideal king, like Akbar, should be tolerant, just, and focused
on the welfare of the people.
 Fazal emphasized the importance of justice and the king’s role in providing it
impartially.
 He advocated for the abolition of Jizyah and promoted religious tolerance.
 Akbar’s administration was characterized by centralization and efficiency, with
a focus on economic growth and stability.
 Fazal believed in the importance of talent over social background in governance.
 Akbar’s land revenue system was based on the dahsala system, stressing the
need for fair tax collection.
 Akbar maintained a large and powerful army to ensure smooth governance.

12.9 GLOSSARY

 Akbar-Nama: A historical account written by Abul Fazal about the reign of

Self-Instructional Akbar.
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 Ain-i-Akbari: A detailed document on the administration and culture of Akbar’s NOTES

empire.
 Sovereignty: The supreme power or authority, especially in the context of a
monarch.
 Base: Individuals primarily motivated by self-interest rather than the common
good.
 Intermediate: A category between noble and base in Fazal’s societal
classification.
 Jizyah - A tax historically levied on non-Muslims in Islamic states.
 Dar-ul-Sulh - A term meaning “the Way of the Peace,” referring to a state
policy based on fairness and tolerance.
 Mansabdari System - A bureaucratic system used in the Mughal Empire to
rank officials and military personnel.
 Zat and Sawar - Ranks in the Mansabdari system indicating personal status
and number of cavalry maintained.
 Dahsala System - A land revenue system introduced by Akbar, based on the
average produce of the past ten years.
 Zamindar - A landowner responsible for collecting taxes from peasants.

12.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

In-Text Questions - 1

A. 1. Medieval
2. Akbar-Nama, Ain-i-Akbari
3. royalty
4. religion
5. four
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NOTES B. 1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False

In-Text Questions - 2

A. 1. Abul Fazal
2. Ain-i-Akbari
3. divine
4. dahsala
5. army
B. 1. False
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. False

12.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Who was Abul Fazal and what is he known for?

2. What are the titles of Abul Fazal’s two significant works?
3. How does Abul Fazal view the concept of royalty?
4. According to Fazal, what qualities should a monarch possess?
5. Critically explain the political and social views of Fazal.
6. Explain the Fazal’s army and land revenue system stated in his ideal type of
state.
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7. What were Fazal’s ideas regarding the ideal Sultan and justice? NOTES
8. What are the two main works of Abul Fazal that provide insight into his political
thoughts?
9. What was Akbar’s policy on religious tolerance?
10. What system did Akbar introduce for land revenue collection?

12.12 REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Ali, M Athar. 2006. Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society, and
Culture. Delhi: OUP India.
 Mehta, V R. 1996. Foundations of Indian Political Thought, p. 144. Delhi:
Manohar Publishers and Distributors.
 Varma, V P. 2020. Ancient and Medieval Political Thought, p. 146. Agra:
Laxmi Narain Publications.

Endnotes
1. M Athar Ali, Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society, and Culture, OUP, Delhi,
2006.
2. Ibid., p. 121.
3. V R Mehta, Foundations of Indian Political Thought, Manohar, Delhi, 1996, p. 144.
4. V P Varma, Ancient and Medieval Political Thought, Laxmi Narain Publications, Agra, p.
146.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid., p. 321.
7. Ibid, p. 324
8. Ibid, or see V R Mehta, Ancient and Medieval Political Thought, Op. Cit., p. 144.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Sushma Yadav & Ram Avatar Sharma, Bhartiya Rajya: Utpatti Evam Vikas, Aakar
Publication, Delhi, 2000, p. 338.
12. Ibid, p. 339.
13. http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/15915/etd9358_RBabagolzadeh.pdf
14. Ibid.
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NOTES 15. Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals, Mughal Empire (1526-
1748), Har Anand Publications, Delhi, 2007, p. 133.
16. Ibid, p. 135.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Harbans Mukhia, Op. Cit., p. 50
20. Sushma Yadav & Ram Avatar Sharma, Op. Cit. p. 332.
21. Ibid, p. 150, 160, 170-172.
22. Abul Fazal, Ain-i-Akbari, p. 774.
23. Ibid, p. 567.
24. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df, Indian Political Thought.
25. Ain-i-Akbari, p. 770.
26. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
27. A, Appadurai, Political Thoughts in India, Khama Publications, Delhi, 2002, p. 180.
28. Ibid.
29. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
30. Ibid,
31. V P Varma, Op. Cit., p. 343.
32. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
33. Harbans Mukhia, Op. Cit.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.,
36. Akbar Nama, p. 44. Or for more detail, see https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-
96e5949b8df
37. Ibid., p. 145.
38. Ibid,
39. Ibid, https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
40. Ibid.,
41. Satish Chandra, Op. Cit., p. 111.
42. Ibid. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
43. Ain-i-Akbari, p. 56, and Akbar Nama, p. 654.
44. V R Mehta, Op. Cit., p. 165
45. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
46. M P Singh & Himanshu Roy, Indian Political Thought, 3rd Edition, Pearson, Delhi, p.
132.
47. Ibid,
48. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
49. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
50. ibid.
51. Ibid.
Self-Instructional 52. M Athar Ali, Op. Cit., p. 135.
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53. Ibid. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df NOTES

54. Ibid, or https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. V R Mehta, Op. Cit., p. 151.
59. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
63. Ibid.
64. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid, p. 67
67. M. Athar Ali, Op. Cit., p. 156.
68. Ibid.
69. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df, and M P Singh and Himanshu
Roy, Op. Cit.,
70. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df

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ANCIENT AND
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POLITICAL THOUGHT

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT

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