Unit-I

Demographic Profile: Characteristics of Indian population, Population Growth, Age, Sex,

Religion, Language, Occupation, National Policy on Population.

Unit - II
Indian Society: Society and its types, Features of Tribal Society, Agrarian Society, Industrial Society.

Unit- III
Social Stratification: Caste System, Class System, Communities, Ethnic Groups, Weaker
Sections and Minorities, Constitutional Provisions for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Other Backward Classes.

Unit- IV
Socio-Economic Problems: Poverty, Illiteracy, Unemployment, Housing, Child Labour,
Migration, Occupational Diseases, Insurgency, Terrorism, Crime, Project Affected People, social
Destitute, Beggary, Aged Population, Juvenile Delinquency, Problems in Family Life.

Unit- V
Indian culture: Culture - Features, Characteristics and Diversity. Differences with Western
culture, Human Values, Values in Work Life, Value Crisis in contemporary Indian Society.
 Unit- I

National Development Council appointed a Committee on Population in 1991 under the

chairmanship of Karunakaran, which submitted its report in 1993, recommending the
formu­lation of a National Population Policy to take a ‘a long-term holistic view of development,
population growth, and environ­mental protection’ and to ‘suggest policies and guidelines [for]
formulation of programmes’ and ‘a monitoring mechanism with short- medium- and long-term
perspectives and goals’.

Subse-quently, an Expert Group headed by M.S. Swaminathan was appointed to prepare the draft
of a national population policy. The National Population Policy (NPP) finally came into force in
2000.

The Policy states that the “immediate objective of the NPP 2000 is to address the unmet needs
for contraception, healthcare infrastructure, and health personnel, and to provide integrated
service delivery for basic reproductive and child healthcare. The NPP has listed the following
goals

1. Address the unmet needs for basic reproductive and child health services, supplies, and
infrastructure;

2. Make school education up to age 14 free and compulsory, and reduce dropouts at the primary
and secondary school levels to below 20 per cent for both boys and girls;

3. Reduce the infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1,000 live births;

4. Reduce the maternal mortality ratio to below 100 per 100,000 live births;

5. Achieve universal immunization of children against all vaccine preventable diseases;

6. Promote delayed marriage for girls, not earlier than age 18 and preferably after 20 years of
age;

7. Achieve 80 per cent institutional deliveries and 100 per cent deliveries by trained persons;

8. Achieve universal access to information/counseling, and services for fertility regulation and
contraception with a wide basket of choices;

9. Achieve 100 per cent registration of births, deaths, marriages, and pregnancy;

10. Contain the spread of the Acquired Immuno-deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and promote
greater integration between the management of reproductive tract infec-tions (RTIs) and sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) and the National AIDS Control Organization;

11. Prevent and control communicable diseases;

12. Integrate Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) in the provision of reproductive and child health
services, and in reaching out to households; and

13. Promote vigorously the small family norm to achieve replacement levels of TFR. Bring about
convergence in implementation of related social-sector programmes so that family welfare
becomes a people-centered programme.

The NPP 2000 anticipates that proper implementation of this policy will help limit the population
to 1,107 million (110 crores) in 2010, instead of 1,162 million (116 crores) as projected by the
Technical Group on Population Projections. It is hoped that the TFR will reach the replacement
level of 2.1 by 2010.

The long-term objective of achieving a stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the
requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development, and environment protection
will also require considerable effort and efficient implementation of the NPP.

The following are features or characteristics of India’s population:

1. Large Size and Fast Growth:

The first main feature of Indian population is its large size and rapid growth. According to 2001
census, the population of India is 102.87 crore. In terms of size, it is the second largest
population in the world, next only to China whose population was 127 crore in 2001. India’s
population was 23.6 crore in 1901 and it increased to 102.7 crore in 2001.

In addition to its size, the rate of growth of population has been alarming since 1951. At present,
India’s population is growing at a rate of 1.9 percent per annum; 21 million people are added
every year which is more than the population of Australia. This situation is called population
explosion and this is the result of high birth rate and declining death rate.

2. Second Stage of Demographic Transition:

According to the theory of demographic transition, the population growth of a country passes
through three different stages as development proceeds. The first stage is characterised by high
birth rate and high death rate. So in this stage the net growth of population is zero. Till 1921,
India was in the 1st stage of demographic transition.
The second stage is featured by high birth rate and declining death rate leading to the rapid
growth of population. India entered the second stage of demographic transition after 1921. In
1921-30 India entered the 2nd stage, the birth rate was 464 per thousand and death rate was 363
per thousand.

In 2000-01, birth rate was 25.8 and death rate declined to 85. This led to rapid growth of
population. India is now passing through the second stage of demographic transition. While
developed countries are in 3rd stage

3. Rapidly Rising Density:

Another feature of India’s population is its rapidly rising density. Density of population means to
the average number of people living per square kilometer. The density of population in India was
117 per square km. in 1951 which increased to 324 in 2001. This makes India one of the most
densely populated countries of the world. This adversely affects the land-man ratio.

4. Sex Ratio Composition Unfavourable to Female:

Sex ratio refers to the number of females per thousand males. India’s position is quite different
than other countries. For example the number of female per thousand males was 1170 in Russia,
1060 in U.K., 1050 in U.S.A. whereas it is 927 in India according to 1991 census.

The sex ratio in India as 972 per thousand in 1901 which declined to 953 in 1921 and to 950 in
1931. Again, in 1951, sex ratio further declined to 946. In 1981, sex ratio reduced to 934 against
930 per thousand in 1971. During 1991, sex ratio was recorded 927 per thousand.

The sex ratio is 933 per thousand in 2001. State wise Kerala has more females than males. There
are 1040 females per thousand males. The lowest female ratio was recorded in Sikkim being 832.
Among the union territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands has the lowest sex ratio i.e. 760.
Therefore, we can conclude that sex ratio composition is totally unfavourable to female.

5. Bottom heavy Age Structure:

The age composition of Indian population is bottom heavy. It implies that ratio of persons in age
group 0-14 is relatively high. According to 2001 census, children below 14 years were 35.6%.
This figure is lower than the figures of previous year. High birth rate is mainly responsible for
large number of dependent children per adult. In developed countries the population of 0 -14 age
group is between 20 to 25%. To reduce the percentage of this age group, it is essential to slow
down the birth rate.

6. Predominance of Rural Population:

Another feature of Indian population is the dominance of rural population. In 1951, rural
population was 82.7% and urban population was 17.3%. In 1991 rural population was 74.3% and
urban population was 257. In 2001, the rural population was 72.2% and urban population was
27.8. The ratio of rural urban population of a country is an index of the level of industrialisation
of that country. So process of urbanisation slow and India continues to be land of villages.

7. Low Quality Population:

The quality of population can be judged from life expectancy, the level of literacy and level of
training of people. Keeping these parameters in mind, quality of population in India is low.

(a) Low Literacy Level:

Literacy Level in India is low. Literacy level in 1991 was 52.2% while male-female literacy ratio
was 64.1 and 39.3 percent. In 2001, the literacy rate improved to 65.4 percent out of which made
literacy was 75.8 and female literacy was 52.1 percent. There are 35 crore people in our country
who are still illiterate.

(b) Low level of Education and Training:

The level of education and training is very low in India. So quality of population is poor. The
number of persons enrolled for higher education as percentage of population in age group 20 -25
was a percent in 1982. It is only one fourth of the developed countries. The number of doctors
and engineers per million of population are 13 and 16 respectively. It is quite less as compared to
advanced countries.

(c) Low Life Expectancy:

By life expectancy we mean the average number of years a person is expected to live. Life
expectancy in India was 33 years. It was increased to 59 in 1991 and in 2001, life expectancy
increased to 63.9. Decline in death rate, decline in infant mortality rate and general improvement
in medical facilities etc. have improved the life expectancy. However life expectancy is lower in
India as compared to life expectancy of the developed nations. Life expectancy is 80 year in
Japan and 78 years in Norway.

8. Low Work Participation Rate:

Low proportion of labour force in total population is a striking feature of India’s population. In
India, Labour force means that portion of population which belongs to the age group of 15 -59. In
other words, the ratio of working population to the total is referred to as work participation rate.

This rate is very low in India in comparison to the developed countries of the world. Total
working population was 43% in 1961 which declined to 37.6% in 1991. This position improved
slightly to 39.2% in 2001. That means total non-working population was 623 million (60.8
percent) and working population was 402 million (39.2%). Similarly low rate of female
employment and bottom-heavy age structure are mainly responsible for low work participation in
India.

9. Symptoms of Over-population:

The concept of over-population is essentially a quantitative concept. When the population size of
the country exceeds the ideal size, we call it over-population. According to T.R. Malthus, the
father of demography, when the population of a country exceeds the means of subsistence
available, the country faces the problem of over-population.

No doubt, food production has increased substantially to 212 million tonnes but problems like
poverty, hunger, malnutrition are still acute. Agriculture is overcrowded in rural areas of the
country which is characterised by diminishing returns. This fact leads to the conclusion that India
has symptoms of over-population. Indian low per capita income, low standard of living, wide
spread unemployment and under-employment etc. indicate that our population size has crossed
the optimum limit.

The description of the population according to the different characteristics such as caste,
religion, sex, language, occupation, etc is called composition of the population. It is the structure
of the population. Caste, religion, etc reflects the social characteristics, age and sex reflect the
demographic characteristics and occupation denote the economic characteristics. It is very
important for the study of population. It provides detail information about the individual people.
It helps to know about the total number pf people of a particular area belonging to different caste,
religion, language, occupation, and sex. It helps the government to plan and carry out
developmental activities. On the basis of population composition, the population can be
classified into the following groups,

Population Composition by Sex

The arrangement of the population on the basis of sex is called population composition by sex. It
is the structure of population on the basis of sex. It can also be defined as the distribution of
population on the basis of sex that is male and female. The table given below shows the
population composition by sex of Nepal in different census,

Census

(AD)
Male

Female

Population PercentPopulation Percent

2001 1,15,63,921 49.9 1,15,87,502 50.1

2011 1,28,49,041 48.5 1,36,45,463 51.5

The above table shows the population composition by sex in 2001 and 2011 AD. Here, in both
census, the population of the female is more than the population of male. The total percentage of
female form the total population in 2001 AD is 50.1 and male is 49.9. Similarly, the population
percentage of male and female in 2011 AD is 51.5 and 48.5 respectively. While studying the
population composition by sex, we should not forget the contribution of sex ratio. The sex ratio
can be calculated by the given formula,

Sex Ratio = MF × 100

Where,

M: Total number of male population

F: Total number of female population

The sex ratio of various censuses has been shown in the following table:

Census Year (AD) 1981 1991 2001 2011

SexRatio 105 99.5 99.8 94.16

Sex ratio is the total number of male population per hundred female population. From the above
table, we can observe that the sex ratio is high in 1981 AD. The sex ratio is observed low in
1991, 2001 and 2011 AD.

and 1.41 in 2011 AD. The caste with least population is Koiri/Kushwaha occupying 1.11 percent
in 2001 and 1.21 in 2011 AD.

India occupies 2.4 per-cent of the total land area of the world but supports 16.7 per-cent of the
total world population. Moreover, there is no causal relationship between density of population
and economic development of a country. For example, Japan & England having higher density
can be rich and Afghanistan & Myanmar having lower density can be poor. However in an
underdeveloped country like India with its low capital and technology, the rapidly rising density
is too heavy a burden for the country to bear.

Religious Composition

Religion is one of the most dominant forces affecting the cultural and political life of the most of
Indians. Since religion virtually permeates into almost all the aspects of people’s family and
community lives, it is important to study the religious composition in detail. Population Growth
rate of various religion has come down in the last decade (2001-2011). Hindu Population Growth
rate slowed down to 16.76 % from previous decade figure of 19.92% while Muslim witness
sharp fall in growth rate to 24.60% (2001-2011) from the previous figure of 29.52 % (1991-
2001). Such sharp fall in population growth rate for Muslims didn't happened in the last 6
decades. Christian Population growth was at 15.5% while Sikh population growth rate stood at
8.4%. The most educated and wealthy community of Jains registered least growth rate in 2001-
2011 with figure of just 5.4%. The Growth rate of Hindus, Muslims and Christian is expected to
fall more in upcoming 2021 census while other religions like Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism are
expected to remain stable for next 2 decades considering already slowed down growth rate of
these religions.

All India Religion Census Data 2011

Religion Percentage Estimated Total Male Female State
Majority
All 100.00% 121 1,210,854,977 623,270,258 587,584,719 35
Religion Crores
Hindu 79.80% 96.62 966,257,353 498,306,968 467,950,385 28
Crores
Muslim 14.23% 17.22 172,245,158 88,273,945 83,971,213 2
Crores
Christian 2.30% 2.78 27,819,588 13,751,031 14,068,557 4
Crores
Sikh 1.72% 2.08 20,833,116 10,948,431 9,884,685 1
Crores
Buddhist 0.70% 84.43 8,442,972 4,296,010 4,146,962 -
 Lakhs
Jain 0.37% 44.52 4,451,753 2,278,097 2,173,656 -
Lakhs
Other 0.66% 79.38 7,937,734 3,952,064 3,985,670 -
Religion Lakhs
Not 0.24% 28.67 2,867,303 1,463,712 1,403,591 -
Stated Lakhs

Unit-2
Indian Society: Society and its types, Features of Tribal Society, Agrarian Society,
Industrial Society

Sociologists have defined society with two angles:

1. In abstract terms, as a network of relationships between people or between groups.

2. In concrete terms, as a collection of people or an organisation of persons.

Features of the Indian Tribes.

1. Definite Common Topography:

Tribal people live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all the members of a
particular tribe occupying that region.

In the absence of a common but definite living place, the tribals will lose other characteristics of
a tribal life, like common language, way of living and community sentiment etc.

2. Sense of Unity:

Unless and until, a group living in a particular area and using that area as a common residence,
does not possess the sense of unity, it cannot be called a tribe. Sense of unity is an invariable
necessity for a true tribal life. The very existence of a tribe depends upon the tribal’s sense of
unity during the times of peace and war.

3. Endogamous Group:
Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage within the tribe is highly
appreciated and much applauded. But the pressing effects of changes following the forces of
mobility have also changed the attitude of tribals and now, inter-tribe marriages are becoming
more and more common.

4. Common Dialect: Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. This
element further strengthens their sense of unity.

5. Ties of Blood-relationship:

Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating sense of unity among the
tribals.

6. Protection Awareness:

Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and infiltration and for this a single political
authority is established and all the powers are vested in this authority. The safety of the tribal is
left to the skill and mental power of the person enjoying political authority. The tribal chief is
aided by a tribal committee, in the events of contingencies. Tribe is divided into a number of
small groups and each group is headed by its own leader. The chief of a group works according
to the directives received by him from the tribal chief.

7. Distinct Political Organization:

Every tribe has its own distinct political organisation which looks after the interests of tribal
people. The whole political authority lies in the hands of a tribal chief. In some tribes, tribal
committees exist to help the tribal chief in discharging his functions in the interests of the tribe.

8. Common Culture:

Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity, common language, common
religion, common political organisation. Common culture produces a life of homogeneity among
the tribals.

9. Importance of Kinship:

Kinship forms the basis of tribal social organization. Most tribes are divided into exogamous
clans and lineages. The marriage among tribals is based on the rule of tribal endogamy. Marriage
is viewed as a contract and there are no prohibition on divorce and remarriage.

10. Egalitarian Values:

The tribal social organization is based on the egalitarian principle. Thus there are no
institutionalized inequalities like the caste system or sex based inequalities. Thus men and
women enjoyed equal status and freedom. However some degrees of social inequality may be
found in case of tribal chiefs or tribal kings who enjoy a higher social status, exercise political
power and posses wealth.

11. Rudimentary type of Religion:

Tribes believe in certain myths and a rudimentary type of religion.

Further, they believe in totems signifying objects having mystic relationship with members of the
tribe.

Agrarian Society:
Societies are classified on the basis of dominant types of economic activity into agrarian and
industrial societies. In an agrarian society the dominant type of economic activity is agricultural
whereas in an industrial society factory production is the dominant type of economic activity.
Only in the past century and a half has the world known industrial society. Even today, from
two-third to three-fourths of the world’s people live in agrarian or peasant societies.

The earliest men lived in relatively small bands, formed on the basis of family and blood ties.
Their economy consisted of seed and root gathering, of hunting and fishing. The Neolithic
Revolution marks one of the greatest changes in the history of society, one matched only by the
Industrial Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution began in the Near east and the Nile Valley about
13,000 years ago.

It spread to central and western Europe three or four thousand years later. During this period men
began to polish some of their stone tools, giving them a sharper cutting edge, and they invented
the arts of pottery and weaving. But these were not the most important changes. It was the
domestication of plants and animals which laid the foundation of agrarian society.

The development of agriculture greatly altered the social structure and institutions. The new form
of economy made possible a more rapid growth in population. It also meant a more settled
abode. Man founded villages and thereby created the need for new forms of social structure and
social control.

Structure and Features of Agrarian Society:

(i) Occupational Structure:

An agrarian society is generally associated with the domestication of plants and animals. The
domestication of plants means farming and that of animals means herding. Often there is mixture
of farming and the use of such domesticated animals as cow, goat and sheep.
But along with agricultural and herding there are other economic activities of the people in an
agrarian society. Thus there are artisans like weavers, potters, blacksmiths, petty shopkeepers,
service holders such as sweeper, watchman, domestic servant and others pursuing lowly
occupations.

(ii) Forms of Land Ownership in Agrarian Societies:

Generally, there are landlords, supervisory farmers, cultivators and share croppers. The
landholders own the land but do not work on it. They let it out for sharecropping. The
supervisory farmers are those who live by having their land cultivated by hired labourers. The
cultivators cultivate the land for themselves.

The share-croppers are those who live by tilling other people’s land or; a crop-sharing basis. The
artisans own their means of production and produce by their own labour in their homesteads. The
traders are not large size businessmen. It may be noted that the artisan and trader class in an
agrarian society sometimes also own land which they either cultivate through hired labour or let
it out for shareholding.

(iii) Village Community System:

An agrarian society is highlighted by the institution of village community system. The agrarian
economy made fixed dwelling houses necessary. Living close together for protection and co-
operation and living nearer to the land gave birth to agricultural villages. The village is not only
the residential place of farmers; it is also the social integrator.

It serves as the nucleus of the society and life operates almost completely within the village. The
life-patterns of the people are fixed. Their habits, attitudes and ideas are sharply marked off from
those of the people living in the industrial society. The production-relations between the different
classes living in the village community become so stabilised that even the new forces find it
difficult to break them through.

Inspite of all the talk of uplifting the ‘Harijan’ (agricultural labourers) from their miserable
conditions, the Indian leaders have not succeeded to break through the production-relations
between the agricultural labourer and his landlord.

(iv) Minimal Division of Labour:

Another structural feature of agrarian society is a minimal division of labour. Except for the
basic division founded on age and sex differences, there are few specialized roles. There is only
one predominant type of occupation i.e., domestication of plants and animals. For all the people
the environment, physical as well as social, is the same.
The agrarian society is a homogeneous society where people are engaged in the same economic
pursuit. There is not much division and sub-division of work. There is no multiplicity of
organisations, economic and social.

There are no trade unions or professional associations. The different physical types, interests,
occupational roles, values, religious groups and attitudes so obvious in an industrial society are
absent from the agrarian society. The people tend to be much alike in body build as well as
cultural patterns.

(v) Role of Family:

One striking feature of the agrarian society is the great importance of the family, not only as a
reproductive and child-rearing agency but as an economic unit. In many societies it is not the
individual as such but the entire family as a group that tills the soil, plants and harvests the crops,
and carries out co-operatively the other necessary farm functions.

The farm family is of the patriarchal type: the father is the final arbiter in most of the family’s
major decisions. The status of the family is the status of the individual. There are established
family traditions in regard to marriage, religion, recreation and occupation.

The life of ail men and women is merged in family life. Since there are not many special
organizations, family is the only organisation to perform the tasks of aid and protection.

(vi) Sense of Unity:

The members of an agrarian society exhibit a strong in-group feeling. Since the whole of their
social lives is wrapped up in a society which is physically, economically and socially
homogenous, they are inclined to view the entire outside world as an out group.

There is a strong ‘we- feeling’. In the name of village glory, the people are ready to sacrifice
their lives. Any outsider violating the village norms and customs is heavily punished.

The relations among the village people are personal. In an agrarian society neighbourhood is one
of the important units which has disappeared from the industrial society.

(vii) Informal Social Control:

An agrarian society is regionally divided into villages. In a village community the force of
traditional mores is more dominant than in the urban community. In the village everybody is
known to everybody. The members in a village community help each other and share the joy and
sorrows of each other.

Crime in an agrarian society is rare. Sanctions are imposed informally through gossip, ridicule or
ostracism. Behaviour is governed by folkways and mores; there is little formal law. Infernal
pressures are sufficient to enforce the norms.
(viii) Simplicity and Uniformity:

Life of the people in an agrarian society is marked by simplicity and uniformity. Their main
occupation is agriculture which largely depends upon the vagaries of nature. The farmer acquires
an attitude of fear and awe towards natural forces and starts worshipping them. The people
thereby come to develop deep faith in religion and deities.

An agrarian society is a religious society. Moreover, the farmers lead a simple life. Their
clothing, agricultural practices and vehicles have been carried out with little change for
generations. They regard simple life as good life.

They are far away from the evils of industrial civilization. Their behaviour is natural and not
artificial. They live a peaceful life. They are free from mental conflicts. They do not suffer heart-
strokes. They are sincere, hardworking and hospitable. They view land as the most substantial of
all heritages.

To conclude, it may also be said that agrarian society in our times is being influenced more and
more by the features of industrial society. The farmer now produces surplus goods for a wider
market, makes use of the money economy of industrial era and takes part in a larger political
order by paying taxes and voting.

The continued extension of commercial farming with an eye to profits, along with the
introduction of machinery has greatly influenced the social organisation of agrarian societies.
The Indian society which is an agrarian society is gradually undergoing transformation under the
impact of industrialisation.

The introduction of commercialization and mechanization into agriculture means that the urban
ways of life more and more influence agrarian culture. And once the shift gets well under way,
business and industrial views and methods will affect not only production and marketing but the
level of living and other cultural patterns as well.

Industrial Society:
A very important factor in the history of society has been the Industrial Revolution which has
brought about far-reaching consequences in the structure of societies. Prior to the Industrial
Revolution most workers secured their own raw materials and owned their own tools.

They worked under their own roofs on their own time, and determined both the quality and
quantity of what they produced and sold the finished product to the consumer. The worker took
pride in his product and he used to establish his reputation as a man who had made the best
product. He lived a life of simplicity controlled by traditional community mores. His children
saw his father working on the product, helped him and gradually learnt the job the father was
doing.

This social structure began to change with the beginning of Industrial Revolution. An
entrepreneur, an individualist capitalist came in and took over some of the operations. He was an
intelligent, ambitious man and established a factory. He secured the raw materials, gauged the
market, and took workers from under their own roofs to produce things in his factory.

He took the produce and sold it. In this process the worker came to be separated from the means
of production. He now owned neither the raw material, nor the tools, nor the building nor the
product. He was now a labour. Factory production, fixed capital and free labour were the
characteristics of this revolution.

As a result of this economic revolution, several important alterations occurred in the social
structure and a new type of society called industrial society was born.

Features of Industrial Society:

An industrial society is marked by the following features:

(i) Emergence of Modern Family:

The emergence of modern family in place of traditional patriarchal family is the first feature of
industrial society. The family in industrial society has moved from an institution to
companionship. The woman is no longer the devotee of man but an equal partner in life with
equal rights.

It is not only the males who go to the factory and offices for work, but the women also are as
good earning members as the men. The family has changed from a production to consumption
unit. It now no longer performs the functions which it did in the pre-industrial society. The
machines and appliances have lessened the drudgery of cooking, bathing, cleaning and washing.

Even the functions of child bearing and rearing are differently performed in the industrial
society. The hospital offers room for the birth of child and he is brought up in the nursing home
while the mother is away to the factory. The family members of industrial society are
individualized in their outlook. In short, the structure and functions of the family in industrial
society are different from those in the agrarian society.

(ii) Economic Institutions:

The most important difference between the industrial society and pre-industrial society can be
seen in the structure of economic institutions. The industrial society is marked by a new system
of production, distribution, and exchange. In place of house-holds there are factories where the
work is divided up into little pieces. Large plants have been set up. Corporations have come into
existence.

Ownership has been separated from control. The large industrial business, such as Tata’s and
Birla’s is owned not by one man but by millions of people. The stockholders among whom this
diversified ownership is spread do own their companies. But they delegate control of the
corporation to salaried management.

As a matter of fact, we have a sort of collectivization of ownership in an industrial society.

Capitalism with all its necessary features is an important aspect of industrial society. Thus it is
marked by the institutions of private property, division of labour, profit, competition, wage and
credit. The growth of trade unions is also an important feature of industrial society.

(iii) Occupational Sub-cultures:

As referred to above, there is extreme division of labour in industrial society. Both the
production of goods and management of factory are divided into little pieces leading to
occupational specialities. There are thousands in a factory to produce specialized tasks in order
to produce, say, a pair of shoes.

Like-wise, the management work is also divided, one looking to the purchase of raw material,
the other one looking to the maintenance of plant and machinery, the third one looking after
advertisement and publicity and so on.

Such a division of labour leads to what some sociologists have called situses sets of related
occupational specialities arranged hierarchically parallel to and separate from other sets of
related roles, which are also arranged in hierarchies. Each situs or family or related occupation
builds up a set of norms peculiar to it.

These occupational sub-cultures insulate their participants from the members of another situs.
Doctors and nurses hold values not shared by engineers and truck drivers. The occupational
norms of the lawyers are not those of teachers.

The industrial society as it is marked by extreme occupational specialisation is thus fragmented

by occupational sub-cultures. This can be seen at its extreme when doctors in India and United
States have more to talk about with each other than either group has with the farmers from its
own country.

(iv) Segmentalized Roles:

People in industrial societies have segmentalized roles. One may be a welder, a religious
preacher, a father, a member of a political group, a member of the cricket team. No one of these
bears the same necessary relationship to another that the roles filled by a tribe’s man in a tribal
society do. In such a society, one need only know his clan membership to predict his occupation,
his relation and his educational attainment.

(v) Impersonality of Relationship:

An industrial society is marked by impersonal rather than personal relationships. Occupational

specialization contributes a good share to impersonality of industrial life. The secondary
character of association, the multiplicity of occupations, the specialization of functions and areas
and competitiveness narrow the attachments and detract the individual from a feeling of
identification with the entire society.

Further the separation of place of work from place of residence removes working fathers from
the view of their children. Most children do not know what daddy does when he goes to work.
They just know that he goes and comes back. As a matter of fact, not only do most children not
know what their fathers do, but neither do many wives know exactly.

The wife only knows that her husband works in the textile mill, but what he actually does there,
whether he works on the assembly line, or is he a machine operator or is he a supply man, is not
known to her. Under such circumstances, family fails to enable the child to walk out of
adolescence into an adult occupational role.

(vi) Status to Contract:

The most important feature for an understanding of industrial society is the trend that
sociologists describe as movement from status to contact. In medieval society the serfs had lands
because of their status. A baron was born a baron. His grandfather had been a baron and it was
his right.

The serfs owned him certain obligations not because of achievement, but because each man was
born into his status. The whole society was structured on ascribed status. The industrial society
has shattered this structure.

In an industrial society most people work for big organizations and contracts are substituted for
status system. There is a wage contract, a social security contract, an unemployment insurance
contract and so on. In place of mutual obligation system there is found contract system in
industrial society.

(vii) Social Mobility:

Since an industrial society has moved from status to contract, therefore, as a consequence
thereof, it is marked by social mobility. The member of industrial society can by his achievement
raises or lowers his status during his life time. The role of caste as a factor in determining status
gets minimised in an industrial society.

(viii) Position of Women:

In an agrarian society there are few economic pursuits open for women. They are mostly
confined to household drudgeries; and render help at the time of planting and harvesting of the
crops. In an industrial society there are more opportunities open for women.

Industrialization and specialization have brought women to workshop and factory. They have
entered into the wider life which has altered their outlook and liberated them from the
exclusiveness of domesticity. Seats are now reserved for them in legislatures and other elective
bodies. The ‘lib’ movement is a contribution of industrial society.

(ix) Deviance and Anomie:

The industrial society is a mass society with differing sub-cultures. Its members live under
stresses and strains caused by acute competitiveness. The factories run day and night. People
indulge in too many activities and work at tremendous speed. They are surrounded by complex
and heterogeneous rules of behaviour laid down by various agencies which impose an enormous
number of constraints on human behaviour.

Capitalism, exploitation, class conflicts, cultural lags, impersonality of relationships,

predominance of individualism and mechanical life are the attributes of industrial society which
create mental and emotional disorders. The members of industrial society suffer from neurosis,
psychosomatic disorders and psychosis. The incidence of suicide and drug addiction is also
higher in industrial society.

To conclude, the industrial society has brought about great changes in the institutional structure
and norms. The American society is an industrial society where the people are highly literate,
scientifically trained, economically prosperous but individualistically oriented.

Will human relationship in such a society be more stable and integrated? The answer is not
definite. However, more and more agrarian societies are entering the phase of industrialization
and in future we shall have more industrial societies.
 UNIT-3
Social Stratification: Caste System, Class System, Communities, Ethnic Groups, Weaker
Sections and Minorities, Constitutional Provisions for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes
and Other Backward Classes

Each and every society has its own way of stratification. An un-stratified society with a real form
of equality is impossible. If we look back to the history there is no evidence of such society.
Indian society is stratified basing upon the caste system. The caste division is rooted in the Varna
system of traditional Hindu society.

It was divided into four strata Brahmin, Kshyatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. Gradually Varna System
was diverted to caste system, as Varna system was divided and sub-divided into castes and sub-
castes. Caste system is very complex and complicated because of which it is very difficult to
define.

According to Sir Herbert Risely, “Caste is a collection of families, bearing a common name,
claiming a common descent, from a mythical ancestor, human and divine, professing to follow
the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give opinion as forming
a single homogeneous community.”

To define caste Ketkar says that it is a group having two characteristics:

(a) Membership is confined to those who are born of members and includes all persons so born.

(b) The members are forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group.

Maclver and Page defined caste “When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to
their lot without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste.”

Functions of Caste System:

All the functions of caste system can be categorized under two:

(a) From Individual Point of View

(b) From Social Point of View

From the individual’s point of view caste provides opportunities to the individual to develop in
the society.

1. Caste Provides Social Recognition:

All the caste categories are based on the principle of purity and pollution. The pure castes get
high social status without any achievement. By ascription, a Brahmin gets high status.

2. Provides Social Security:

If any individual faces the problem of getting security from the family, caste protects the person.
For example, if a child becomes orphan and nobody is there to look after the child, then the
caste/sub-caste takes the responsibility of child.

3. It Solves Economic Problem:

As each and every caste is attached with an occupation, and as it is hereditary in nature, one can
follow his traditional occupation. Through his specialized occupation one can solve his economic
problem.

4. It helps in Socialization:

Each caste has its own rules and regulations to control the behaviour of its members. Through
these, caste can guide the individual behaviour. A caste introduces its members in the wider
social circle. The pattern of taking food, wearing dress, keeping relations with other castes etc.
give the individual an identity in the society.
5. Protects Individual from the Exploitation:

Caste acts as a trade union. It protects its members from the exploitation. In jajmani system, the
higher caste people cannot exploit the kameens (the service giving castes) as these caste groups
have their caste panchayats. Caste panchayat looks after the social and economic security of the
individual.

From the point of view of society:

1. Integrity of the Society:

Caste helps in the integrity of the society. It has the capacity to accommodate individuals/groups
from different races, religions, regions and forms a social whole. So, caste system acts as a
mechanism to maintain social integrity.

2. Preservation of the Culture:

Each society has its own way of acquiring knowledge, expression of behaviour, habits, style of
life etc. These cultural elements pass from one generation to another. Caste helps in passing
those cultural elements through the socialization process.

3. System of Division of Labour:

Caste is based on the unique system of division of labour. All the activities necessary for the
society have been divided into various categories and allotted to different caste groups. The main
objective of this sort of division of labour is smooth functioning of the society.

4. Promotes Political Stability:

In the caste system the political power is given to one category, i.e. Kshatriyas. No other caste is
allowed to compete with Kshatriyas to have political power. So it avoids political competition,
conflict and violence. It creates a situation of political stability in the society.

5. Maintains Racial Purity:

Caste system follows the strict rule of caste/sub-caste endogamy. Endogamy (marriage within
one’s own caste/sub-caste) helps in maintaining and preserving the purity of blood.

6. Promotes Economic Development:

In caste system each caste is allotted a specific occupation. When a caste continues a profession
generation after generation it is obvious that it can produce qualitative things. Because of this
reason many handicraft items of India gained international recognition. It helps in the economic
betterment of the individual and also economic- development of the society.
Dysfunctions of Caste System:

Caste system has also many demerits. Hindu society is facing various problems due to caste
system.

1. Creates Social Obstacles:

Caste system divides society into- many groups. Each group is attached to rigid social norms and
values, because of which normal interaction among the categories is not possible. So, it is a
hindrance to social progress.

2. Slow Social Change:

All the caste groups have to follow certain fixed and rigid rules and regulations. The basis of
these rules and regulation is the principle of ‘Purity and Pollution’. One has to conform the
traditional norms and values to maintain the principle. So, the change occurs in the society is
very slow.

3. Hinders Economic Progress:

Three things are responsible for creating economic hindrance in connection to caste system.

Firstly, caste system is based on the unequal distribution of wealth.

Secondly, low caste people are allotted occupations which give them low income.

Thirdly, it denies social and occupational mobility.

4. Creates Social Dis-organisation:

When caste was originated the main objective was to unify the society. But now Hindu society is
divided into so many castes and sub-castes. Caste conflict, caste tension and caste rivalry are
very common in the society. So, it is not serving its purpose rather it is dividing the society and
creating the situation of social dis-organisation.

5. Political Conflict:

Caste system also breeds political conflict. Involvement of caste in democratic system creates
conflicting situation in the political field. Political parties are using caste as their means to get
vote.

6. Low Status of Women:

Caste system is related with child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, sati system etc.
Caste system gives low status to women by denying education and also they were denied to
perform priestly functions.
7. Untouchability:

Only caste system is responsible for the suffering of a particular section of the society who are
untouchables. They are suppressed and exploited by the high caste groups.

Characteristics of Class System:

The following are the principal characteristics of class system:

1. A system of hierarchy of status-A system of social ranking based primarily on economic

position.

2. A system marked by unequal distribution of wealth and power.

3. A system more mobile than caste system.

4. A system in which status is achieved by one’s own efforts rather than ascribed, assigned
or inherited.

5. A system having some degree of permanency of the class structure.

6. A system based on stratum (class) consciousness and solidarity.

7. A system having distinctive mode of life (lifestyle) and cultural expressions of each class.

8. A system based on the recognition of superiority and inferiority in relation to those who
stand or below in the social hierarchy.

9. A system in which boundaries between classes are fluid and are less precisely defined.
10. The new social classes emerged during the British period in both the rural as well as
urban areas.

As regards the village & agrarian areas, the following classes evolved:

1. Zamindars.

2. Absentee landlords.

3. Tenants under Zamindars & absentee landlords.

4. The class of peasant proprietors divided into upper middle and lower strata.

5. Agricultural labourers.

6. The modern class of merchants and

7. The modern class of money lenders.

The urban areas also witnessed the following classes:

1. The modern class of capitalists, industrial, commercial and financial;

2. The modern working class engaged in industrial, transport, mining and such other enterprises;

3. The class of petty traders and shopkeepers bound up with modern capitalist economy;

4. The professional classes such as technicians doctors, lawyers, professors, Journalists,

managers, clerks and others, comprising the intelligentsia and the educated middle class.

The following are the measures prescribed in the Constitutional provisions for the welfare
of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes:

According to the Article 15, the state should not discriminate against any citizen only on the
ground of caste, creed, etc. More positively, Article 15(4) further states that the state may (in
spite of right to equality) make special provisions for the welfare of socially and educationally
backward classes. Thus, if the State takes any measures in favour of these castes and
communities if would not be challenged on the ground of right to equality.
According to provisions of Article 19, the state can impose reasonable restrictions on the
freedom of movement and residence of people, in the interest of Scheduled Tribes.
Article 46 of Constitutional provisions directs the State to protect the educational interests of the
weaker section of society especially the Scheduled Casts and Scheduled Tribes.
According to the provisions of Article 330, 332 and 334, the seats are reserved in the Parliament
and State Legislatures in favour of the Scheduled Casts and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to
their number in the population.
Article 335 provides that the State shall consider the claim of members of SC/ST for making the
reservation in services, keeping in mind the efficiency of the administration.
The Article 338 of the constitutional provision (as amended in 1990 by 65th Amendment)
provides for the establishment of National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes, which is assigned such duties as to investigate and monitor all matters related to the
safeguards provided for the SC/ST in the constitution, to advice on the planning process of the
development of SC/ST and to recommend suitable measures for the effective implementation of
these safeguards and for the protection , welfare and advancement of the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes.
As per the provisions of Article 339, the President is authorised to appoint a Commission after
10 years of the commencement of the Constitution to report on the administration of Scheduled
Area and the welfare of Scheduled Castes.
The Government of India is also empowered to issue suitable directions to State for the welfare
of Scheduled Area and Scheduled Tribes.
Article 275(1) of the Constitution makes provision that the Union of India shall make grants to
States for implementing welfare schemes in Scheduled Areas and for Scheduled Tribes.
The Fifth and the Sixth Schedules of the constitution (with reference to article 244) make special
provisions for the administration and welfare of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
As per the provision of the Constitution, there shall be a separate Ministry in few states viz
Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa etc. which will be charged with the responsibility for the welfare
of Scheduled castes in the States.
The 85th amendment of the Constitution restores reservation in promotion in government jobs to
the member of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Difference between Caste and Class:

SR. Class
NO Caste
A person is placed class
by virtue of his
acquisition of education,
Membership of a cast is wealth or other
hereditary and no amount achievement.
1 or struggle and change it.
Social mobility is
possible, i.e. it is
possible to improve
There is no social
social status
2 mobility.
Members are generally
Members are normally
conscious of their social
not conscious of their
status.
3 social status.
Caste system expects Social class has no
members of follow prescribed customs
certain customs, rituals and folkways
4 folkways, rituals etc.
5 Inter-caste marriage is Marriage between two
 not possible, because it individuals belonging to
will earn wrath of society different classes is
possible without earning
displeasure of the
society

Social classes are based

on superiority or
Caste system is based on
inferiority of social
inferiority or superiority
status of an individual.
of human beings. Social classes help in
Therefore, does not working of democracy.
6 promote democracy.
Members of social
In caste system the classes may follow any
members must follow a religion
7 particular religion.
Social classes are open
class system in which
Caste system is a closed movement from one
class system in which class to another is
hereditary status is the completely unrestricted.
8 life time status.
In caste system, there is
As a member of social
no occupational mobility, class one can adopt any
i.e. one has to follow occupation and change it
occupation of ancestors at will.
9 and it cannot be changed
Social gap between Social gap is not so wide
members of different as in caste system.
10 castes is too wide.
Caste system is
supported on religious
grounds as a Social classes have no
manifestation of God’s such religious a support.
11 will.
 UNIT -4
Socio-Economic Problems: Poverty, Illiteracy, Unemployment, Housing, Child Labour,
Migration, Occupational Diseases, Insurgency, Terrorism, Crime, Project Affected People,
social Destitute, Beggary, Aged Population, Juvenile Delinquency, Problems in Family Life.

The movement of population from one region to another is termed as migration. Migration is

commonly of two types: temporary and permanent.

Temporary migration encompasses annual, seasonal or even daily movements of population

between two cities; it is also called ‘commutation’.

Migration can be divided into the following types on the basis of origin and destination:

(a) Rural to rural R → R

(b) Rural to urban R → U

(c) Urban to urban U → U

(d) Urban to rural U → R

In some cases, the population moves from villages to small towns and then to a bigger

metropolitan city: this may be termed ‘step-wise migration’.

Migration owing to a number of attractions offered by a city is interpreted as migration due to

‘push’ factors; on the other hand, people move out of villages due to ‘pull’ factors— such as

better opportunities of employment, education, recreation, health care facilities, business, etc.

outside villages. Some ‘push’ factors are unemployment, poverty, social insecurity, political

instability and ethnic conflicts.

Trends of Migration in India:

Pattern The pattern of internal migration may be divided into the following: intra -state

movement in the case of movement of people within the state itself, and inter-state movement

when the migrants cross the borders of a state and settle down in another state. The bulk of intra -

state migrations were not caused by economic factors. Since about three-fourths of all migrants

were females, it becomes obvious that marriage was the prime reason for such migration.

Generally, about one-half of male intra-state migrants belong to rural-to-rural category. Most of

these R→R migrants are from backward states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan. It is obvious that migrants moved from their place of origin in search of

better jobs in agricultural farms or other establishments in rural areas.

Out-migration mostly takes place from underdeveloped states like Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. Migrants had a tendency to move into comparatively

developed regions like West Bengal, Maharashtra, the National Capital Territory of Delhi,

Chandigarh, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Assam and Madhya Pradesh also witnessed in-

migration but on a lesser scale.

Uneven development between regions is believed to be the major cause of migration. It is

unfortunate that most of the major metropolitan cities of India are currently witnessing heavy in-

migration and consequent population growth due to work opportunities offered by these cities.

Cities like Delhi, for example, are badly affected by huge influx of migrants

Poverty:
Poverty is relative to richness. Poverty is one of the foremost social problems facing
India and other countries. John L. Gillin asserted that poverty may be regarded as “that
condition in which a person either because of inadequate income or unwise expenditures,
does not maintain a scale of living high enough to provide for his physical and mental
efficiency and to enable him and his natural dependents to function usually according to
the standards of society of which he is a member.” Poverty exists when one is not able to
get sufficient food and necessities of life.

According to Goddard, J.G., “Poverty is the insufficient supply of those things which are
requisite for an individual to maintain himself and those dependent upon him in health
and vigour.”Rich and poor have always existed in society but historically the existence of
poverty did not constitute an important social problem until exchange system and a scale
of values came into existence. When trade expanded, some people began to amass wealth
leading to its uneven distribution.

They started living a luxurious life depriving others of comforts. The members of society
began to compare the differences in economic status and look upon themselves as either
poor or rich in accordance with the prevailing living standards. So poverty is considered a
problem only when obvious differences in economic status among members of a society
are established and comparisons and evaluations of those differences are made. In the
absence of these differences poverty does not exist, even though life may be most
precarious. Thus poverty was no problem in the middle ages, even though by modern
standards the level of living at that time was incredibly low-poverty was simply accepted
as inevitable.

Poverty is relative to richness. It is only when people feel resentment at their lot as
compared with that of others that they feel the sting of poverty. In case of extreme
privation too they may feel this sting without comparing their lot with that of others.
They fail to achieve more than what they have and the awareness of this failure causes
resentment of poverty among them.

Therefore, it is the attitude of resentment which brings the problem of poverty to the
forefront. The primitive people lived a more precarious life but they considered their
discomfort as a natural condition, rather than as a problem calling for solution and hence
accepted if without being resentful.

People are poor not because of an increase in misery but because of the attitude of
resentment at what they do not possess and what others possess. They regard themselves
as poor when they feel deprived of what others possess and enjoy. It is then that poverty
becomes a social problem.
Causes of Poverty:
What are the causes underlying poverty? According to Henry George, the main cause of
poverty is the personal ownership and monopoly of the Individual on the land. He writes,
“In the great cities, where land is so valuable that it is measured by the foot, you will find
the extremes of poverty and of luxury. And this, disparity in condition between the two
extremes of the social scale may always be measured by the price of land.”
According to Marx, the main cause of poverty is the exploitation of the workers by the
capitalists. According to Malthus, Increasing population is the cause of poverty. These
thinkers however laid emphasis on one particular cause of poverty.

As a matter of fact the causes of poverty are numerous and complex. Some of the causes
are personal while others are geographical, economic and social. It is the task of an
economist to analyse them in detail. We shall not make any attempt to analyse them.

The Gillins listed three factors as primarily responsible for poverty:

(i) Incapacity of the individual, which may be due to a faulty heredity or to the
environment;

(ii) Unfavourable physical conditions, such as poor natural resources, bad climate and
weather, and epidemics, and

(iii) Maldistribution of wealth and of income and the imperfect functioning of our
economic Institutions. Of these three factors the last two factors are principally
responsible for poverty in India. Ours is a country rich in natural resources, but we have
not yet adequately exploited them.

A vast area of land remains uncultivated. Our means of cultivation are old styled
resulting in less production. Industries are not well developed; a vast portion of
population depends on agriculture. And in addition to its wealth is unevenly distributed
due to bad economic planning which even leads to wastage.

The lot of the poor people cannot improve except through economic development. There
is imperative need for drastic economic reforms. The progress we have made has fallen
short of our plan targets. The malaises are many.

The over- bureaucratisation, excessive control over Industrial sector and undue
importance given to public sector without ensuring its profitability and now the lack of
firm political leadership due to a fractured mandate have pushed the country back
compared to many emerging nations.
Lord Macaulay’s Address to the British Parliament 2 February,
1835

“I have travelled across the length and breadth of India and I have
not seen one person who is a beggar, who is a thief. Such wealth I
have seen in this country, such high moral values, people of such
caliber that I do not think we would ever conquer this country
unless we break the very backbone of this nation, which is her
spiritual and cultural heritage, and therefore I propose that we
replace her old and ancient education system, her culture, for if
the Indians think that all that is foreign and English is good and
greater than their own, they will lose their self esteem, their native
culture, and they will become what we want them, a truly
dominated nation.”

II. Unemployment:
Closely associated with the problem of poverty is the problem of unemployment because
when people remain idle they become poor. If there are needs to be satisfied, then men
must be employed in satisfying them. Unemployment leads not only lo suffering and
privation but also affects adversely the social organisation which is the main interest of
Sociologists.
Defining unemployment, Karl Pribram has written that “Unemployment is a condition of
the labour market in which the supply of labour is greater than the number of available
openings.” According to Fairchild, “Unemployment is forced and involuntary separation
from remunerative work or the part of the normal working force during normal working
time, at normal wages and under normal conditions.”

According to Chapman, unemployment is of two kinds:

(i) Subjective unemployment, and

(ii) Objective unemployment.

Subjective unemployment is caused by physical and mental diseases of the individual.

Objective unemployment is of four types:

(i) Seasonal unemployment,

(ii) Cyclical unemployment:

(iii) Structural unemployment, and

(iv) Normal unemployment.

In addition to these forms of unemployment there may also be agricultural

unemployment, technological unemployment and educational unemployment.

Though unemployment is universal but in India it is more marked. The number of total
unemployed youth with at least matriculation qualification is put about at five million.
This included about 1.5 million unemployed graduates.

A study undertaken by the Manpower Division of the Directorate of Employment

Exchange, Ministry of Labour and Employment of the pattern of unemployment among
graduates showed that about 93 per cent of the unemployed graduates seeking
employment were men and about 7 per cent women. 48.5 per cent of the unemployment
graduates were B.A’s. 22.7 B. Sc’s and 12.8 per cent B. Com’s.

Unemployment is also widespread among the professionally trained like engineers,

doctors and other technically qualified people. No reliable figures are available about
unemployment among the illiterate people-those who earn their bread through daily
wages.

The statistics maintained by the Employment Exchanges do not give any exact idea of the
level of unemployment because firstly, the Employment Exchanges cover mainly urban
areas, secondly, because all the unemployed people do not get themselves registered and,
thirdly, because some of the registrants are already employed and seek better jobs.

Causes of Unemployment Economists have explained the causes of unemployment and

its cumulative tendencies. They have distinguished between the ‘frictional’
unemployment due to a change over from one job to another and the Immobility of those
who do not feel inclined to move away to a strange district to find work on the one hand
and unemployment due to more profound economic dislocation on the other.

New inventions take jobs away from men before new jobs are created. Also, much
unemployment is caused by business depressions which arise because production moves
faster than purchasing power. Unemployment, then, represents changes in business
conditions which come more quickly than changes in population.

In India the problem of unemployment among the educated youth is assuming serious
proportions. As discussed earlier the faulty system of our education has been responsible
for it. We are admitting thousands of young boys and girls to the institutions of higher
learning without any prospects of employment for them.

Even the technical people like engineers, doctors, and those trained in specialized jobs
are without employment. Unemployment is a great cause of social disorganisation. The
crisis in Indian Society today is largely a crisis of finding suitable jobs for the millions
who join institutions aimlessly and come out of them only to suffer frustration outside
and become deviant. Unless and until employment opportunities increase fast enough,
poverty cannot be removed.

III. Beggary:
Associated with the problems of poverty and unemployment is the problem of beggary
which is a social problem of great magnitude and grave concern in developing and under
developed countries where it exists in a crude form but the developed countries also are
not immune from it where it exists in less degree. Begging is a curse both for the
individual beggar and the society.

The beggar suffers from a sense of humiliation, shame and leads a life of squalor and
filth. Beggary is a problem for children beggars. For them it is an undesirable
environment in which to grow up. It implies undernourishment and inadequate
opportunities for education.

It means idleness, bad company and delinquency. Begging is a problem for society in as
much as a large number of beggars means non-utilization of available human resources
and a drag upon the existing resources of the society. Beggars are also a public health
hazard. They are often carriers of infection and disease. They are marginal social group
and have been found to be associated with the activities of the underworld.

Probably, India is the only country in the world where lakhs of its population wander
about the streets, public places, markets, temples, bus stands, railway stations and even in
moving trams with perfect freedom, living on the spontaneous unorganized charity of the
individual citizen. Though beggars may be found in other parts of the civilized world,
here the public tolerates persistent, open and methodical bagging in public places without
hindrance.

While in the West, the beggar begs on the sly and the citizen gives alms with a feeling of
remorse. In India the beggar begs importunately with the attitude of one demanding his
daily wages or with the contentment of one proudly carrying on his parental profession.

The citizen, in his turn doles out his charity with religious sanction and the self-
satisfaction of doing a good deed.

Definition of Beggars:
It may not be possible to give a precise definition of beggar The beggar in England is
described as consisting of every person wandering abroad or placing himself or herself in
any public place, street, highway, court or passage, to beg or gather alms or causing or
procuring any child or children (under 16) to do so. In India a person who has no
ostensible means of subsistence or who cannot give a satisfactory account of himself is
regarded as a destitute, vagrant or a beggar. (Criminal Procedure Code Section 55(1)).

The definition of beggary can be found in the vagrancy Acts of some of the states of
India.

On the basis of the provisions of these acts a person to be labelled as a beggar should
satisfy these conditions:

(i) He lives by soliciting alms in any public place, temple or mosque, private premises,
public street, road or thoroughfare, or place of public resort, hotels bus-stops, pavements
or markets etc., for the maintenance of himself or his family.
(ii) He wanders from door to door, exhibits or exposes sores, wounds, bodily ailments or
deformities or makes fraudulent pretences of them or allows himself to be used as an
exhibit for exciting pity for seeking alms.

(iii) He is without any visible means of subsistence.

Types of Beggars:
Beggars, have been classified into various categories. According to Dr. Kumarappa,
beggars can be classified under the following heads:

(i) The child beggar, who may be a paid or an unpaid assistant of the adult beggar.

(ii) The physically defectives, including the blind, the deaf, mute, the crippled, the
maimed and deformed. Besides these, there are the chronically under-nourished and those
afflicted with various organic troubles, or weakness of the vital organs.

(iii) The mentally defectives, including a large proportion of the destitute, immoral,
delinquent and criminal population.

(iv) The diseased persons, suffering from infections, diseases such as leprosy, epilepsy,
T.B., venereal diseases and skin diseases, with sores and ulcers covered with plasters on
which myriads of flies settle and feed.

(v) The able-bodied, who considers begging as his birth-right and bullies, harasses and
troubles the public into giving them alms, and who are lazy and roam about in the cities.
They beg by day and turn into thieves and robbers by night.

(vi) The religious mendicants, so familiar is the figure of the Sanyasi, the Yogi, the
Sadhu, the Bairagi, the Fakir and the Darvesh with all the paraphernalia of saffron robe,
wood-bead-necklace and bowl in hand.

(vii) The bogus mendicants, who are able-bodied laymen and who have no affiliation
with any religious order whatever, but like to get on without work, don the garb of a
Fakir or a Sadhu and profit by the generosity of the unsuspecting and religious minded
orthodox people.

(viii) The tribal beggars, who move about from place to place singing and reciting local
songs and begging. Among this class may be included the seasonal vagrant and the
permanent vagrant. The seasonal vagrant comprise those migratory casual labourers who
work on the fields or on some trade on craft in their native village during the season and
in the off season migrate to larger cities where they live on footpaths or open maidens
and maintain themselves by begging or stealing. The permanent vagrants are the
migratory non-workers.

They are purposeless wanderers who beat their way from place to place, begging for
food, getting in any way they can and carefully avoiding rendering and useful service to
the society.

(ix) The employed beggars are the persons who work in night shifts in mills and factories
and go out begging during the day.

Causes of Beggary:
Beggary constitutes a very complex social problem at the root of which can be traced a
multitude of causes that conspire to produce the individual beggar. It is also intimately
related with other social problems such as unemployment, intemperance, poverty,
crippling diseases, leprosy, lack of provision of old age, security, disruption of joint
family and mental derangement.

Furthermore, in a country like India, where religion sanctions the formation of mendicant
orders and also prescribes charity and public sympathy for mankind for one’s own
elevation, the problem of beggary assumes greater complications.
Crime:
Crime is relative:
Crime or delinquency is a great social problem facing every society. According to C.
Darrow, “Crime is an act forbidden by the law of the land and for which penalty is
prescribed.” According to Barnes and Teeters, “Crime is a form of anti-social behaviour
that has violated public sentiment to such an extent as to be forbidden by statute.” Crime
is the omission of an act which the law of the land asks to do or commission of an act
which it forbids to do. The law may be written or unwritten.

When the law is not written then crime is generally recognized as transgressions against
the traditions or mores of the community. Crime, therefore, may be regarded as behaviour
of individuals which the group strongly disapproves. And since societies do not have
uniform standards of right and wrong and since these standards change in a society from
time to time, criminal behaviour is relative and not absolute.

Crime is the price paid for the advantage of civilization. Crime is said to be a major social
phenomenon of modern civilized and advanced societies. Though there was crime in
primitive societies too but therein it was not a major social problem. In primitive
societies, the mores are strong enough to control the individual behaviour effectively, and
the few who disobey the rules do not constitute a threat to the community.

In modern civilized societies, as we saw elsewhere, the influence of mores has lessened
and it is difficult to compel universal observance of mores. The modern societies have a
population which is heterogeneous in racial and cultural background and is differentiated
into various classes. They have several norms of conduct which often clash with one
another; and have limited control over the behaviour of their members.

In primitive societies called backward there was a single code of beliefs and customs, the
culture was static and homogeneous and there was little institutional disorganisation and
a minimum class-differentiation. Naturally there was little crime among primitive tribes
and in simple folk societies. But like many other social problems of our modern society,
crime also is the price we have to pay for the advantages of civilization.

Crime in India:
In India, there are no dependable figures on crime. The available statistics cover only
those arrested and convicted, or the crime known to the police and even these figures are
not reliable. What is more serious is the white-collar crime which amounts several times
more than the conventional type of crime. By white-collar crimes we mean the crimes
committed by the upper strata of society in their business and professional practices.

The Securities scam, the sugar scam, the Telecom scam and the fodder scam are the
recent examples. Racketeering, black-marketing, tax evasion, adulteration and corruption
are some of the crimes committed by the white-collar men frequently which have
assumed serious proportions threatening the entire social fabric.

What is a more sorry state of affairs is that the racketeers, black-marketers, smugglers,
tax-evaders and bribe takers exert considerable political influence and have entered the
legislatures. The public seems willing to support their activities through extensive
patronage.

Our moral sense is at low ebb. From the crime statistics or from newspaper reports we
can obtain only a slight idea as to the prevalence of crime in the country. We would not
be guilty of exaggeration if we say that in India crime has increased steadily in recent
years. Moreover, the data from the penal institutions show that a large percentage of
inmates are repeaters reflecting the failure of our society to rehabilitate the criminal.

The country spends several crores of rupees in detecting, convicting and guarding the
criminals, yet crime goes on increasing day by day. If we in India place a high value on
wealth, prestige, and political power regardless of the way in which they are acquired and
if the leaders refuse to abide by laws which they wish to be enforced against other
persons, then, of course, we cannot expect the incidence of crime to go down.

How to combat crime?

The sociologists are not unanimous on the point. Often the measures advocated are based
upon a particular theory regarding the cause of crime. The most accepted view is that the
causes of crime are multiple and no single theory can explain all the causes. These causes
are biological, psychological, social and economic. Among the biological causes we may
include insanity, physical disability, defective glandular and nervous system.

The psychological causes may be neurosis, psychopathy and emotional instability. The
social causes are social disorganisation, social competition, social mobility, conflict,
defective social institutions, lack of education, sexual literature, cultural lag and war. The
economic causes are economic competition, poverty, unemployment, desire for more
wealth, unlimited desires, industrialization, poor natural resources, inflation etc.

The reasons for a person’s is having committed a crime can be discovered only after
investigating his personality and environment. According to Elliot and Merrill, ‘The
factors in relation to the whole, rather than the sum of the single isolated factors, must be
considered in any satisfactory analysis.” Some criminologists, such as Bonger believe
that only a completely renovated society, one in which there is no capitalism, can solve
the problem of crime.

Others, who do not go to this extreme, advocate reformatory rather than retaliative or
deterrent treatment of the criminals. Ostensibly the reform of the criminal is the main
motive in his treatment today. In India various means are being explored for giving a
better treatment to the criminal inside the jail. He is being provided with more and better
amenities of life. Besides sufficient food, bedding and clothing he is also provided with
recreational facilities.

Indoor and outdoor games are played and tournaments are arranged in which teams from
outside often participate. Even radios have been installed in some of the penal
institutions. The present prison administration in the country guarantees a prisoner better
food, clothing, medical attention and recreational facilities than what are available to a
poor honest man outside.

Of the success of these measures it is impossible to speak with any certainty. We cannot
say whether these measures have been responsible for the cure of such criminals who do
not reappear before the court or they have simply given up crime by a process of social
maturation. However, it is universally recognised that punishin6rit does not reform the
criminal. Whether or not it deters potential criminals is open to debate.

Old Age: Physiological Care and Psychological Need

The old have been defined by Malcolm H. Morris as a dependent group whose members
could not and should not work and who need economic and social assistance that – the
younger population is obliged to provide. Old-age is usually the period between
retirement and death. It is a period of physical and social loss, loss of children, spouse,
friends, job, property and physical appearance. Oxford dictionary states that old-age is
the later part of life According to Robert Kastenbaum “Oldness is however a state of
mind when the person express his incapacity to work”.

The transition of being a fully employed member of the community to being retired is
called old age a period which is the most painful period of life. There is decline in the
water content of body with progressive aging and the lean body mass is accompanied by
an increasing proportion of body fat. In course of time there is a decline in the number of
functioning cells of various organs of the old people, so that the performance is reduced.
The aged have two important needs namely-

Physiological and psychological.

The physiological needs are sufficient nutritious food, clean clothing, comfortable
housing, sound sleep, good health and sanitation, occupational adjustment, adequate
income, leisure and good transportation service. Psychological needs are satisfaction of
various psychological needs and experiences, relative freedom from unpleasant tension
and anxieties as well as free from financial burden. They need more love, affection,
sympathy, so that they do not feel neglected but respected. They need good companion
and part-time employment so as to keep them engaged.

Physiological Care:
Food: Diet provided to the old age people should be nutritious, light, soft, palatable, and
easily digestible in small quantities at short intervals. Plenty of liquid should be given in
between meals provided there is no fluid restriction. Food should not be rich in fat and
carbohydrate but in protein, minerals and vitamins. The food should be well cooked and
served with love and affection because elderly are very sensitive and choosy. The
selected food for elderly are milk, curd, cheese, egg, green leafy vegetables, pulses, ragi
as they contain calcium in large amount needed for elderly.

Clothing:
The old people should be allowed to choose their own clothing. They should be given
freedom to dress themselves if they are capable of doing this. However they should be
extended necessary assistance if they require. They should use loose cotton clothes which
are neat and clean and comfortable as well.

Housing:

The rooms they use should be well furnished, well ventilated with attached commode
latrine, toilet and bath room. The floor should neither be too much polished nor slippery
IT should always be kept dry to avoid any possible accident. The rooms should be
beautifully decorated with good light arrangement, simple and comfortable furniture
which are suitable for the age. Appropriate major should be taken to keep the room warm
in w inter as old people catch cold easily. The floor should be mopped daily with sanitol.

Sleep:

Comfortable soft and clean bedding with mosquito net should be provided to old people.
Their bed-sheet should be changed every 3 to 4 days. Oilcloth may be used for bed ridden
patient. They should not be left alone in the room at night. A side table should be kept
near their bed for keeping spitting pot, glass and water and medicine, torch light etc.

Health and Sanitation:

Old people are easily prone to cold, pneumonia, bronchitis, rheumatic fever, blood
pressure and heart disease. Physical illness is the most obvious problem. So care should
be taken to prevent heart problem. Blood pressure, pulse beat should be checked
frequently. Care should be taken for daily bathing in clean warm water. Their sanitary
equipment like spitting pot, bedpan, comb, brush should be washed properly with suitable
disinfectant. Their hair, nails, eyes and teeth should be cleaned properly. Any complain
regarding health should be reported to the doctors immediately. They should carry out
regular exercise in peaceful ventilated place.

Psychological Need:
Besides physical care, they need psychological care as well. In the old age their nature
changes and they develop the tendency of irritation. They feel insecure as their lives
become miserable due to the loss of their spouse. It is therefore desirable that family
members should adjust with them and listen to all their grievances with care and
attention.
 They should discuss with elderly for one to two hours each day. A11 should not be
laughed at or taken lightly. Their words should be given due weightage. They should be
kept in high esteem and they should be respected by the family members as far as
possible. Their demands for love and affection should be fulfilled and their voice should
be counted in all major decisions of the family.

Grand children should be motivated to foster more love and affection and respect for the
elderly. The grand children instead of the servant should be encouraged to look after
them Care should be taken to see that they do not feel neglected, unwanted or rejected in
the family as well as in the society. Their financial needs should be satisfied by the
family members.

The duties of family and society are to give more love, affection and sympathy to
geriatrics. The society has to carry out many developmental tasks for the geriatrics by
which they can pass their stage of life in a comfortable and relaxed manner. All possible
majors should be taken to keep them in cheerful.

Problems in family life

 Different personalities clashing and disagreements over ways of doing things

 Jealousy or fighting between brothers and sisters
 Parents arguing
 Divorce or separation
 New step-parents or step-brothers and sisters
 A parent or relative having mental health problems, disabilities or illness
 A parent or relative having alcohol or drug problems
 Stresses due to unemployment, money or housing problems.
 Domestic violence
 Cultural or generational differences
 The effects of bereavement
 Abuse or neglect

Terrorism: Meaning and Nature:

Terrorism has no precise definition. It is the incarnation of an organised violence and an
act of brutality leading to massive killing of innocent human beings. One traditional
definition of terrorism is, “the use of violence or threat to use of violence inducing fear,
for attaining certain political goals”. An act of violence and a method of intimidation or
coercing a Government or community by a person or group of persons to achieve a
political objective amounts to terrorism. Precisely speaking, terrorism is an organised
violence coupled with some specific demands, mostly irrational.

Terrorism has also been described as a form of ‘politically motivated action’ based on
two inter-related components, such as: (a) Psychological (fear-inducing) and

(b) Physical (violent action).

It is mostly carried out by a small group of terrorists, who create an emotional ‘state of
terror’ among specific groups and thereby, ultimately bringing about general or specific
changes in the social structure or governmental system. The US Army Regulation defines
terrorism as “use of violence or threat of violence to till the Socio-economic and Political
balance.”

A CIA publication on Terrorism defines it as, “the threat or use of violence for political
purposes when such violent action is intended to influence (1) modify the attitude and
behaviour of the target group(s), and its ramification often extends beyond national
boundaries.” The United States Defence Department defines terrorism as “unlawful use
or threatened use of force or violence against individuals or property to coerce or
intimidate governments or societies often to achieve political religious or ideological
objectives”.

The Government of India had defined a ‘Terrorist Act’ in the Terrorist and Disruptive
Activities (Prevention) Act (TADA), 1985, as thus. ‘Whoever with the intent to override
the government as by law established or to strike terror in the people or any section of the
people or to alievate any section of the people or to adversely affect the harmony among
different sections of the people does any act or thing by using bombs, dynamite or other
explosive substances or inflammable substances or fire-arms or other lethal weapons or
poisons or noxious gases or other chemically or any other substances (whether Biological
or otherwise) of a hazardous nature in such a manner as to cause or be likely to cause
death of or injuries to, any person or damages to it or destruction of property or
disruption of any supplies or services essential to the life of the community, commits a
terrorist act.
This exhaustive definition precisely suggests that terrorism is an act of violence to
terrorize (inducing fear) the Government and the people by using such lethal weapons
which cause death/injuries/ damages to the people and their property. To a few others, the
terrorist activities are viewed as acts of heroism and patriotism. For example, the LTTE
terrorists are regarded as patriots in Sri Lanka. Contrary to this the British rulers accused
Chandra Sekhar Azad an Indian freedom fighter as terrorists. Thus, acts of terrorism were
viewed differently, the way the blind men defined an elephant.

The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences defines terrorism as “the method whereby an

organised group or party seeks to achieve its avowed aims chiefly through the systematic
use of violence. Terrorists acts are directed against persons who as individuals, agents or
representatives of authority interfere with the consummation of the objectives of such a
group.” Chalmers Johnson defines terrorism as “a political-goal-oriented action,
involving use or threat of use of extra-ordinary violence performed for psychological
effect.”

Thus, terrorism implies an open defiance of Law and it is “a means to demoralize and
destabilize governmental authority, to undermine its power and to initiate a revolution or
counter-revolution.” The terrorists believe in the “Cult of Pistol and bomb” ‘Coercion’,
‘blackmail’ killing and imposition of minority’s will over majority on gun points arc the
techniques mostly used by the terrorists to compel the Stale and government to concede
to their illegal and often irrational demands.

Types of Terrorism:

Four types of terrorism have been identified by Chalmers Johnson and those are:

(1) Ethnic

(2) Nationalist (3) Ideological

(4) Pathological or Religious.

Insurgency in Nagaland and Mizoram belonged to ethnic type, where as Khalistan

movement in Punjab belonged to religious or pathologic type while Palestine Liberation
Organisation (PLO), the- Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ellam (LTTE) come under the
Nationalist category, the Naxalites in India are called ‘ideological’ groups the other two
types of terrorism are state- terrorism and state-sponsored terrorism, the one sponsored by
Pakistan in the Kashmir Valley.
Other Forms of Terrorism:

Terrorism may also take several other forms, such as Bio- terrorism, Nuclear terrorism
Cyber terrorism, Gene terrorism. Bio-terrorism refers to the use of biological weapons
which are more fatal compared to other conventional weapons. Bio- terrorism became a
reality only after the September 11 incident with the detection of Anthrax attack in the
U.S. cities through postal mails. The main objective of the terrorists to resort to bio-
terrorism is to create a panic among the civilian population of the targeted country.

The bio-terrorists send the frozen and dried Anthrax Bacterial powder in small
packets/parcels by ordinary mail across the borders of the targeted country, where those
are stock-piled for use in future. Although, production of these bio-weapons have been
banned under Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention Treaty, 1972 but the secret use
of these bio-arms by the terrorists are considered more dangerous and vulnerable.

Nuclear Terrorism:

It relates to the secret use of Nuclear weapons by the terrorists. Its use was confirmed
when the Al-Qaeda documents and manuals were found in the city of Kabul in
Afghanistan by the North-Alliance army. These documents contained research studies
into the use of nuclear weapons and materials including U- 235. This also included use of
radioactive materials to incite panic acid terror among the civilians.

Cyber Terrorism:

It is a 21st century threat. The goal of a cyber attack is to disable the enemy’s defence
system, scramble its logistics, and in fact the software’s. ‘Hacking’ is the most commonly
and easily used method to deface governmental Websites by hackers. Security experts
feel that this method is virtually untraceable as there is no trail from sender to recipient.
These terrorists exploit hi-tech graphic tools and the Internet to send and receive coded
messages.

Gene-terrorism:

A Gene-terrorist, by twisting bacterial and viral DNA can create an agent, for more
devastating than the bugs in the Anthrax attack. There have been instances, where Micro-
biologists have created new intestinal bugs, which are much more fatal for the human
life. Their use by the terrorists can lead to massive death. Social Terrorists or Mafia -
terrorists have become a menace all over India. They comprise drugs-boron’s, under-
world Arms dealers, and threaten the social fabric of our country.
 Conditions of Terrorism:

Researchers in their comparative study of Political violence, a synonym of terrorism have

revealed nine “Systemic Conditions of Political Unrest.” these are:

(i) Poor state of Socio-economic development.

(ii) The widening gap between Social wants and Social Satisfaction within the Society.

(iii) Pace of modernisation.

(iv) The level of need-achievement within the Society.

(v) Presence of strong minority populations.

(vi) High level Socio-economic frustration, high level fluctuation in coerciveness and
mud-level coerciveness of Political regime.

Range of terrorist activities:

The range of terrorist activities is wide and it covers cases of bus and plane-hijacking,
sabotage, leading to Railways accidents resulting loss of life, taking persons as ‘hostage’,
abduction of Political leaders, and their kids, political assassinations, explosion of bombs
in office-buildings and at public places, mass-killing through use of air bombs and
suicide-quads.

UNIT-5

The present name of the country “India” refers to ancient “Bharatavarsha” or the Land of
Bharata of mythological fame. Various Muslim nations to the west of India prefer to call
it as Hind or Hindustan. Thus we find diversity in the nomenclature of the land itself. For
a better understanding on the diverse elements of Indian culture we shall first should
focus on its various aspects. Then we shall examine how among these diverse elements
there is the eternal flow of unity which is the fundamental characteristic of Indian culture.

Afghanistan as part of Bharat: From Chandragupt Maurya (300 BC) to Harsha s reign (680
AD) in North India , Afghanistan was part of India / Bharatavarsha, Aryavarta as it was known
in that time.
Arab Conquests of Sindh and Multan: With the rise of Islam, Md. Quasim (the Nephew of
caliph of Baghdad Hajjaj) attacked India in 713 AD and captured some parts of Afghanistan
from king Dahir. It was first attack by Mlechhas on Indian land but some historian claim that
Dahir had defeated two more commanders of Caliph of Baghdad before the invasion of Qasim.
The princess of king Dahir were captured by Qasim as war booty and were presented to khalifa .

The Shahi kings of Punjab: In AD 990 Shahi king Jaipal was the king of kabul and Lahore.
Subuktgin was at bad terms with him and both had fight to settle scores with each other. Finally
King Jaipal lost kabul to Subuktgin and his son Mehmud of Ghazni. Two more wars were fought
between them in AD 998 - 999. Anandpal the son of Jaipal and grand son Trilochanpal had also
tried hard to keep Rajput honour intact but could not withstand against the skilled Mehmud and
lost this land to him inspite of military aid from kalinjar, kannauj and king bhoj of Ujjain. Finally
trilochanpal was captured and killed. After this no indian hindu king could capture Kabul.

Mughals in control of area: Babur attacked India on invitation from Rana Sanga of Mewar and
daulat khan lodhi the uncle of badshah Ibrahim Lodi of delhi in AD 1526. He was dethroned by
his relatives from Fargana in central Asia and was in search of safe place. He captured kabul and
then attacked india in AD 1526. He ruled dilli up to 1530 and abdicated in favour of his first son
Humayun and advised him to be kind to his brothers who ruled kabul and later his brother
kamran ruled it. Shershah Sur forced Humayun to flee from Indian soil and areas up to Lahore
were under his control. In AD 1585 Indian Emperor Akbar captured Quandhar from Persian king
The Great Abbas when he was a child king. After Akbar s death in 1605 Jahangir lost Qandhar to
Abbas the great of Persia about AD 1613. Their relations did not end up but were strained.
Finally Kabul also gone in Persian domination after death of emperor Aurangjeb in 1707. During
the time of Muhammad. Shah at Delhi in 1739 the Shah of Iran Nadir Shah captured Delhi by
defeating Md Shah at panipat Karnak and he became vassal of Nadir Shah of persia. India lost
sovereignty. The Lahore Peshawar were lost to Nadir Shah.

Modern Afghanistan: Ahmad Shah Abdali /durrani plundered India many times after death of
Nadir shah in 1747. He had created an independent state of Afghanistan in 1747 free of persia.
Ahmad shah abdali / durrani had attacked indian soil many times since 1747. His attack on india
in 1757 on delhi and brij bhoomi ie mathura vrindavan gokul was very cruel and large number of
Hindus were cruelly killed. Again in 1761 he attacked Marathas and iiird battle of panipat was
fought between them to claim superiority. Marathas were very badly defeated and lost one lac
strong army in war. This has paved the way of Britishers to rule India.

The sikh Maharaja Ranjit Singh finally captured some areas of Afghanistan from the grand
son of Ahmad shah durrani. Shahrukh offered him the KOHINOOR DIAMOND . After death
of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1840, the province of Punjab was captured by Britshers in second
sikh british war in 1842. After treaty the Kashmir had gone to Gulab singh Dogra for booty of
Rupees 70 lakh. Afghans ruled it and british were in direct conflict with them as boundaries of
british india touched afghanistan. Now afghanistan was a separate independent region from india
or

Fundamental Characteristics of Indian Culture

A brief discussion on the fundamental characteristics of Indian culture reveals two
important aspects:

1. Its diversity or diverse cultural traits

2. Its unity or the fundamental underlying flame of unity

The present name of the country “India” refers to ancient “Bharatavarsha” or the Land of
Bharata of mythological fame. Various Muslim nations to the west of India prefer to call
it as Hind or Hindustan. Thus we find diversity in the nomenclature of the land itself. For
a better understanding on the diverse elements of Indian culture we shall first should
focus on its various aspects. Then we shall examine how among these diverse elements
there is the eternal flow of unity which is the fundamental characteristic of Indian culture.

1. Physical Diversity:

Geography has given India different physical diversities in its very structure. It has vast
varieties of soil, wide differences of the frontiers with four distinct geographical
divisions.

They are as follows:1. The Himalayan Mountains with its Eastern and Western ranges

2. The Northern plains enriched by Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries

3. The Central Indian plateau and the Deccan plateau

4. Long strips of coastal lands between the sea and the Western Ghats and the Eastern
Ghats Mountain ranges

These different geographical units very well show that India represents extreme
diversities of mountains, plains, rivers, deserts, plateaus and coastal areas in its physical
features. Thus it is referred to as a sub-continent rather than a mere country. Physical
diversity has its side effects. Differences in physical features automatically have brought
differences in altitude, climate, temperature, rainfall, flora and fauna.

It is very interesting to note that India represents the three main climates of the earth:

1. The Polar Climate

2. The Temperate Climate

3. The Tropical Climate

The Great Himalayan region is known for its snowy and cold climate having its impact
on the North and North Eastern states. The Southern Indian states are typically prone to
tropical climate whereas in other parts of India we find the prevalence of a temperate
climate. This is a unique example of the diversity of the country with multi-climatic
zones.

The climatic conditions very well affect the soil of the region. If we have comparatively
barren and rocky lands in the extreme north, we have a contrast in the very fertile and
productive lands of the Gangetic plains and the Malabar territories. Physical diversity is
again found in case of seasons. All the traditional six seasons are experienced in India.

They are:

1. Summer
2. Rains

3. Autumn

4. Dewy

5. Winter

6. Spring

Out of the six seasons the main four seasons such as Summer, Rains, Winter and Spring
amply justify the existence of striking varieties in the climate of the country. Similarly
differences are also found in the percentage of rainfall in various parts of the country. The
rainfall varies from 7.5 cms. to 1200 cms. per year. As a result the temperature varies
from the eternal snowy mountains to the scorching heat of the Thar desert.

The North-Eastern region and the marshy lands of Bengal have the highest degrees of
rainfall whereas Western India has relatively scanty rainfall. Thus if we have the rich
alluvial soil in the Gangetic plain we also have the high table lands of Deccan plateau and
the sandy deserts of Rajasthan.

The differences in the rainfall, soil and temperature have their impact on the flora and
fauna of the country. India possesses many of the striking varieties of botanical as well as
zoological specimens found all over the world. If we have the rare variety of Olive Ridley
at Gahirmatha in Orissa, the forests of Assam have the unique one-horned rhinoceros.

Further the geographical division of the country has stood on the way of a united history
of the country. We find the growth of different regional kingdoms, different dynasties
and different ideals of kingship through the ages. This is mainly due to the physical
diversity of the land.

2. Racial Diversity:

In the words of the prominent historian V.A. Smith: “India is an ethnological museum.”
Even the ancient Greek historian Herodotus remarked: “Of all the nations that we know
of India has the largest population.” In the 21st century also India is the second most
populous country of the world. This population is composed of so many races and it
represents primarily all the ethnographical dimensions of mankind.

They are:

1. White type constituting Caucasian group

2. Yellow type signifying the Mongolian group

3. Black type of the Ethiopian group

These three basic types of human races are present in India.

The 1901 census of India gives the following eight ethnic groups present in the land:

1. Pre-Dravidian

2. Dravidian

3. Indo-Aryan

4. Turko-Iranian

5. Scytho-Dravidian

6. Arya-Dravidian.
7. Mongoloid

8. Mongoloid-Dravidian

These ethnic groups prove one thing. The Dravidians, Aryans, Greeks, Parthians, Sakas,
Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals, Afghans, Anglo-Indians, tribals like Bhils, Kurals, Nagas,
Mizos etc. have all merged with the Indian population to form a greater human race.
Because of this racial diversity, the physical features of her inhabitants are bound to
differ. That is why the people of sub- Himalayan regions resemble the mongoloids while
in the Gangetic plain they have similarities with the people of the middle-East. Likewise
the Southern Indian region also has lots of dissimilarities.

3. Linguistic Diversity:

Racial diversity of India has its direct reflection on the linguistic variety of India. As per
the Linguistic Survey of India, India possesses 179 languages and 544 dialects. These
languages and dialects are spoken by the people of different regions and different races.

The Constitution of India has given recognition to 18 languages as modern Indian

languages. Among the prominent Indian languages mention may be made of Hindi,
Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Guajarati, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, Manipuri,
Sindhi, Punjabi and Urdu Even foreign languages like Arabic and Persian are still in
vogue.

4. Scriptural and Literary Diversity:

India being a multi-lingual country has a vast treasure of different scripts and literatures.
When the languages are many, naturally scripts are of different types. No wonder then
literatures have emerged in various languages and dialects, both major and minor, thus
contributing to the richness of a Pan- Indian literature including Sanskrit. So far as script
is concerned India has got a good number of scripts.

The major ones among them are:

1. Brahmi

2. Kharosthi

3. Devnagari
4. Persian

5. Roman

6. Olchiki

Similar is the case with literature. We have a vast variety of Indian literature such as
Hindi literature, Oriya literature, Bengali literature, Tamil literature, Dingal literature, so
on and so forth. The literature of one language exhibits its own specific characteristics,
easily distinguished from the literature of other languages.

5. Socio-Cultural Diversity:

The variations in physical features, racial structure and languages have resulted in
considerable differences in dress, food habits, social customs and beliefs of the people.
The people of India differ considerably in their social practices and cultural differences
vary from state to state.

For example the dress habit of the people of a hot place like Rajasthan will definitely
differ from that of Kashmir because of a very cold climate. The North-Eastern people
have their traditional dress whereas the tribal dress is unique of its own. Even the style of
wearing a dhoti or a saree differs from Uttar Pradesh to Bengal to Tamil Nadu to
Maharashtra and Gujarat.

In matters of diet and mode of living Indians also show extreme diversities. The North-
Western people are mainly wheat-eaters but in Eastern India it is rice and fish which
constitute the staple food of the people. In the South people prefer hot and spicy dishes.
Though majority of the people of the country are vegetarians the number of non-
vegetarian people is no less.

The Hindu society as such is divided a into a four-fold caste system which include:

The Brahmanas, The Kshatriyas, The Vaisyas and The Sudras.

In fact the social structure of the Indian society is composed of the social organisation of
her original inhabitants, the Aryans and the invaders who settled here later.

The traditions, customs, rituals in Indian society have their regional variations. Diverse
elements are found in the performance of social rites, festivals and ceremonies.
In the words of R.K. Mukherjee:

“India is a museum of cults and customs, creeds and cultures, faiths and tongues, racial
types and social systems.” Thus various conflicting trends of social systems and modes of
life style have together built up a rich and complex diversity in India.

6. Religious Diversity:

India is a country of many religions. All the major religions of the world are found here.
Mention may be made of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism,
Zoroastrianism etc. People of different religions live here in sizeable numbers. All these
religions have grown here quite freely with their different sects and sub-sects.

India is in a sense unique that it is the motherland of four major religions of the world —
Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Hinduism which is the religion of the
majority has various sects like Saivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Tantricism, Sun-cult,
Ganapatya-cult etc. Buddhism with Mahayana, Hinayana, Vajrayana and Kalachakrayana
sects, Jainism with Svetambar and Digambar sects, Islam with Shia, Suni, Shafi and
Hannafi sects, Christians with Catholic and Protestant sects live in this country alongside
each other quite peacefully. The primitive tribes of the country have their own peculiar
cults too.

Fairs and festivals peculiar to each religion are celebrated here with much gaiety and
pomp. Religious preachers of different religions have preached their sermons in different
ages of history. We cannot claim any single religion as the religion of the entire land.
Rather it is a land which encourages people of various religions to live in peace and
harmony. Thus India is a land of religious variety— both old and new.

7. Economic Diversity:

Since ancient times India has been regarded as the land of milk and honey. It is for this
economic prosperity of the land India has been invaded and occupied by the foreigners
many a time though at present the picture is not so rosy.

Rather from economic point of view India presents a picture of diversity. It is a country
of princes and paupers, aristocrats and middle class people, highly rich and extremely
poor people. If India is proud of possessing some richest people of the world, it is also a
matter of shame that millions go without two square meals a day. Crores of Indians live
below the poverty line for generations while the rich continue to grow richer and richer.
Besides these two extreme classes we have a middle class who maintain a balanced
standard of living. Interestingly this rising middle class has formed a strong backbone of
the country’s economy in various fields like infrastructure, agriculture, science and
technology.

States like Punjab, Maharashtra and Union Territories like Delhi and Goa are
economically far ahead of states like Bihar, Orissa and Nagaland. The per capita income
of a Delhite is far more than that of a Bihari or an Oriya. Some states continue to function
better economically than the average national level while many others lag behind
pathetically. The reasons behind such economic disparity are many and varied and quite
puzzling too. Thus richness and poverty go side by side.

8. Political Diversity:

The vastness of the country, its geographical diversities, various races with various
languages, religions, creeds and systems of belief have all contributed significantly to the
political unification of India. Regionalism and local identity have played a great role in
the path of maintaining this unity. Interestingly, history has time and again proved that
Indians never presented a united front in the face of foreign invasion.

The regions in the extreme South never came under Northern rule. They remained
independent under local dynasties. Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka, Samudragupta and a
few other kings in the ancient period, Alauddin Khilji, Akbar and Aurangzeb in the
medieval period tried hard to achieve the political unity of the country and fought a
number of battles to materialize this dream. But they were not totally successful in this
regard. After the death of any such powerful ruler, internal weakness, strong regionalism,
separatist tendency and mutual dissension used to play their part. So the attempt of partial
political unification attempted by the previous ruler used to end in failure leading to
disintegration.

Even in the modern period when India was under the British rule, the Indians never gave
a united resistance to the Britishers. Certain regions had waged heroic struggles for
liberation against all odds. The Marathas, the Rajput’s or the Sikhs, for example, took up
arms against the foreigners but never as a united Indian front. A united resistance might
have checked the establishment of British rule in India.

In fact a popular national feeling was absent among the Indians till the 19th century.
There were regional resistance movements or glorification of local rulers. This absence of
political unity was largely due to the prevailing diversities in race, language, religion,
caste, creed and, last but not the least, the imposing geographical barriers.
The physical features and natural barriers almost made some kingdoms, big or small,
little worlds by themselves. They behaved like independent states. The principle of
localism used to work more effectively which hampered the political progress of the
country and checked the growth of a united kingdom of India.

Ideal of Unity in Indian Culture:

In 1888 Sir John Strachey had remarked:

“…that there is and never was an India or a country of India possessing, according to
European ideas, any sort of unity, physical, political, social or religious, no Indian nation,
no people of India, of which we hear so much.” Another contemporary historian Vincent
Arthur Smith replied:

“The political unity of whole India, although never attained perfectly, in-fact, always was
the idea of the people through centuries…” Smith further stated:

“India beyond all doubt possesses a deep underlying fundamental unity far more
profound than that produced either by geographical isolation or by political superiority.
That unity transcends the innumerable diversities of blood, colour, language, dress,
manners and sects.” The above two views are contradictory.

While one view refers to the diverse elements of India, the other points to the underlying
unifying tendencies of its culture. As a matter of fact a curious observer feels puzzled
with the existence of so many diverse trends of Indian culture at first glance. Its history,
tradition, custom, language, race, religion etc. present a bewildering picture of diversity
existing in a tightly knit fashion.

But the other side of the trend is more amazing. Among these variations and diversions
hang a strong thread of unity which binds the whole system. This unity is the spirit of
Indian cultural heritage. It emboldens Indian spirit, Indian tradition and the process of
Indianisation.

In the words of R. K. Mukherjee:

“…He (any superficial observer) fails to discover the one in the many, the individual in
the aggregate, the simple in the composite.”

This unity is further nurtured by a uniform system of administration all over the country.
Of course one should not think that the ideal of Indian unity is a recent concept. It has
been upheld right from the dawn of history. The spirit of unity has manifested itself in
our life style, in the blood of our body, in the spirit of our thought and has thus become
an inherent part of Indian culture.

9. Geographical Unity:

The unity of a culture to a great extent depends on its geography. It is geography that
determines the spread of a civilization. Be it in Egypt, Greece, China or India, the
topography of the land around a major river has played the most significant role in the
growth of culture and history of a civilization.

The geographical unity of India is an age-old concept which was very much present in
the mind of its inhabitants since ancient times. The first expression given to this sense of
unity was naming the entire land from the Himalayas up to Cape Comorin by the single
name of Bharatavarsha’ or the Land of Bharata till modern times.

Vishnu Purana gives us a vivid description of geographical location of Bharatavarsha as a

single unit in the following manner:

“Uttaram Yat Samudrasya

Himadrischaiva Dakshinam

Varsham tad Bharatam nam

Bharati Yatra Santatih

Yojananam Sahasram tu

Dropoyam Dakshinottarat,

Purve Kiratas Paschime

Yavanas sthitah”

(The country which lies to the North of the sea and, to the South of the Himalayas is
known as Bharata which is inhabited by the descendants of (king) Bharat. The country
stretches from Himalayas to the sea for thousands of miles. On the Eastern boundary the
Kiratas live and on the Western boundary live the Yavanas.)

Thus nature has provided a very well defined geographical boundary. On the three sides
the country is surrounded by the seas and oceans while the Himalayas stands as a sentinel
from North-East to North-West. The location of Bay of Bengal in the East, Indian Ocean
in the South and Arabian Sea in the West has detached the land from the rest of the
world. These boundaries have helped to make India a compact geographical unit by
acting as a kind of natural line of control.

The epics and Puranas also vividly give a sense of unity to the people of the land. The
very name of the land “Bharatavarsha” has a deep historical significance. From
“Bharatavarsha” to “Bharata Mata” and “Vande Mataram” we find a flow of deep
sentiment of geographical unity. Our national anthem “Jana Gana Mana” incorporates the
unity of our motherland in so far as it highlights the integral wholeness of India by
mentioning Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Maratha, Dravida, Utkala, Banga, Vindhya,
Himachal, Yamuna, Ganga etc.

Thus the vastness of the country with its natural forests, mountains, rivers etc. has created
among its subjects a consciousness of fundamental unity from the earliest times.

10. Political Unity:

The unity of Indian culture has also been amply promoted by the political atmosphere
prevailing iji the country through different ages. In the pages of Indian history we come
across several rulers who tried to bring India under one administrative unit.

Mention may be made of Ashoka and Samudragupta in the ancient period who had
established their suzerainty all over India. In the epics, Puranas and ancient literature we
find frequent use of titles such as Chakravartin, Ekrat, Samrat, Rajadhiraj, Sarbabhauma,
Mahurajadhiraj etc. The kings aspired to gain such titles by bringing the whole of India
under one control. Kautilya defines the extent of area of a Chakarvarti king in the
following manner:

“The field of a Chakarvarti king extends from Himalaya to the sea, in other words covers
the whole of India.”

The repeated performances of rites and sacrifices such as the Rajasuya, Asvamedha,
Vajapeya and Mahabhisheka show the ideal of universal conquest and an all Indian over-
lordship of the ancient Hindu rulers. The medieval rulers like Alauddin Khilji, Akbar and
Aurangzeb partially fulfilled the concept of political unity of India by their wars and
conquests. They tried to give a good centralised administrative system for the whole of
India. The uniform official designations, laws, customs and system of coinage
strengthened the bond of political unity.

Even during the time of British rule in India a unitary setup was given to the Indian
territories. This led to the growth of national consciousness. The achievement of
independence was the result of the sense of unity in political sphere.

The constitution of India also begins with “We, the people of India” and “India that is
Bharat shall be a union of states.” Thus since the epic age a somewhat coherent political
unity has been maintained over the land extending from the Himalayas to the Indian
Ocean.

11. Religious Unity:

India is a country where several religions are freely adopted and practiced. While
discussing the diversity of Indian religions we have found the existence of all major
religions of the world. But the significant feature is that among all these religions we find
a peaceful and harmonious co-existence. The term ‘secular’ used in the Indian
Constitution, guarantees the citizens equality of all religions. People of all religions and
beliefs enjoy this freedom.

Hinduism being the religion of the majority has an overwhelming impact on Indian
minds. It can be considered as the single most important unifying factor. Hinduism in
India has provided an attitude or a way of thinking which is shared and cherished even by
the people of other religions.

The gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon like Vishnu, Durga, Laxmi, Siva and
Parvati are worshipped with same reverence all over India. The Vedas, Upanishads,
Bhagavat Gita, Ramayana and Mahabharat have their appeal all over the country. There
are four dhamas of Hinduism, (Badrinathdham in the North, Dwarakadham in the West,
Rameshvaram in the South and Jagannathdham in the East), twelve Jotirlingas and fifty
one Sakta pithas in the whole country. This network of holy places creates a sense of
unity among all Hindus. Festivals like Rakhi, Diwali, Durga puja, Vaishakhi and Pongal
have an all India fervour.

The daily prayer of a Hindu includes all the major rivers of the country:

Gungescha Yamuneschaiva
Godavari Sarsvati

Narmade Sindhu Kaveri

Jalesmin Sannidhi Kuru.

(O rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada, Sindhu, Kaveri ! Come ye!
And enter into this water of my offering.)

The prayer reminds us not only of the vastness of the country but also the cultural and
religious unity of this vast land.

The list of sacred places of the Hindus in Sanskrit hymns shows the religious unity
pervading over all parts of the country.

‘Ayodhu Mathura Maya

Kashi Kanchi Avantika

Puri Dwaravatischiba

Suptate Mokshadayikah’

(Ayodhya, Mathura, Maya or Haridwar, Kashi or Varanashi, Kanchi or Conjeeverum,

Avantika or Ujjain and Dwaravati or Dwaraka are seen as important sacred places in
India.)

Religious concepts of Karma, rebirth, heaven and hell, Moksha, Nirvana, immortality of
the soul, Monotheism etc. are universally accepted throughout the country. The saints,
sages and preachers have always glorified the oneness of all religions.

If Jainism and Buddhism spread to the South from the North, Sankaracharya brought the
message from the South, Kabir, Nanak and Sri Chaitanya established a link between the
North and South through their universal faith. Further Sufi saints like Nizam-ud-din-
Aulia and Moin-ud-din-Chisti added the message of fraternity and liberalism among the
different sects. Thus among the diverse religious beliefs, faiths and customs the stream of
religious unity works as a strong binding factor of Indian cultural heritage.

12. Cultural Unity:

The cultural unity of India is equally strong amidst its manifold diversities. The cultural
roots of Indian life can be traced back to the Vedic period. This root gradually spread to
Indian culture in course of time with its branches. Thus the basic unity of literary ideas,
philosophy, outlook, conventions and practices has prevailed all over the country.

The social ceremonies, religious rites, festivals and modes of life are the same all over the
country. The sanctity of family, the rules of the castes, the sanskaras like Upanayun,
Namakaran, rites of cremating a dead body, the cleanliness of the kitchen etc. are
common to all communities and sects. Besides regional festivals there are some typical
festivals like Dussera, Holi, Diwali etc. that are celebrated throughout the country.

13. Scriptural, Linguistic and Literary Unity:

Although India possesses several languages, dialects, scripts and literary products in
different languages, a sense of uniformity and oneness prevails among them. Brahmi is
the oldest form of Indian script. The script of Modern Indian language has been derived
from it. The other type of script called Kharosthi was in less use relatively. At present the
Indian Constitution recognises the Devnagari script as the script of national language.

The strong root of Hinduism lies in the use of Sanskrit language which was the official
and court language of the rulers of India for more than two thousand years. Before the
Christian era Prakrit was the language of the people. The message of Buddhism was
written in this language. Gradually Pali and Sanskrit replaced Prakrit after the downfall of
the Mauryan rulers. Then in spite of regional linguistic varieties, Hindi and English have
been in use all over India.

Now we find a three-language formula trying to bring about a linguistic unity of the
country. The theoretical and the linguistic unity are provided by Sanskrit language
because it is the original source of Hindi, Marathi, Guajarati, Bengali, Oriya, Telugu,
Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam etc. Then during the British period English became the
official language to bind all the Indians under one administration. In the post-
independence era Hindi has been made Rashtrabhasa or national language to bring a
linguistic assimilation among the Indian languages.

With different languages trying to maintain a national unity, literature of different regions
too reflect this unified structure of the country. Sanskrit literature is the main source from
which the writers, poets and dramatists of modern Indian languages have taken both
inspiration and material. The Vedas, Upanishads, Gita or the works of Kalidas or Jaydev
in Sanskrit are rich treasures of regional literature. Tulsidas, Iqbal and Tagore are
respected in all parts of India because they have portrayed “Indian character” in their
scholarly works.

14. Socio—Economic Unity:

The social diversity of Indian life is superficial. Irrespective of differences in dress, food
and other habits there is the mark of traditional unity. For example, whatever may be the
regional variation in dresses, Dhoti and Saree still remain the traditional Indian costumes.
In spite of the differences in food habits, the way of taking food while squatting on the
ground, the treatment in vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet have a standard pattern
throughout the country.

Respect to the superiors, family bond, salutation by joining of both hands, marriage rites
etc. bear the same amount of unitary strength irrespective of differences. Similar is the
case with Indian economy. Economic disparity among the Indians is quite visible. But
one thing we must agree is that the root of Indian economy lies in agriculture.

It is predominantly agrarian in nature. From the tiller of the soil to the owner of the soil,
indirectly there is the bond of production from the soil which determines their way of
living. Moreover, there are large numbers of agro-based industries in India because of our
dependence on agriculture.

15. Physical Uniformity:

From the very beginning many foreigners like Aryans, Sakas, Hunas, Scythians etc. have
entered the Indian soil. They came here, settled here and mingled themselves with the
original Indian inhabitants and adopted the local culture.

The Muslims came during the medieval period, settled here and completely absorbed
themselves into the fold of Indianness. In different periods of history different tribes and
races have come to India and have acquired a sort of physical uniformity. An all-Indian
character and a general Indian personality have been evolved out of this process of
physical assimilation.

From physical uniformity a feeling of nationalism has flavoured the Indian soul. Mother
and motherland have mingled into the very existence of India. Thus in spite of all
diversities Indian culture has maintained a unique bond of unity. Indian religion,
language, society etc. have preserved this sense of unity amidst its variety. The outsiders
and invaders have lost themselves in the veritable ocean of Indian culture and have been
Indianised thoroughly. This is the most wonderful part of Indian culture.
In Balmiki Ramayana we find its reference in an indirect way. When Rama killed the
demon Ravana, the ruler of Lanka (Modern Sri Lanka), he advised his younger brother
Lakshman not to stay in the prosperous land of Lanka. Rather Rama advised Lakshman
to go back to his “Motherland Ayodhya.” He said so because for Lord Rama, “the mother
and the motherland are more glorious than the heavens.”

This very feeling constitutes the essence of Indian culture and India has been worshipped
as a mother-figure throughout the ages. This undercurrent has been able to preserve the
traditional unity of the land despite thousand diversities.

S FOR WESTERN
INDIAN CULTURE CULTURE
COMPARISON

Meaning The culture which is The culture which is

followed in India, is Indian followed in most
culture. western countries like
USA, Spain, Canada,
Europe etc. is known
as Western culture.

Religion Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Judaism.

Christianity, Sikhism,
Buddhism, Jainism.

Family Joint family Nuclear family

Music Folk, Classical, Sufi, Hip-hop, Jazz, Blues,

Bollywood music is liked in Rap, Heavy metal,
Indian culture. Rock music is
appreciated in
western culture.

Equality Woman are considered Both man and

inferior than man, however woman are
the thinking is changing considered equal.
with the effect of
westernization.
S FOR WESTERN
INDIAN CULTURE CULTURE
COMPARISON

Languages Hindi is the highly spoken English is widely

language, but there are spoken in western
many other languages countries, followed
which are spoken in by French and
different areas like Telegu, Spanish.
Tamil, Marathi, Punjabi,
Bengali, Bihari, Urdu etc.

Relation with Every individual is closely Individual is not

family attached to their family, much attached to
they respect and care about their family, they
family more than leave their parent's
themselves. home by the age of
18.

Society In India, people kill their They are open

own needs and desires minded and gives
because they assume in priority to making
advance, what the society themselves happy.
will think?

Marriages Arranged marriages are Love marriages are

preferred. common.

Clothing Traditional clothing A person can wear

depends upon region and whatever he / she
religion. likes.

Value crisis is when the practice of members of the society starts deviating from the
values we hold dear. When there is a general acceptance of corrupt practices and
unethical activities, then the society as a whole is in value crisis. It creates a new normal
of acceptance of dishonesty, lies and immoral behavior.
In the contemporary world, there has been gradual deterioration of moral and ethical
moors. Things are being justified in terms of ends and opportunities. In India, we have
started accepting retail corruption as normal and in fact justifying it.
Strategies to control value crisis in the contemporary world are as follows:

Parents should be made aware of the importance of raising children with right values and
that they should themselves become role models for their children.
Schools should have value lessons embedded in syllabus.
Code of ethics for organizations. Right ethical conduct should be rewarded.
The cost of unethical behavior should be made high by increasing punishment. Just
increasing the punishment will not do. Implementation should also be proper.
People who are generally the victims in the society should be made aware of their rights.
Dalits and women should made aware of their rights and ways to register complaints and
get justice.
Popular leaders should use their appeal to inculcate good values in the society.
The downward spiraling ethical stock of the society need to be stopped and ethical
standards should be raised. A prosperous society with no ethics is no good for anybody.