Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

MODULE 2. FOCUS ON THE LEARNER

Lesson 2. The 14 Psychological Principles

Throughout its history, psychology has provided vital information for the design of schooling
based on theory and research on human learning, development, and motivation. Research in
psychology relevant to education has been
particularly informative during the past
decade. Advances in our understanding of
thinking, memory, and cognitive and
motivational processes can contribute directly
to improvements in teaching, learning, and
the whole enterprise of schooling. At the
same time, educators concerned with the
growing problems of school dropout, low
levels of academic achievement, and other
indicators of school failure are arguing for
more learner-centered models of schooling.
Such models attend to the diversity among
students, and use this diversity to enrich
learning and to produce results within the
context of current school reform.

The learner-centered psychological principles, which are consistent with more than a century of
research on teaching and learning, are widely shared and implicitly recognized in many
excellent programs found in today's schools. They also integrate research and practice in
various areas of psychology, including developmental, educational, experimental, social,
clinical, organizational, community, and school psychology. In addition, these principles reflect
conventional and scientific wisdom. They comprise not only systematically researched and
evolving learner-centered principles that can lead to effective schooling but also principles that
can lead to positive mental health and productivity of our nation`s children, their teachers, and
the systems that serve them.

Learner-centered psychological principles provide a framework for developing and incorporating

the components of new designs for schooling. These principles emphasize the active and
reflective nature of learning and learners. From this perspective, educational practice will be
most likely to improve when the educational system is redesigned with the primary focus on the
learner. Psychologists, in collaboration with educators, can help decide how best to apply sound
psychological principles in the redesign of America's schools. A new and exciting vision of
schooling, and psychology's role in this vision, can then emerge.

Our immediate goal in offering these learner-centered psychological principles is to provide a

framework that can contribute to current educational reform and school redesign efforts.
Through dialogue with concerned groups of educators, researchers, and policy makers, these
learner-centered principles can evolve further to contribute not only to a new design for
America's schools, but also to a society committed to lifelong learning, healthy human
development, and productivity. In developing these principles, psychology -- together with other
disciplines -- can contribute to the betterment of America's schools and the enhancement of the
nation's vital human resources. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner
and the learning process*. They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and
under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors. However,
the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that
interact with these internal factors.

The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning
situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should
be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into those referring to cognitive and
metacognitive, motivational and affective, developmental and social, and individual difference
factors influencing learners and learning. Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all
learners -- from children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members
involved in our educational system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor learning;
and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning
strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can
use to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning. The principles set forth in this document
focus on this type of learning.

2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful
representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally
relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but
over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both
personal and educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.

Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information
and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety
of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these
links are made or develop may vary in different subject areas, and among students with varying
talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the
learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be
used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educators
can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have
been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and
thematic organization or categorizing. This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA
presidential task force (revised in 1997).

4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem
solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them
reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations. They
also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to
see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or
interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist
learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking. Successful learners can reflect on how they
think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate
learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In addition,
successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or
timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or
reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on helping
learners develop these higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning
and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

technology, and instructional practices. Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a major
interactive role with both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences
on students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation
toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be
appropriate for learners' level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and
thinking strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or
not, can also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned is
influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's
emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. The rich internal world of
thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure can enhance or interfere the
learner's quality of thinking and information processing. Students' beliefs about themselves as
learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and
emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information processing as well
as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance
motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and
performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative
emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about
competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels)
generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal
novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and
control. Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to
be competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that
learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in
complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.
Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and
meet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage and support learners' natural
curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners' perceptions of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires

extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. Effort is another major indicator of
motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of
considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators
need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and
commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding.
Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance
positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners'
perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different

opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into
account. Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development varies across
intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different instructional
domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness--such as
reading readiness, for example--may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more
capable in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and social development of
individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home,
culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the
quality of language interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can
influence these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental
differences among children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can
facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal

relations, and communication with others. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an
opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings
that allow for social interactions, and that respect. Diversity, encourage flexible thinking and
social competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of
cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality personal relationships
that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect
and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning. Family influences, positive
interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere
with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high
levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure to perform well.
Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking,
feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate
in the learning process, and create a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. Individuals are born
with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition, through learning and social
acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace
at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach
their learning goals. Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and
expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences and curricular
and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes. Educators need
to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to learner
perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by varying
instructional methods and materials.

13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account. The same basic principles of learning,
motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race,
beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in
the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate
learning environments. When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning
tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment -- are integral parts of the learning process. Assessment provides important
information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the learning process. Effective
learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately high goals;
therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current
knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal
degree of difficulty. Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the
learning goals.

Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of
information about achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform various
types of programmatic decisions.

Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about the attainment of
learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students’ self-
appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning. * The development of each
principle involved thorough discussions of the research supporting that principle. The
multidisciplinary research expertise of the Task Force and Work Group members facilitated an
examination of each principle from a number of different research perspectives.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five
areas:

1. The knowledge base. One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.

2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate
their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively.

3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to
learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the
learning process.

4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each

person because each learner has his own unique combination of genetic and
environmental factors that influence him.

5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an

individual.
Lesson 3. The 5 Developmental Theories

Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud proposed that personality development in

childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages,
which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital
stages. During each stage sexual energy (libido) is
expressed in different ways and through different parts
of the body.

Freud (1905) believed that life was built round tension

and pleasure. Freud also believed that all tension was
due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all
pleasure came from its discharge.
In describing human personality development as
psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what
develops is the
The Role of Conflict way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and
is discharged as we mature biologically. (NB Freud
Each of the psychosexual stages is
used the term 'sexual' in a very general way to mean
associated with a particular conflict that
all pleasurable actions and thoughts).
must be resolved before the individual
can successfully advance to the next
stage. Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial
to the formation of adult personality. The id must be
The resolution of each of these conflicts controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets
requires the expenditure of sexual up a conflict between frustrated wishes and social
energy and the more energy that is
norms.
expended at a particular stage, the
more the important characteristics of
that stage remain with the individual as The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this
he/she matures psychologically. control and direct the need for gratification into socially
acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different
areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the
conflict at each stage psychosexual.

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of psychosexual development, the libido is

centered in a baby's mouth. During the oral stages, the baby
gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its
mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which
at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as
sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities
all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral
personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

During the anal stage of psychosexual development the libido becomes focused on the anus,
and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are
a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of
the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).

Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults
impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict
with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.

Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who
hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and
tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.

This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's
then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!

Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-
training regime during the anal stage.

In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like
giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is
also messy, disorganized and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of three to
six years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone.

The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict
between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus
complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).

This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.

The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's
most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.

The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man,
kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and
becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra
complexes.

In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy
develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother
exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.

Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take
away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis.
Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.

The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine
dad-type behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy
resolves his Oedipus complex.

Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of another person.
The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal
and values that become the superego.

Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.

Electra complex

For girls, the Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but
realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the
wish to be a boy.

The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis
with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates
great tension.

The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to
take on the female gender role.
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the period of six
years to puberty. During this stage the libido is dormant and no further psychosexual
development takes place (latent means hidden).
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual
energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.

Much of the child's energy is channelled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

The genital stage is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development,
and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful
resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our
20's.

Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage.

For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop.

For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily
from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One
reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may
not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration.

Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave
the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.

Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.

Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been
permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive

development suggests that children move
through four different stages of intellectual
development which reflect the increasing
sophistication of children's thought

Each child goes through the stages in the

same order, and child development is
determined by biological maturation and
interaction with the environment.

At each stage of development, the child’s

thinking is qualitatively different from the
other stages, that is, each stage involves a
different type of intelligence.
1. The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving
around and exploring its environment).
 During the sensorimotor stage a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include:
object permanence; self-recognition; deferred imitation; and representational play.
 They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to
represent the world mentally
 At about 8 months the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will
still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they
disappear.
 The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object
still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e.,
a schema) of the object.
 Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where
children show in their play that they can use one object to stand for another. Language
starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent objects and
feelings.
 The child begins to be able to store information that it knows about the world, recall it
and label it.

2. The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 - 7 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through
language and mental imagery.
 During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability
to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
 A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet
capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought.
 Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think
that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.
 By 2 years, children have made some progress towards detaching their thought from
physical world. However have not yet developed logical (or 'operational') thought
characteristic of later stages.
 Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgements about situations) and
egocentric (centred on the child's own view of the world).

3. The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 - 11 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
 Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although
things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
 During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of plasticine
returning to its original shape).
  During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel.

The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if
they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive
development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means
the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in
the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is
the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance
changes.

But operational thought only effective here if child asked to reason about materials that are
physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed
when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

4. The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Over)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out
on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual
constraints.
 During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to
think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
 They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific
examples.
 From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference
to its content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract
concepts, and logically test hypotheses.
 This stage sees emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and
hypotheses when faced with a problem.

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory & Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Sociocultural theory grew from the work of seminal

psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents,
caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible
for developing higher-order functions. According to
Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other
people. Once this has occurred, the information is then
integrated on the individual level.

Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers

influence individual learning, but also on how cultural
beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place.
Children are born with basic biological constraints on their minds. Each culture, however,
provides "tools of intellectual adaptation." These tools allow children to use their abilities in a
way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. For example, while one culture might
emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking, another might use tools like reminders or
rote memorization.

The Zone of Proximal Development

An important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development.

According to Vygotsky, this is the distance between the actual development level as determined
by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers."

Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or
perform on their own, but is capable of learning with guidance. As children are allowed to stretch
their skills and knowledge, often by observing someone who is slightly more advanced than they
are, they are able to progressively extend this zone of proximal development

While, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems

model explains the direct and indirect
influences on an individual’s development. His
perspective has some resemblance to the
works of Albert Bandura’s social learning
theory and Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
in which the environment is explicitly or
implicitly considered as a crucial mechanism in
development.

1. The microsystem is the first level of

Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things
that have direct contact with the child in their
immediate environment, such as parents,
siblings, teachers and school peers.

Relationships in a microsystem are bi-

directional, meaning the child can be influenced by other people in their environment and is also
capable of changing the beliefs and actions of other people too.

Furthermore, the reactions of the child to individuals in their microsystem can influence how
they treat them in return.

The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are crucial for fostering and
supporting the child’s development.

If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive
effect on the child. Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on
the child.
2. The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems, such as
the interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings.

The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not function independently,

but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.

For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this interaction may
influence the child’s development. Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems.

According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and teachers get along and
have a good relationship, this should have positive effects on the child’s development,
compared to negative effects on development if the teachers and parents do not get along.

3. The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie

Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which
do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the
microsystems.

Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parent’s workplaces, parent’s friends and
the mass media. These are environments in which the child is not involved, and are external to
their experience, but nonetheless affects them anyway.

An instance of exosystems affecting the child’s development could be if one of the parents had
a dispute with their boss at work.

4. The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory that

focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as socioeconomic status,
wealth, poverty, and ethnicity.

Thus, culture that individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and perceptions
about events that transpire in life.

The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is does not refer to the specific
environments of one developing child, but the already established society and culture which the
child is developing in.

This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic location and ideologies of
the culture.

For example, a child living in a third world country would experience a different development
than a child living in a wealthier country.

The parent may come home and have a short temper with the child as a result of something
which happened in the workplace, resulting in a negative effect on development.

5. The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is known as the
chronosystem.
This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime which
influence development, including major life transitions, and historical events.

These can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also include non-
normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new house.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development.

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:

1. Birth to 12–18 months old. The first stage of Erikson’s theory begins at birth and
lasts until your baby approaches their first birthday and a little beyond.

You’ve probably noticed that your little

one’s totally dependent on you for
everything: food, warmth, comfort. Be
there for your baby by giving them not only
physical care, but also plenty of love — no
need to hold back the cuddles.

By providing these basic needs, you teach

them that they can depend on you. This
builds within them the psychological
strength of trust. Feeling secure and safe,
your infant will be ready to experience the
world.

What happens when you slip up? Maybe

you yell once in a while. Or you don’t want to read another bedtime story. Don’t worry: Erikson
acknowledges that we’re only human.

No infant grows up in a perfect world. Occasional turbulence gives your child a touch of
wariness. With this, when they’re ready to experience the world, they’ll keep an eye out for
obstacles.

But what happens when parents are consistently unpredictable and unreliable? Children whose
needs aren’t met will look at the world with anxiety, fear, and mistrust.

2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (18 months to 3 years old)

You know that you’ve hit this milestone when your toddler starts to assert their independence.
They realize that they can do some things by themselves — and they insist on those things.

By this stage, your toddler has food preferences. So let them choose their own snacks. Or let
them choose which shirt they want to wear. (Survival tip: Give them two shirts to pick from.)
Sure, there’ll be times when their clothes just don’t match. Grin and bear it because giving them
the space to choose means helping them build their self-esteem.

Here’s another biggie: Your toddler is ready for toilet training. Learning to control their bodily
functions gives them a feeling of independence or autonomy.

Children who come through this stage with flying colors will believe in themselves and feel
secure in their abilities. Children who aren’t given the chance to assert themselves (within the
limits you set) will battle with feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt, according to Erikson.

3. Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 5 years old)

These are the preschool years. As your child interacts socially and plays with others, they learn
that they can take the initiative and control what happens.

You can encourage your child to plan, achieve goals, and take responsibility by making sure
they have plenty of opportunities to interact with others. Let them explore the world within the
limits you set up. Take them to visit older adults and give out chocolates. Set up playdates for
them with their peers.

And don’t forget that you can be a playmate, too. Give your child a chance to direct the show by
letting them be the teacher, doctor, or sales clerk while you act the student, patient, or
customer.

Here’s when your child starts asking endless questions. Sometimes your miniature philosopher
will wonder where dogs go after they die when you’ve just settled down to watch the show you
missed because you took them to a second playdate. Breathe in. By addressing these
questions with genuine interest, you’re investing in your child’s positive self-image.

This stage is about much more than just calling the shots. Through both interacting with others
socially and through play, your child develops self-confidence and learns to enjoy having a
sense of purpose.

However, if parents are controlling or don’t support their child when they make decisions, the
child may not be equipped to take the initiative, may lack ambition, and could be filled with guilt.
Overpowering feelings of guilt can prevent a child from interacting with others and deter their
creativity.

4. Industry vs. inferiority (5 to 12 years old). Your child has hit elementary school. Here’s
where they learn new skills. It’s also where their circle of influence widens.

Your child has plenty of teachers and peers. They may start comparing themselves to others. If
they decide that they’re doing well scholastically, on the sports field, at the arts, or socially, your
child will develop feelings of pride and accomplishment. (Watch out: They’ll also be comparing
their family to other families.)

If you notice that your child struggles in one area, look for another area in which they can shine.
Help your kiddo develop their strengths in areas where they have a natural flair.

They may not be math whizzes, but perhaps they can draw or sing. Are they naturally patient
with younger kids? Let them help out with taking care of their siblings.

When your child succeeds, they’ll feel industrious and believe they can set goals — and reach
them. However, if children have repeated negative experiences at home or feel that society is
too demanding, they may develop feelings of inferiority.

5. Identity vs. confusion (12 to 18 years old)

Adolescence. Here’s your chance to revamp the deep breathing skills you developed when your
child was a toddler.

At this psychosocial development stage, your child faces the challenge of developing a sense of
self. They form their identity by examining their beliefs, goals, and values.

The questions they face aren’t easy to answer: “Who am I?”, “What do I want to work as?”,
“How do I fit into society?” Throw into all this confusion the question of “What’s happening to my
body?” and you’ll probably remember the turmoil that you felt during adolescence. On their
journey to self, most adolescents will explore different roles and ideas.

How can you help your adolescent successfully resolve this psychosocial conflict?

While Erikson isn’t clear, know that the encouragement and reinforcement you give your child
are vital to shaping their personal identity. In addition, your child’s experiences and social
interactions mold their behavior and ideals.

Adolescents who successfully weather this crisis will come away with a strong sense of identity.
They’ll be able to uphold these values despite the challenges that they’ll face in the future.

But when adolescents don’t search for their identity, they may not develop a strong sense of self
and won’t have a clear picture of their future. The same confusion may reign supreme if you, as
their parent, try to pressure them to conform to your own values and beliefs.

6. Intimacy vs. isolation (18 to 40 years old)

This is where you probably start nodding as you recognize yourself. Remember we said that
each stage builds on the next? People with a strong sense of identity are now ready to share
their lives with others.

This is the time to invest in commitment to others. The psychosocial challenge now — according
to Erikson — is to build long-term loving relationships that feel safe.
When people complete this stage successfully, they come away with safe relationships filled
with commitment and love.

People who didn’t manage to complete the previous stage successfully and don’t have a strong
sense of identity are generally unable to build committed relationships, according to this theory.

Lacking the security and warmth of a loving relationship, they’re more likely to experience
loneliness and depression.

7. Generativity vs. stagnation (40 to 65 years old)

This seventh stage is characterized by a need to give to others. On the home front, this means
raising your children. It can also mean contributing to community charities and events that better
society.

On the work front, people strive to do well and to be productive. Don’t stress if you can’t find the
time to fit it all in — you may just have to wait awhile till the little people in your house are no
longer quite so demanding.

People who complete this stage successfully have the satisfaction of knowing that you’re
needed. They feel that they’re contributing to their families and community and work place.

Without the positive feedback in these areas, though, people may experience stagnation.
Frustrated that they’re unable to raise a family, succeed at work, or contribute to society, they
may feel disconnected. They may not feel motivated to invest in personal growth or in
productivity.

8. Integrity vs. despair (Over 65 years old)

This is the stage of reflection. During late adulthood, when the pace of life slows down, people
look back on their lives to assess what they’ve achieved. People who are proud of what they’ve
done experience genuine satisfaction.

However, people who didn’t complete the previous stages may have feelings of loss and regret.
If they see their lives as unproductive, they become dissatisfied and depressed. Interestingly,
this last stage, according to Erikson, is one of flux. People often alternate between feelings of
satisfaction and regret. Looking back on life to get a sense of closure can help to face death
without fear.

Lesson 4. Student Diversity

Factors that bring about Student Diversity

1. Socioeconomic status. The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the middle income
or lower income group.
2. Thinking/ learning style. Some students learn better from that something; others by
just listening; and still others by manipulating something.
 3. Exceptionalities. Individuals whose physical, behavioral, or cognitive performance is so
different from the norm that additional services are required to meet the individual’s
needs

Diversities Enriching the Learning Environment

1. Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to others with

diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on their
awareness of themselves. When they see how others are different, students are given
reference point or comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own
attitudes, values and behaviors.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.The opportunity to gain
access to the perspectives of peers and to learn from other students, rather than the
instructor only, may be especially important for promoting the cognitive development of
learners. The classroom is peculiarly the marketplace of ideas. The depth and breadth of
student learning are enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds.
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of
society. One competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies that
capitalize on diversity: The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all
perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of diversity. (Suzanne Morse)
4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into the
classroom teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting
harmonious race relations.

Tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.

2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’ multicultural and
cross-cultural awareness.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group
differences. “Every human is, at the same time, like all other humans, like some humans,
and like no other human.” –Clyde Kluckholn cited in Wong, 1991)
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles.
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts
that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them
personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and
how they will learn it.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You can
form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural background, etc.

Lesson 5. Learning/ Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Learning/ Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. They
describe a person’s typical ode of thinking, remembering or problem solving. Styles are usually
considered to be bipolar dimensions. Having a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes
a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Your style usually described as a personality
dimension which influences your attitudes, values and social interaction.

Perspectives about learning-thinking styles:

A. Sensory Preferences. Individual tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory
input and maintain a dominance in one of the following:
1. Visual Learners. This is the child who sits in the front of the classroom and
soaks up everything they see. This child prefers reading about the information
versus hearing about it. This child also likes using pictures, images, charts and
graphics for learning. A visual learner is really good at using maps and finding
their way around! Wow, talk about a perfect sense of direction. The visual learner
likes drawing, doodling, making posters and using colors to think rather than
using words. The visual learner likes to draw and paint. Visual learners learn best
by using images, pictures, colors, computers and any other visual media to help
them learn. They will frequently say “show me” when they want to learn
something new.
Types:
A. Visual- iconic. Learners are more interested in visual imagery such as film,
graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning. They usually have good
“picture memory,” a.k.a. iconic imagery and attend to pictorial detail. They would
like to read a map better than to read a book.
B. Visual-symbolic. Learners feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as
mathematical formulae or the written word. They would prefer to read a book
than a map and would like to read about things than hear about them. They tend
to be good abstract thinkers who do not require practical means for learning.

How Do You Teach a Visual Learner?

A. Make Your Home a Visual Dictionary. Label everything in your house including all
furniture, stairs, doors, etc. Now there is written language everywhere for your child to
create a mental picture of the word and connect it with the object.

B. Teach with Visual Games and Activities. When teaching a concept or lesson use lots
of fun games and activities that include visual aids. Keeping the activities multisensory
really helps those difficult concepts stick.

2. Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking
things through and listening to what others have to say. They interpret the underlying
meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances.
Written information may have little meaning until it is heard. These learners often benefit
from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder. They can attend aurally to details,
translate the spoken word easily into the written word, and are not easily distracted in
their listening ability.

 Auditory learners fall into two categories: the listeners and talkers
 A. Listeners. Learners most likely do well in school. Out of school too, they remember
things said to them and make the information their own. They may even carry on mental
conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in their head
what they heard others say.
B. Talkers (Auditory-Verbal Processors). Learners prefer to talk and discuss. They often
find themselves talking to those around them. In a class setting when the instructor is not
asking questions, they tend to whisper comments to themselves

3. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Learners benefit much from a hands-on approach,

actively exploring the physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for
long periods. They may not benefit so much from the discussion or the written materials,
and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration. They move toward
active, sensorimotor learning. They tend to prefer “learning by doing” preferring the use
of psychomotor skills. They tend to have good motor memory and motor coordination

4. Global-Analytic Continuum
It is important to think of global and analytic processes as being on a spectrum or
continuum representing different combinations of global and analytic processing. Some
learning style models strictly categorize students into either global or analytic, rather
than more global or more analytic. They miss the fact that no learning or thinking
process is entirely global or entirely analytic.
Analytic. Student tends to learn best when learning is presented in small pieces and
gradually built up to the whole; context is less important (even confusing). Analytic
thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step process of learning.
Global. Student tends to understand best when the overall concept is presented first, or
presented in a meaningful context. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought.

Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left-brain/right-brain continuum.
In accord with Roger Sperry’s model, the left-brained dominant individual is portrayed as the
linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker while the right-brained person is on who is viewed
as global, non-linear and holistic in thought preferences.

 Successive Processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format,

specific to general.
 Simultaneous Processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general
concept and then going on to specifics.

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied
order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
 7. Recalls people’s names 7. Recalls people’s faces
8.Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Gestures when speaking
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music background
while studying
11. Prefers bright lights while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while
studying

Multiple Intelligences
Over the past few decades, research in the field of learning has led to the discovery of
the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. In short, this theory states that each person has different
ways of learning and different intelligences they use in their daily lives. Howard Gardner of
Harvard University originally identified seven distinct intelligences. According to Gardner, this
theory, which emerged from cognitive research, “documents the extent to which students
possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in
different ways.”

1. Visual-Spatial (Picture Smart) - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and

sailors. Very aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, day
dream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include
models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing,
television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.

2. Bodily-kinesthetic (Body Smart) - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon.
Keen sense of body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They
communicate well through body language and be taught through physical activity, hands-on
learning, and acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects.

3. Musical (Music Smart) - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are
also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the
background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, and
tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.

4. Interpersonal (People Smart) - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn
through interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be
taught through group activities, seminars, and dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio
conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer
conferencing, E-mail.

5. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend
to shy away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition
and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through
independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy
and time. They are the most independent of the learners.

6. Verbal/ Linguistic (Word Smart) - using words effectively. These learners have highly
developed auditory skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games,
making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words,
read books together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and
lecture.

7. Logical –Mathematical (Number Smart /Logic Smart) - reasoning, calculating. Think

conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to
experiment, solve puzzles, and ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games,
investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with
details.
8. Naturalist intelligence (ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects
in nature)
9. Existential intelligence (sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence such as, “What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? How did we get here?”

Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences

1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual
information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned i.e., structured overviews, advance
organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with the new
ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the
right-and-left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction,etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information. (Write directions
on board and read them orally.)
7. Use variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing
summaries, creating opinion survey, etc.)
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (‘”he example you’ve provided is an
excellent one to point to the concept of…”).

Lesson 6. Learners with Exceptionalities

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning is the
presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities as persons
who are different in some way from the “normal” or “average”. Exceptional learners include
those with special needs related to cognitive abilities, behaviour, social functioning, physical and
sensory impairments, emotional disturbances and giftedness. Most of these learners require a
lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services if they are to
reach their full potential.

Difference of Disability and Handicap

Disability. A measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person’s, for example, to
walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory or mental condition.
Mario’s inability to walk is a disability. His level of disability can be improved with physical
therapy and special equipment. For example, if he learns to use a walker, with braces, his level
of disability will improve considerably.

Handicap. A disadvantage that occurs as a result of disability or impairment. Disadvantage for

a given individual that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is normal.

Andoy's cerebral palsy is handicapping to the extent that it prevents him from fulfilling a normal
role at home, in preschool, and in the community. His level of handicap has been only very mild
in the early years as he has been well-supported to be able to play with other children, interact
normally with family members and participate fully in family and community activities. As he gets
older, his handicap will increase where certain sports and physical activities are considered
"normal" activities for children of the same age.

Categories of Exceptionalities

Specific Cognitive or Academic Disorder

1. Learning Disability. Learning disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological
factors that alter brain functioning in a manner which affects one or more cognitive processes
related to learning. These processing problems can interfere with learning basic skills such as
reading, writing and/or math. They can also interfere with higher level skills such as
organization, time planning, abstract reasoning, long or short term memory and attention. It is
important to realize that learning disabilities can affect an individual’s life beyond academics and
can impact relationships with family, friends and in the workplace.
2. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either or both of
these: 1. Difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and 2. Recurrent hyperactive and
impulsive behaviour.
3. Speech and Communication Disorder. There is difficulty in spoken language
including voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken
language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.

Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

1. Autism. A condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviours and limited interests.
2. Mental Retardation. Refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in
adaptive behaviour. There is a difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting
themselves appropriately in social situations.
3. Emotional/ Conduct Disorders. Involves the presence of emotional states like
depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb
learning and performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

1. Physical and health impairments. Involves physical and medical conditions (usually
long-term) like: 1. Limited energy strength, 2. Reduced mental alertness, 3. little music control.
2. Severe and Multiple Disabilities. Refers to the presence of two or more different
types of disability, at times at a profound level.
Sensory Impairment
1. Visual Impairment. Conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves
that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.
2. Hearing Impairments. Involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders
perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

Giftedness
1. Giftedness. Involves significantly high level of cognitive development. There is
unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in
academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership.

People First Language

People-first language emphasizes the individuality, equality and dignity of people with
disabilities. Rather than defining people primarily by their disability, people-first language
conveys respect by emphasizing the fact that people with disabilities are first and foremost just
that—people. Employers should use people-first language when communicating about disability
issues, whether verbally or in writing. It is important to note that many people with disabilities,
particularly younger people, are choosing to use “identity-first” language such as “autistic” or
“disabled.” How a person chooses to self-identify is up to them, and they should not be
corrected or admonished if they choose not to use identify-first language.

Suggestions for referring to those with disabilities:

 Avoiding generic labels

 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations
 Avoiding euphemism
 Avoiding implying illness or suffering
 The table shows the words that a person to be used and avoided in calling

***Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will remind you to have a
more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with disabilities.

Assessment Task

Task 1.Directions: Answer the following with your own words.

1. Describe what you can do to advocate the use of the 14 Learning-Centered

Psychological Principles. (100 words)
2. Describe what parents and teachers should do to help children develop into the persons
they are meant to be from the point of view of: (5 sentences each.)
A. Freud
B. Piaget
C. Vygotsky
D. Bronfenbrener
E. Erikson
F. Kohlberg
3. Cite 3 teaching strategies and explain how these teaching strategies consider student
diversity.
(15 points)
4. Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-first language and the other
guidelines:
 A. The teacher thought of many strategies to teach the mentally challenged.
B. The brother is mentally retarded.
C. The organization is for autistic.
D. He is a polio victim who currently suffers from post-polio syndrome.
E. There was a blind girl in my psychology class.
F. I attended a seminar about teaching disabled children
G. That classroom was designed for the deaf and blind
H. I like to read books about handicapped.
I. He is behaving like that because he is abnormal.
J. All down syndromes students have unique qualities

Task 2. Read with understanding. Write the letter which corresponds with the correct
answer.
1. Why is it important to know your learning style?
A. I will have a better understanding of how I learn
B. I can have a meaningful conversation with my friends
C. I can assist my classmates
D. My parents will know how to discipline me.
2. I need to sit in front of the class to hear the teacher better
A. Auditory learner B. hands on C. osmosis D. Visual
3. I need to make a model of the science lesson to better master the concepts.
A. Auditory learner B. IDK C. hands on learner D. Visual
4. If your learning style is auditory that means you learn best by
A. Hearing B.Writing C. Analyzing D. Doing
5. Interpersonal intelligence means you
A. Understand yourself
B. Have the ability to recreate your world visually
C. Understand, explain, and relate to the natural world around you
D. Understand the mood and motives of your associates
6. "How can I use language to help me with a task?" might be the type of question you
would ask if you were strong in
A. Linguistic intelligence C. Interpersonal intelligence
B. Musical intelligence D. Logical-mathematical intelligence
7. When it comes to environment and learning
A. Neither has an impact on the other
B. Learning will affect the environment but not the other way around
C. Environment is the most important
D. Environment can have an impact on your learning
8. If when putting together a computer desk you do better if you can see a diagram, you
may conclude that your learning style preference is__________.
A. Auditory B. Kinesthetic C. Visual D. Intrapersonal

9. Multiple intelligences refers to

A. How smart you are C. The variety of ways individuals can solve
problems
B. How individuals process information D. Many straight A students
 10. She can come up with a hypothesis on the spot and even goes on to prove them. This is
what type of intelligence?
A. Spatial B. Interpersonal C. logical D. linguistic

References

Leaner-Centered Psychological Principles: A Framework for School Reform and Redesign

Prepared by the Learner-Centered Principles Work Group of the American Psychological
Association's Board of Educational Affairs (BEA), November 1997,
https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997). LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES
1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997).
1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997)
https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html#:~:text=Freud%20proposed%20that
%20personality%20development,different%20parts%20of%20the%20body.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html