REPORT ON THE STUDENT’S WORK EXPERIENCE PROGRAMME (SWEP) FOR

OCTOBER 2022.

CARRIED OUT BY

UGWUAKU DANIEL ONYEKACHI

MATRIC NUMBER

18/ENG04/073

AT

NIGERIAN COMMUNICATION COMMISSION (NCC)

SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF

ELECT/ELECT ENGINEERING,

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

AFE BABALOLA UNIVERSITY, ADO EKITI, EKITI STATE.

 CERTIFICATION

I hereby certify that the Student’s Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was carried out

by Ugwuaku Daniel Onyekachi (18/ENG04/073) at Nigerian Communication Commission

(NCC), Abuja and the report submitted to the Department of Electrical Electronics, College of

Engineering, Afe Babalola University Ado Ekiti in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

award of Bachelor of Engineering, B.Eng. in Electrical Electronics engineering during the

2021/2022 academic under my supervision.

Engr. Adedayo Ojo Date

SWEP Coordinator
Electrical Electronics Department

Engr. Dr. Femi Onibonoje Date

Head of Department
Electrical Electronics Department

I
 DEDICATION

This is dedicated to my beloved parents, Mr. and Mrs. Sunday Ugwuaku for their unconditional

love and support in my life.

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All Glory and praise goes to Almighty God for his blessings upon my life and for granting me

the wisdom and knowledge to partake in this exercise.

My regards and appreciation goes to my amazing parents, Mr. and Mrs. S.U Ugwuaku who

financially supported my educational pursuit, I say, remain blessed by God Almighty and to my

beloved siblings, I love you all, you are the best.

My appreciation goes to the management and members of staff of the department EEE in Afe

Babalola University Ado Ekiti for their efforts in imparting knowledge in me and also in helping

to build a career for me.

Many thanks to the Provost College of Engineering and all members of staff of College of

Engineering for their immense contribution and support.

I would also like to thank the Staff members of the Nigerian Communications Commission for

their hospitality and for allowing me to gain my work experience.

III
 ABSTRACT

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme established by the Federal Government of

Nigeria was aimed at exposing students of higher institutions to acquire industrial skills and

practical experience in their approved courses of study and also to prepare the students for the

industrial work situation in which they are likely to meet after graduation. This technical report is

based on experiences gained during my six months of industrial training at Nigerian

communications Commission, Abuja. The SIWES also serves as a link that complements the

theoretical aspect of engineering studies through practical applications.

IV
 Table of Contents
CERTIFICATION.............................................................................................................................................I
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................................II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................................................................III
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................IV
TABLE OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................................................VII
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................................- 1 -
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................- 1 -
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SIWES.............................................................................................................- 1 -
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES...................................................................................................................- 1 -
1.3 BENEFITS OF SIWES.......................................................................................................................- 2 -
1.4 HISTORY OF SIWES........................................................................................................................- 4 -
1.5 SELECTION OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING ESTABLISHMENT...............................................................- 5 -
1.6 CONDITIONS AGREED UPON.........................................................................................................- 5 -
1.7 JOB/TASK DEFINITION...................................................................................................................- 5 -
1.8 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN COMMUNICATION COMMISSION.............................................................- 5 -
1.9 STRUCTURE OF NIGERIAN COMMUNICATION COMMISSION........................................................- 6 -
1.10 OBJECTIVES OF NIGERIAN COMMUNICATION COMMISSION......................................................- 9 -
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................- 11 -
LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................................- 11 -
2.1 TELECOMMUNUNICATIONS........................................................................................................- 11 -
2.1.1 Basic elements......................................................................................................................- 11 -
2.1.2 Communication channels.....................................................................................................- 12 -
2.1.3 Telecommunication networks..............................................................................................- 14 -
2.2 RADIO SPECTRUM.......................................................................................................................- 14 -
2.2.1 Bands....................................................................................................................................- 14 -
2.3 APPLICATION OF THE RADIO SPECTRUM.....................................................................................- 15 -
2.3.1 Broadcasting.........................................................................................................................- 15 -
2.4 METHODS OF RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION................................................................................- 18 -
2.4.1 The line of Sight (LOS) Propagation......................................................................................- 19 -
2.4.2 Ground Wave Propagation...................................................................................................- 20 -

V
 2.4.3 SkyWave Propagation...........................................................................................................- 21 -
2.5 RADIO MASTS AND TOWERS.......................................................................................................- 22 -
2.5.1 Types of masts based on materials used..............................................................................- 22 -
CHAPTER THREE....................................................................................................................................- 26 -
ACTUAL WORK DONE........................................................................................................................- 26 -
3.1 SPECTRUM PLANNING.................................................................................................................- 26 -
3.1.1 Spectrum Refarming.............................................................................................................- 26 -
2.1.2 Millimetre wave (MM wave)................................................................................................- 27 -
2.1.3 Propagation of millimetre waves..........................................................................................- 30 -
3.2 SPECTRUM ASSIGNMENT............................................................................................................- 31 -
3.2.1 Spectrum Licensing...............................................................................................................- 31 -
3.2.2 Types of spectrum licences...................................................................................................- 32 -
3.2.3 Spectrum fees and pricing....................................................................................................- 34 -
3.3 SPECTRUM MONITORING............................................................................................................- 38 -
3.3.1 Spectrum Analyser................................................................................................................- 38 -
3.3.2 Types of spectrum analysers................................................................................................- 38 -
3.3.3 Form factor...........................................................................................................................- 39 -
3.3.4 Applications of spectrum analyser........................................................................................- 42 -
3.3.5 Radio-frequency uses...........................................................................................................- 42 -
CHAPTER FOUR......................................................................................................................................- 44 -
EXPERIENCE GAINED AND CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED..................................................................- 44 -
4.1 Experience Gained.......................................................................................................................- 44 -
4.2 Challenges Encountered..............................................................................................................- 44 -
CHAPTER FIVE........................................................................................................................................- 45 -
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION...........................................................................................- 45 -
5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................- 45 -
5.2 Recommendation........................................................................................................................- 45 -
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................- 47 -

VI
 TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1-STRUCTURE OF NCC..................................................................................................................- 8 -
Figure 2-LINE OF SIGHT PROPAGATION.................................................................................................- 20 -
Figure 3-GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION..............................................................................................- 21 -
Figure 4-SKY WAVE PROPAGATION.......................................................................................................- 22 -
Figure 5-STEEL LATTICE MAST...............................................................................................................- 23 -
Figure 6-TURBULAR STEEL MAST...........................................................................................................- 24 -
Figure 7-REINFORCED CONCRETE MAST...............................................................................................- 25 -
Figure 8-BENCHTOP SPECTRUM ANALYSER...........................................................................................- 40 -
Figure 9-PORTABLE SPECTRUM ANALYSER............................................................................................- 40 -
Figure 10-HANDHELD SPECTRUM ANALYSER........................................................................................- 41 -

VII
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SIWES

Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skills training program

designed to expose and prepare students of universities and other tertiary institutions for the

industrial work situation they are likely to meet after graduation. It is also a planned and

structured program based on stated and specific career objectives which are geared towards

developing the occupational competencies of participants. Consequently, the SIWES

program is a compulsory graduation requirement for all Nigerian university students offering

certain courses.

The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is the accepted training

program, which is part of the approved minimum academic standard in the various degree

programs for all Nigerian Universities. It is aimed at exposing students to machines and

equipment, professional work methods and ways of safeguarding the work areas and workers

in industries, offices, laboratories and other organizations.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

(a) To provide an avenue for students in the Nigerian universities to acquire industrial skills

and experience during their course of study

(b) Expose Students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery

that may not be available in their Institutions;

(c) Make the transition from school to the world of work easier, and enhance Students

contacts for later job placement;

1
 (d) Provide Students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work situation

thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice

(e) Enlist and strengthen Employers involvement in the entire educational process and

prepare Students for employment after graduation.

(f) To provide students with industrial skills and needed experience while the course of

study.

(g) To create conditions and circumstances, which can be as close as possible to the actual

workflow

(h) To prepare specialists who will be ready for any working situations immediately after

graduation

(i) To teach students the techniques and methods of working with facilities and equipment

that may not be available within the walls of an educational institution

(j) To give students the ability to try and apply the given knowledge

1.3 BENEFITS OF SIWES

1. Students are able to blend theoretical knowledge acquire in the classroom with practical

hands-on application of knowledge.

2. Students are able to appreciate work method and gain experience in handling equipment

and machinery which may not be available in our institution.

3. Students develop and enhance personal attributes such as critical thinking, creativity,

initiative, resourcefulness leadership, time management, presentation skills and interpersonal

skills.
2
4. Students enhance students contacts with potential employers while on training.

bridge the gap between the knowledge acquired in institutions and the relevant production skills

required in work organizations.

5. Students appreciate the role of professions in their various fields as the creators of change

and wealth and indispensable contributors to growing the economy and national development.

6. Students appreciate the connection between their courses of study and other related

disciplines in the production of goods and services.

Ekpenyong (2008) stated that SIWES provided an avenue for evaluating participating students

both as students and as prospective employees where defects are found in a student’s job

performance or attitude to work, he/she through proper supervision guided to correct such defect

prior to taking up permanent employment.

In addition to the above benefit, SIWES also provided students the opportunity to work in one or

more area of industry and this will enable them to relate their theoretical knowledge to the

practical work situation, which is a realistic way of determining the relevance of theory to

practice.

3
1.4 HISTORY OF SIWES

SIWES was established by ITF (Industrial Training Fund) in the year 1973 to solve the problem

of lack of adequate proper skills for employment of tertiary institution graduates by Nigerian

Industries. The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was founded to be a skill

training program to help expose and prepare students of universities, polytechnics and colleges

of education for the industrial work condition to be met after graduation. This scheme serves as a

smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work and further helps in the application of

knowledge. The scheme provides students with the opportunity of acquainting and exposing

themselves to the experience required in handling and managing of equipment and machinery

that are usually not made available in their institutions.

Before this scheme was established, there was a growing concern and trend notice by the

industrialists that graduates of higher institutions lacked sufficient practical background for

employment. It used to be that students who got into Nigerian institutions to study science and

technology were not trained in the practical know-how of their various fields of study. As a

result, they could not easily find jobs due to lack of working experience.

Therefore, the employers thought that theoretical education going on in higher institutions was

not responsive to the needs of employers of labour. This was a huge problem for thousands of

Nigerians until 1973. It is against the background that the fundamental reason for initiating and

designing the scheme by the fund in 1973/74 was introduced

The ITF organization (Industrial Training Fund) made a decision to help all interested Nigerian

students and established the SIWES program. It was officially approved and presented by the

Federal Government in 1974. The scheme was solely funded by the ITF during its formative

years but as the financial involvement became unbearable to fund, it withdrew from the scheme

4
in 1978. In 1979, the federal government handed over the management of the scheme to both the

National Universities Commission (NUC) and the National Board for Technical Education

(NBTE). Later, in November 1984, the federal government reverted the management and

implementation of the scheme to ITF. In July 1985, it was taken over by the Industrial Training

Fund (ITF) while the funding was solely borne by the federal government. (culled from Job

specifications on Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme).

1.5 SELECTION OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING ESTABLISHMENT

The six months SWEP program was carried out at Nigerian Communication Commission (NCC)

located at Plot 423 Aguiyi Ironsi Street, Maitama, Abuja, Nigeria.

1.6 CONDITIONS AGREED UPON

The official working hours for both interns and official staff was 8:00 am to 5:00 pm from

Mondays to Fridays. Every intern was assigned to a specific department and was taken around

the units in their respective departments.

1.7 JOB/TASK DEFINITION

During the SWEP program at the company, I was assigned to the Spectrum Administration

Department and learnt about the spectrum in the office and on site.

1.8 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN COMMUNICATION COMMISSION

The Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC) is the independent regulatory authority for

the telecommunications industry in Nigeria. The NCC was created under Decree number 75 by

the [Federal Military Government of Nigeria] on 24 November 1992. The NCC was charged

with the responsibility of regulating the supply of telecommunications services and facilities,

promoting competition, and setting performance standards for telephone services in Nigeria. The

5
Decree has been abrogated and replaced with the Nigerian Communications Act (NCA) 2003.

Prof. Umar Garba Danbatta is the present executive vice chairman (EVC) of (NCC) assumed

office since 2015.

The Nigerian Communications Commission is the independent National Regulatory Authority

for the telecommunications industry in Nigeria. The Commission is responsible for creating an

enabling environment for competition among operators in the industry as well as ensuring the

provision of qualitative and efficient telecommunications services throughout the country.

1.9 STRUCTURE OF NIGERIAN COMMUNICATION COMMISSION

The Nigerian Communications Commission's organisational structure is comprised of twenty-

one departments.

The Executive Vice Chairman (EVC) is the Chief Executive Officer of the Commission, and

the most senior executive member of the Board of Commissioners. The office is reported to by

the two Executive Commissioners and directly supervises eight (8) departments.

The Executive Commissioner - Technical Services (ECTS) directly supervises the six (6)

departments charged with the addressing of technical standards, emerging technologies,

information security, and the spectrum and engineering issues concerning the Nigerian

telecommunications industry. The office is also in charge of the ICT infrastructure of the

Commission.

The Executive Commissioner - Stakeholder Management (ECSM) directly supervises the

five (5) departments responsible for addressing the needs of telecommunications industry

stakeholders including vendors, service providers and consumers.

6
The Board of Commissioners, of which the EVC and the two Executive Commissioners are

members, has oversight functions over all of the Commission's activities. It is directly reported to

by the Commission Secretariat and is charged with the governance of the Nigerian

Communications Commission.

The twenty-one departments are further divided into three depending on their roles. As an

electrical electronic student, I worked with the technical services division. Which is made up of:

i. Spectrum Administration:

ii. New Media & Information Security:

iii. Technical Standards & Network Integrity (TSNI):

iv. Research & Development:

v. Projects:

vi. Information Technology:

7
Figure 1-STRUCTURE OF NCC

8
1.10 OBJECTIVES OF NIGERIAN COMMUNICATION COMMISSION

 To promote the implementation of the national communications or telecommunications

policy as may from time to time be modified and amended.

 To establish a regulatory framework for the Nigerian communications industry and for

this purpose to create an effective, impartial and independent regulatory authority.

 To promote the provision of modern, universal, efficient, reliable, affordable and easily

accessible communications services and the widest range thereof throughout Nigeria.

 To encourage local and foreign investments in the Nigerian communications industry and

the introduction of innovative services and practices in the industry in accordance with

international best practices and trends.

 To ensure fair competition in all sectors of the Nigerian communications industry and

also encourage participation of Nigerians in the ownership, control and management of

communications companies and organisations.

 To encourage the development of a communications manufacturing and supply sector

within the Nigerian economy and also encourage effective research and development

efforts by all communications industry practitioners.

 To protect the rights and interest of service providers and consumers within Nigeria.

 To ensure that the needs of the disabled and elderly persons are taken into consideration

in the provision of communications services.

9
 To ensure an efficient management including planning, coordination, allocation,

assignment, registration, monitoring and use of scarce national resources in the

communications sub-sector, including but not limited to frequency spectrum, numbers

and electronic addresses, and also promote and safeguard national interests, safety and

security in the use of the said scarce national resources.

10
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 TELECOMMUNUNICATIONS

Telecommunication is the transmission of information by various types of technologies

over wire, radio, optical, or other electromagnetic systems.

2.1.1 Basic elements

Telecommunication technologies may primarily be divided into wired and wireless methods.

Overall, though, a basic telecommunication system consists of three main parts that are always

present in some form or another:

 A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.

 A transmission medium, also called the physical channel that carries the signal. An

example of this is the "free space channel".

 A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable

information for the recipient.

For example, in a radio broadcasting station the station's large power amplifier is the transmitter;

and the broadcasting antenna is the interface between the power amplifier and the "free space

channel". The free space channel is the transmission medium; and the receiver's antenna is the

interface between the free space channel and the receiver. Next, the radio receiver is the

destination of the radio signal, and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for

people to listen to.

Sometimes, telecommunication systems are "duplex" (two-way systems) with a single box

of electronics working as both the transmitter and a receiver, or a transceiver. For example,

11
a cellular telephone is a transceiver. The transmission electronics and the receiver electronics

within a transceiver are actually quite independent of each other. This can be readily explained

by the fact that radio transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers

measured in watts or kilowatts, but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are measured in

the microwatts or nanowatts. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully designed and built to

isolate their high-power circuitry and their low-power circuitry from each other, as to not cause

interference.

Telecommunication over fixed lines is called point-to-point communication because it is

between one transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is

called broadcast communication because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous

low-power but sensitive radio receivers.

Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have been designed to

cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called multiplex systems. The sharing of

physical channels using multiplexing often gives very large reductions in costs. Multiplexed

systems are laid out in telecommunication networks, and the multiplexed signals are switched at

nodes through to the correct destination terminal receiver.

2.1.2 Communication channels

The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the physical

medium that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include

the atmosphere for sound communications, glass optical fibres for some kinds of optical

communications, coaxial cables for communications by way of the voltages and electric currents

in them, and free space for communications using visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet light,

and radio waves. Coaxial cable types are classified by RG type or "radio guide". The various RG

12
designations are used to classify the specific signal transmission applications. This last channel is

called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from one place to another has

nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the two. Radio waves

travel through a perfect vacuum just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other

kind of gas.

The other meaning of the term "channel" in telecommunications is seen in the

phrase communications channel, which is a subdivision of a transmission medium so that it can

be used to send multiple streams of information simultaneously. For example, one radio station

can broadcast radio waves into free space at frequencies in the neighbourhood of

94.5 MHz (megahertz) while another radio station can simultaneously broadcast radio waves at

frequencies in the neighbourhood of 96.1 MHz. Each radio station would transmit radio waves

over a frequency bandwidth of about 180 kHz (kilohertz), cantered at frequencies such as the

above, which are called the "carrier frequencies". Each station in this example is separated from

its adjacent stations by 200 kHz, and the difference between 200 kHz and 180 kHz (20 kHz) is

an engineering allowance for the imperfections in the communication system.

In the example above, the "free space channel" has been divided into communications channels

according to frequencies, and each channel is assigned a separate frequency bandwidth in which

to broadcast radio waves. This system of dividing the medium into channels according to

frequency is called "frequency-division multiplexing". Another term for the same concept is

"wavelength-division multiplexing", which is more commonly used in optical communications

when multiple transmitters share the same physical medium.

Another way of dividing a communications medium into channels is to allocate each sender a

recurring segment of time (a "time slot", for example, 20 milliseconds out of each second), and

13
to allow each sender to send messages only within its own time slot. This method of dividing the

medium into communication channels is called "time-division multiplexing" (TDM), and is used

in optical fibre communication. Some radio communication systems use TDM within an

allocated FDM channel. Hence, these systems use a hybrid of TDM and FDM.

2.1.3 Telecommunication networks

A telecommunications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications

channels that send messages to one another. Some digital communications networks contain one

or more routers that work together to transmit information to the correct user. An analog

communications network consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between

two or more users. For both types of networks, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate

the signal when it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat attenuation that can

render the signal indistinguishable from the noise. Another advantage of digital systems over

analog is that their output is easier to store in memory, i.e. two voltage states (high and low) are

easier to store than a continuous range of states.

2.2 RADIO SPECTRUM

The radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum with frequencies from 30 Hz to

300 GHz. Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range, called radio waves, are widely used in

modern technology, particularly in telecommunication. To prevent interference between different

users, the generation and transmission of radio waves is strictly regulated by national laws,

coordinated by an international body, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).

2.2.1 Bands

14
A radio band is a small contiguous section of the radio spectrum frequencies, in

which channels are usually used or set aside for the same purpose. To prevent interference and

allow for efficient use of the radio spectrum, similar services are allocated in bands. For

example, broadcasting, mobile radio, or navigation devices, will be allocated in non-overlapping

ranges of frequencies.

2.3 APPLICATION OF THE RADIO SPECTRUM

2.3.1 Broadcasting

Broadcast frequencies:

 Longwave AM Radio = 148.5 kHz – 283.5 kHz (LF)

 Mediumwave AM Radio = 525 kHz – 1710 kHz (MF)

 Shortwave AM Radio = 3 MHz – 30 MHz (HF)

Designations for television and FM radio broadcast frequencies vary between countries,

see Television channel frequencies and FM broadcast band. Since VHF and UHF frequencies are

desirable for many uses in urban areas, in North America some parts of the former television

broadcasting band have been reassigned to cellular phone and various land mobile

communications systems. Even within the allocation still dedicated to television, TV-band

devices use channels without local broadcasters.

15
Air band

Airband refers to VHF frequencies 118 to 137 MHz, used for navigation and voice

communication with aircraft. Trans-oceanic aircraft also carry HF radio and satellite

transceivers.

Marine band

The greatest incentive for development of radio was the need to communicate with ships out of

visual range of shore. From the very early days of radio, large oceangoing vessels carried

powerful long-wave and medium-wave transmitters. High-frequency allocations are still

designated for ships, although satellite systems have taken over some of the safety applications

previously served by 500 kHz and other frequencies. 2182 kHz is a medium-wave frequency still

used for marine emergency communication.

Marine VHF radio is used in coastal waters and relatively short-range communication between

vessels and to shore stations. Radios are channelized, with different channels used for different

purposes; marine Channel 16 is used for calling and emergencies.

Amateur radio frequencies

Amateur radio frequency allocations vary around the world. Several bands are common for

amateurs worldwide, usually in the HF part of the spectrum. Other bands are national or regional

allocations only due to differing allocations for other services, especially in

the VHF and UHF parts of the radio spectrum.

16
Citizens' band and personal radio services

Citizens' band radio is allocated in many countries, using channelized radios in the upper HF part

of the spectrum (around 27 MHz). It is used for personal, small business and hobby purposes.

Other frequency allocations are used for similar services in different jurisdictions, for

example UHF CB is allocated in Australia. A wide range of personal radio services exist around

the world, usually emphasizing short-range communication between individuals or for small

businesses, simplified license requirements or in some countries covered by a class license, and

usually FM transceivers using around 1 watt or less.

Industrial, scientific, medical

The ISM bands were initially reserved for non-communications uses of RF energy, such

as microwave ovens, radio-frequency heating, and similar purposes. However, in recent years the

largest use of these bands has been by short-range low-power communications systems, since

users do not have to hold a radio operator's license. Cordless telephones, wireless computer

networks, Bluetooth devices, and garage door openers all use the ISM bands. ISM devices do not

have regulatory protection against interference from other users of the band.

Land mobile bands

Bands of frequencies, especially in the VHF and UHF parts of the spectrum, are allocated for

communication between fixed base stations and land mobile vehicle-mounted

or portable transceivers. In the United States these services are informally known as business

band radio. See also Professional mobile radio.

17
Police radio and other public safety services such as fire departments and ambulances are

generally found in the VHF and UHF parts of the spectrum. Trunking systems are often used to

make most efficient use of the limited number of frequencies available.

The demand for mobile telephone service has led to large blocks of radio spectrum allocated

to cellular frequencies.

Radio control

Reliable radio control uses bands dedicated to the purpose. Radio-controlled toys may use

portions of unlicensed spectrum in the 27 MHz or 49 MHz bands, but more costly aircraft, boat,

or land vehicle models use dedicated radio control frequencies near 72 MHz to avoid

interference by unlicensed uses. The 21st century has seen a move to 2.4 gigahertz spread

spectrum RC control systems.

Licensed amateur radio operators use portions of the 6-meter band in North America. Industrial

remote control of cranes or railway locomotives use assigned frequencies that vary by area.

Radar

Radar applications use relatively high-power pulse transmitters and sensitive receivers, so radar

is operated on bands not used for other purposes. Most radar bands are in the microwave part of

the spectrum, although certain important applications for meteorology make use of powerful

transmitters in the UHF band.

2.4 METHODS OF RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

In Radio communication systems, we use wireless electromagnetic waves as the channel. The

antennas of different specifications can be used for these purposes. The mode of propagation of

18
electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and in free space may be divided into the following

three categories:

 The line of sight (LOS) propagation

 Ground wave propagation

 Skywave propagation

In ELF (Extremely low frequency) and VLF (Very low frequency) frequency bands, the Earth,

and the ionosphere act as a wave-guide for electromagnetic wave propagation. In these frequency

ranges, communication signals practically propagate around the world. The channel bandwidths

are small. Therefore, the information is transmitted through these channels has slow speed and

confined to digital transmission.

2.4.1 The line of Sight (LOS) Propagation

Among the modes of propagation, this line-of-sight propagation is the one, which we would have

commonly noticed. In the line-of-sight communication, as the name implies, the wave travels a

minimum distance of sight. Which means it travels to the distance up to which a naked eye can

see. Then we need to employ an amplifier cum transmitter here to amplify the signal and

transmit again.

19
 Figure 2-LINE OF SIGHT PROPAGATION
The line-of-sight propagation will not be smooth if there occurs any obstacle in its transmission

path. As the signal can travel only to lesser distances in this mode, this transmission is used for

infrared or microwave transmissions.

2.4.2 Ground Wave Propagation

Ground wave propagation of the wave follows the contour of the earth. Such a wave is called a

direct wave. The wave sometimes bends due to the Earth’s magnetic field and gets reflected the

receiver. Such a wave can be termed as a reflected wave. The following figure depicts ground

wave propagation.

20
 Figure 3-GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION
The wave then propagates through the Earth’s atmosphere is known as a ground wave. The direct

wave and reflected wave together contribute the signal at the receiver station. When the wave

finally reaches the receiver, the lags are cancelled out. In addition, the signal is filtered to avoid

distortion and amplified for clear output.

2.4.3 SkyWave Propagation

Skywave propagation is preferred when the wave has to travel a longer distance. Here the wave

is projected onto the sky and it is again reflected back to the earth.

21
 Figure 4-SKY WAVE PROPAGATION
The sky wave propagation is well depicted in the above picture. Here the waves are shown to be

transmitted from one place and where it is received by many receivers. Hence, it is an example

of broadcasting.

The waves, which are transmitted from the transmitter antenna, are reflected from the

ionosphere. It consists of several layers of charged particles ranging in altitude from 30-250

miles above the surface of the earth. Such travel of the wave from the transmitter to the

ionosphere and from there to the receiver on Earth is known as Sky Wave Propagation. The

ionosphere is the ionized layer around the Earth’s atmosphere, which is suitable for skywave

propagation.

2.5 RADIO MASTS AND TOWERS

Radio masts and towers are typically tall structures designed to

support antennas for telecommunications and broadcasting, including television. There are two

main types: guyed and self-supporting structures.

2.5.1 Types of masts based on materials used

22
Steel Lattice

The steel lattice is the most widespread form of construction. It provides great strength, low

weight and wind resistance, and economy in the use of materials. Lattices of triangular cross-

section are most common, and square lattices are also widely used. Guyed masts are often used;

the supporting guy lines carry lateral forces such as wind loads, allowing the mast to be very

narrow and simply constructed. It is the most common kind in Nigeria.

Figure 5-STEEL LATTICE MAST

Turbular Steel

Guyed masts are sometimes also constructed out of steel tubes. This construction type has the

advantage that cables and other components can be protected from weather inside the tube and

consequently the structure may look cleaner. These masts are mainly used for FM-/TV-

broadcasting, but sometimes also as mast radiator. A disadvantage of this mast type is that it is

much more affected by winds than masts with open bodies. Several tubular guyed masts have

collapsed.

23
 Figure 6-TURBULAR STEEL MAST

Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete towers are relatively expensive to build but provide a high degree of

mechanical rigidity in strong winds. This can be important when antennas with narrow beam

widths are used, such as those used for microwave point-to-point links, and when the structure is

to be occupied by people.

Concrete towers can form prestigious landmarks, such as the CN Tower in Toronto, Canada. In

addition to accommodating technical staff, these buildings may have public areas such as

observation decks or restaurants.

24
Figure 7-REINFORCED CONCRETE MAST

25
 CHAPTER THREE
ACTUAL WORK DONE

 Spectrum Assignment

 Spectrum Monitoring

 Spectrum Planning

3.1 SPECTRUM PLANNING

3.1.1 Spectrum Refarming

“Refarming” is the term used for the process governing the repurposing of frequency bands that

have historically been allocated for 2G mobile services (using GSM technology) for new

generation of mobile technologies, including both third generation (using UMTS technology)

and fourth generation (using LTE technology).

Concept  Internationally, refarming is commonly used as a process to govern the repurposing of

spectrum bands to more efficient technologies and/or new services  Service continuity and

investment certainty are critical for successful refarming  Technology neutrality allows for

license holders to evolve the technology deployed and the services delivered as markets develop.

26
Technology Neutrality

• Operators are likely to have different technology roadmaps to suit their own consumer

portfolios

• Technology neutrality allows for non-interfering technology to be deployed by the license

holder in a given allocation of spectrum.

• This allows for license holders to evolve the technology deployed and the services delivered as

markets develop.

• Original mobile licenses (and other spectrum licenses) were technology-specific, e.g., the GSM

Directive in the EU specified that only GSM technology could be deployed in the 900 band —

EU policy is now technology-neutral.

• In a neutral regime, deployed technology must not create interference with incumbent users,

e.g., an incumbent may be able replace GSM with FDD LTE in 1800MHz spectrum, but cannot

‘change’ the use to TDD BWA technology.

2.1.2 Millimetre wave (MM wave)

millimetre wave (MM wave), also known as millimetre band, is the band of spectrum

with wavelengths between 10 millimetres (30 GHz) and 1 millimetre (300 GHz). It is also known

as the extremely high frequency (EHF) band by the International Telecommunication Union

(ITU).

Advantages of millimetre wave

27
Millimetre wave is a band of electromagnetic spectrum that can be used in a broad range of

products and services, such as high-speed, point-to-point wireless local area networks (WLANs)

and broadband access. In telecommunications, millimetre wave is used for a variety of services

on mobile and wireless networks, as it enables higher data rates than at lower frequencies, such

as those used for Wi-Fi and current cellular networks.

Propagation restrictions dictate the use of small cell sizes for Wi-Fi and cellular networks. The

short propagation distance can increase the number of access points (APs) to cover a large area

but also means fewer client devices will share the bandwidth in each cell. Small cells also

facilitate the reuse of channels across the WLAN coverage area.

Antennas for millimetre wave devices are smaller than for other frequencies, making them more

suitable for small internet of things (IoT) devices.

Disadvantages of millimetre wave

Millimeter waves are absorbed by gases and moisture in the atmosphere, which reduces the

range and strength of the waves. Rain and humidity reduce their signal strength and propagation

distance, a condition known as rain fade. The propagation distance at the lower frequencies is up

to a kilometre, while the higher frequencies travel only a few meters.

A millimetre wave travels by line of sight and is blocked or degraded by physical objects like

trees, walls and buildings. Its propagation is also affected by proximity to humans and animals,

primarily due to their water content.

Millimeter wave uses

28
Millimeter wave has numerous uses, including telecommunications, short-range radar and airport

security scanners. In telecommunications, it is used for high-bandwidth WLANs and short-range

personal area networks (PANs). Its high bandwidth capacity is ideal for applications like short-

distance wireless transmission of ultra-high definition video and communications from small,

low-power IoT devices. The limited propagation distance -- small cell size -- and high data rates

make millimetre wave ideal for communications between autonomous vehicles.

Portions of the millimetre wave bands are being used for the following use cases:

 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.15 wireless PAN (WPAN);

 IEEE 802.16 wireless metropolitan area network (WMAN), also known as

WiMAX> (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access);

 IEEE 802.11ad multiple gigabit wireless system (MGWS) at 60 GHz; and

 5G cellular telecommunications in the 24 GHz to 39 GHz bands.

Comparison with other spectrums

In comparison, Wi-Fi currently uses frequencies in the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands, which

are known as microwave bands. Cellular networks use frequencies in the 600 MHz to 700 MHz

and 2.5 GHz to 3.7 GHz bands. These bands propagate farther than millimetre wave but support

lower bandwidths. Frequencies above millimetre wave are in the low infrared spectrum and are

limited to short, line-of-sight communications.

29
2.1.3 Propagation of millimetre waves

Millimeter waves propagate solely by line-of-sight paths. They are not reflected by

the ionosphere nor do they travel along the Earth as ground waves as lower frequency radio

waves do. At typical power densities they are blocked by building walls and suffer significant

attenuation passing through foliage. Absorption by atmospheric gases is a significant factor

throughout the band and increases with frequency. However, this absorption is maximum at a

few specific absorption lines, mainly those of oxygen at 60 GHz and water vapor at 24 GHz and

184 GHz. At frequencies in the "windows" between these absorption peaks, millimetre waves

have much less atmospheric attenuation and greater range, so many applications use these

frequencies. Millimeter wavelengths are the same order of size as raindrops, so precipitation

causes additional attenuation due to scattering (rain fade) as well as absorption. The high free

space loss and atmospheric absorption limit useful propagation to a few kilometres. Thus, they

are useful for densely packed communications networks such as personal area networks that

improve spectrum utilization through frequency reuse. Millimeter waves show "optical"

propagation characteristics and can be reflected and focused by small metal surfaces

and dielectric lenses around 5 to 30 cm (2 inches to 1 foot) diameter. Because their wavelengths

are often much smaller than the equipment that manipulates them, the techniques of geometric

optics can be used. Diffraction is less than at lower frequencies, although millimetre waves can

be diffracted by building edges. At millimetre wavelengths, surfaces appear rougher so diffuse

reflection increases. Multipath propagation, particularly reflection from indoor walls and

surfaces, causes serious fading. Doppler shift of frequency can be significant even at pedestrian

speeds. In portable devices, shadowing due to the human body is a problem. Since the waves

30
penetrate clothing and their small wavelength allows them to reflect from small metal objects,

they are used in millimetre wave scanners for airport security scanning

3.2 SPECTRUM ASSIGNMENT

3.2.1 Spectrum Licensing

As a limited natural recourse, national administrations manage and assign the use of spectrum. In

order to support the wide variety of different telecommunication services, as well as to mitigate

possible harmful interference, regulators issue national tables of frequency allocations and

establish licensing frameworks that govern how spectrum will be awarded in the country.

Regulators also intervene to mitigate disputes in cases of harmful interference along national

borders. This process includes working with neighbouring countries on cross-border frequency

coordination, recording frequency assignments in the Master International Frequency Register

(MIFR) in accordance with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Radio Regulations

(RR), as well as possible regional agreements (e.g. the Eastern Caribbean Telecommunications

Authority (ECTEL), Southern African Development Community (SADC), Asia Pacific Tele

community (APT), Arab Spectrum Management Group (ASMG), African Telecommunications

Union (ATU), European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

(CEPT), Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL), Regional Commonwealth in

the Field of Communications (RCC), and so on). Mindful that there are competing demands for

spectrum, the regulator’s key role is to make spectrum available across different services which,

31
among others, includes meeting the evolving market demands for expansion of connectivity and

access to new applications, taking into account the decisions made at the international and

regional levels.

3.2.2 Types of spectrum licences

Regulators decide on the licensing mechanism to apply to spectrum by considering a band’s

availability, proposed usage, and risk of harmful interference. Generally, spectrum is authorized

through one of the following mechanisms:

32
Mechanisms for spectrum award

i. Individual spectrum licences

Individual spectrum licences are usually assigned through an administrative assignment or

beauty contest approach, an auction approach, or a hybrid approach.

 Administrative assignment: Regulators assign spectrum to the candidates that best meet

specified criteria.

 Auction: Whichever operator places the highest bid for a spectrum block wins the

spectrum, although the auction design may include other criteria. Different auction

designs include simultaneous multiple round ascending, clock, combinatorial clock, or

sealed bid auctions.

 Hybrid approach: A hybrid approach blends auction and administrative assignments. For

example, a regulator may select a shortlist of bidders based on administrative criteria and

then hold an auction to assign spectrum among the shortlisted candidates.

Spectrum for mobile services are more commonly awarded through auctions, although there are

examples of both direct assignment and hybrid approaches. Both administrative and auction

approaches to spectrum licensing have advantages and disadvantages. The best assignment

approach will depend on the regulator’s policy objectives and the market conditions, including

demand for the spectrum, level of competition, and the potential risks to investment and quality

of service. Some regulators include aspects of both approaches to balance the risks with the

benefits of each.

33
 ii. Apparatus licences and unlicensed spectrum

In contrast, apparatus licences are usually issued by direct assignment, on a first-come, first-

served basis. Unlike individual spectrum licences, apparatus licences generally use spectrum in

less-demanded bands. While some coordination may be required, these licences usually do not

carry the same risk of harmful interference with other services. For example, fixed point-to-point

links are highly directional and focused in a concentrated geographic area. The risk of

interference from the fixed point-to-point service can be mitigated by maintaining a certain

distance from other transmitters or receivers and putting in place certain power limits for services

operating in the same band. Unlicensed spectrum does not require an official licence,

nevertheless, equipment must comply with specific technical conditions to ensure sharing and

compatibility with other services. Registration may be required before use is authorized, which

can be submitted at any time.

3.2.3 Spectrum fees and pricing

i. For the commercial frequency spectrum

The price of spectrum (excluding microwave frequencies) is calculated on an annual per state

basis using the following formula;

Spectrum Fee = (U) × (B) × (K1) × (K2) per State

Where;

U = Unit Price: This varies according to Licensing Region/Tier of the State in which the

applicant seeks to operate.

Tier State(s) Price

34
 (MHz/Year)

Tier 1 Lagos N3,000,000

Tier 2 Delta; Federal Capital Territory, Abuja; Kaduna; Kano; and N1,500,000

Rivers.

Tier 3 Abia; Anambra; Edo; Ogun; and Oyo. N1,200,000

Tier 4 Akwa Ibom; Bauchi; Bayelsa; Benue; Borno; Cross River; N600,000

Enugu; Imo; Kogi; Kwara, Niger; Ondo; Osun; and Plateau.

Tier 5 Adamawa;Ebonyi; Ekiti; Gombe; Jigawa; Katsina; Kebbi; N300,000

Nassarawa; Sokoto; Taraba; Yobe; and Zamfara.

B = Assigned Bandwidth (Spectrum Size) in MHz

K1 = Band Factor

 1.0 for 3.5 GHz Band

 1.6 for 1.8/1.9 GHz Band

 1.4 for 800/900 MHz Band

 1.2 for 2.0 – 2.5 GHz Band

 0.33 for 10.5 GHz Band

 0.12 for 26 GHz

35
  2.0 for 450 MHz

 0.5 for 5.0 GHz

K2 = Tenure Duration Factor

 0.3 for 3 months

 1.0 for a 1-year License

 4.0 for a 5-year License (Standard)

 7.2 for a 10-year License

 10.4 for a 15-year License

Duplex/Simplex

For simplex channel, unit price per State will be half of equivalent duplex channel.

ii. For Microwave frequency spectrum

Microwave frequencies are not priced on State basis. Unit price is uniform throughout the

Federation and subject to review, from time to time. The fee for microwave frequencies is

calculated using the formula below.

Price per Hop = (U) × (F1) × (F2) × (N) per Annum

Where;

U = Unit Price: N18,000

N = Total Number of RF Channels (for N+1 Systems)

36
F1 = Band Factor

 1.2 = 1 — 4 GHz Band

 1.0 = 6/7/8 GHz Band

 0.8 = 11/13 GHz Band

 0.7 = 15 — 18 GHz Band

 0.5 = 19 — 25 GHz Band

F2 = Bandwidth Factor

 1 = 3.5 MHz

 2 = 7 MHz

 4 = 14 MHz

 8 = 28 MHz

 12 = 40MHz

 16 = 56 MHz

Renewal Date

All microwave frequencies are subject to renewal by 31st December of every year.

37
3.3 SPECTRUM MONITORING

3.3.1 Spectrum Analyser

A spectrum analyser measures the magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within the full

frequency range of the instrument. The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of

known and unknown signals. The input signal that most common spectrum analysers measure is

electrical; however, spectral compositions of other signals, such as acoustic pressure waves and

optical light waves, can be considered through the use of an appropriate transducer. Spectrum

analysers for other types of signals also exist, such as optical spectrum analysers which use direct

optical techniques such as a monochromator to make measurements.

The display of a spectrum analyser has frequency on the horizontal axis and the amplitude

displayed on the vertical axis. To the casual observer, a spectrum analyser looks like

an oscilloscope and, in fact, some lab instruments can function either as an oscilloscope or a

spectrum analyser.

3.3.2 Types of spectrum analysers

Spectrum analyser types are distinguished by the methods used to obtain the spectrum of a signal.

There are swept-tuned and fast Fourier transform (FFT) based spectrum analysers:

 A swept-tuned analyser uses a super heterodyne receiver to down-convert a portion of the

input signal spectrum to the centre frequency of a narrow band-pass filter, whose

instantaneous output power is recorded or displayed as a function of time. By sweeping the

receiver's centre-frequency (using a voltage-controlled oscillator) through a range of

frequencies, the output is also a function of frequency. But while the sweep centres on any

38
 particular frequency, it may be missing short-duration events at other frequencies.

 An FFT analyser computes a time-sequence of periodograms. FFT refers to a particular

mathematical algorithm used in the process. This is commonly used in conjunction with

a receiver and analog-to-digital converter. As above, the receiver reduces the centre-

frequency of a portion of the input signal spectrum, but the portion is not swept. The

purpose of the receiver is to reduce the sampling rate that the analyser must contend with.

With a sufficiently low sample-rate, FFT analysers can process all the samples

(100% duty-cycle), and are therefore able to avoid missing short-duration events.

3.3.3 Form factor

Spectrum analysers tend to fall into four form factors: benchtop, portable, handheld and

networked.

i. Benchtop

This form factor is useful for applications where the spectrum analyser can be plugged into AC

power, which generally means in a lab environment or production/manufacturing area. Bench top

spectrum analysers have historically offered better performance and specifications than the

portable or handheld form factor. Bench top spectrum analysers normally have multiple fans (with

associated vents) to dissipate heat produced by the processor. Due to their architecture, bench top

spectrum analysers typically weigh more than 30 pounds (14 kg). Some bench top spectrum

analysers offer optional battery packs, allowing them to be used away from AC power. This type

of analyser is often referred to as a "portable" spectrum analyser.

39
 Figure 8-BENCHTOP SPECTRUM ANALYSER

ii. Portable

This form factor is useful for any applications where the spectrum analyser needs to be taken

outside to make measurements or simply carried while in use. Attributes that contribute to a useful

portable spectrum analyser include:

 Optional battery-powered operation to allow the user to move freely outside.

 Clearly viewable display to allow the screen to be read in bright sunlight, darkness or dusty

conditions.

 Light weight (usually less than 15 pounds (6.8 kg)).

Figure 9-PORTABLE SPECTRUM ANALYSER

40
 iii. Handheld

This form factor is useful for any application where the spectrum analyser needs to be very light

and small. Handheld analysers usually offer a limited capability relative to larger systems.

Attributes that contribute to a useful handheld spectrum analyser include:

 Very low power consumption.

 Battery-powered operation while in the field to allow the user to move freely outside.

 Very small size

 Light weight (usually less than 2 pounds (0.9 kg)).

Figure 10-HANDHELD SPECTRUM ANALYSER

iv. Networked

This form factor does not include a display and these devices are designed to enable a new class of

geographically-distributed spectrum monitoring and analysis applications. The key attribute is the

ability to connect the analyser to a network and monitor such devices across a network. While

many spectrum analysers have an Ethernet port for control, they typically lack efficient data

41
transfer mechanisms and are too bulky or expensive to be deployed in such a distributed manner.

3.3.4 Applications of spectrum analyser

Key applications for such devices include RF intrusion detection systems for secure facilities

where wireless signalling is prohibited. As well cellular operators are using such analysers to

remotely monitor interference in licensed spectral bands. The distributed nature of such devices

enables geo-location of transmitters, spectrum monitoring for dynamic spectrum access and many

other such applications.

Key attributes of such devices include:

 Network-efficient data transfer

 Low power consumption

 The ability to synchronize data captures across a network of analysers

 Low cost to enable mass deployment.

3.3.5 Radio-frequency uses

Spectrum analysers are widely used to measure the frequency response, noise and distortion

characteristics of all kinds of radio-frequency (RF) circuitry, by comparing the input and output

spectra. For example, in RF mixers, spectrum analyser is used to find the levels of third order

inter-modulation products and conversion loss. In RF oscillators, spectrum analyser is used to find

42
the levels of different harmonics.

In telecommunications, spectrum analysers are used to determine occupied bandwidth and track

interference sources. For example, cell planners use this equipment to determine interference

sources in the GSM frequency bands and UMTS frequency bands.

In EMC testing, a spectrum analyser is used for basic precompliance testing; however, it cannot be

used for full testing and certification. Instead, an EMI receiver is used.

A spectrum analyser is used to determine whether a wireless transmitter is working according to

defined standards for purity of emissions. Output signals at frequencies other than the intended

communications frequency appear as vertical lines (pips) on the display. A spectrum analyser is

also used to determine, by direct observation, the bandwidth of a digital or analog signal.

A spectrum analyser interface is a device that connects to a wireless receiver or a personal

computer to allow visual detection and analysis of electromagnetic signals over a defined band of

frequencies. This is called panoramic reception and it is used to determine the frequencies of

sources of interference to wireless networking equipment, such as Wi-Fi and wireless routers.

Spectrum analysers can also be used to assess RF shielding. RF shielding is of particular

importance for the siting of a magnetic resonance imaging machine since stray RF fields would

result in artifacts in an MR image.

43
 CHAPTER FOUR

EXPERIENCE GAINED AND CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED

4.1 Experience Gained

The scheme provided an opportunity for me to apply the theoretical principles taught in school to

real job situation. It also enabled me to make complex technical decisions, analyze complex

problems and give appropriate solutions which are applicable to real situations. I was able to

interact with a large spectrum of people, which is different from campus life. This helped to

improve my personality and gain valuable knowledge. This experience gave me a glimpse of the

activities in an industry and enabled me to determine how ready I am for it.

4.2 Challenges Encountered

During the period of my staying at NCC as an industrial attachment student the following

problems were encountered:

i. Cost of transportation

ii. I could not do active test using Diagnostic machines on my own.

iii. Problems identifying and using some equipment.

iv. Harsh Climate/ weather condition.

v. Pandemic crisis as related to the corona outbreak.

vi. Problems getting to work via public transport during the pandemic outbreak.

44
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Following the successful completion of the 2021 IT program; the following conclusion are

drawn:

i. The Program provided an avenue to acquire industrial skills and experience.

ii. The program provided adequate exposure students to all aspects of engineering

practice.

iii. The program provided an avenue to develop innovative and creative abilities and

skills relevant to their program.

iv. It also provided avenues on how to acknowledge and appreciate the numerous

professional challenges of the immediate environment and the society at large

and offer solutions.

v. Finally, it is a good training ground for future challenges.

5.2 Recommendation

The internship program is a commendable scheme that prepares students for the challenges

ahead and for this reason it should be continued. Considering the importance of the scheme and

the opportunities available during Industrial Work Experience, below are my recommendations

for a more effective scheme:

45
i. IT students should be orientated so that they would not see the program as an avenue

to make money but an opportunity to gain experience and have a good stand in their

chosen profession.

ii. The school supervisors should keep contacts of industry-based supervisors during

their visit to foster good relationship between the department and the firm. As this

will go a long way in helping students with placements in the future.

iii. The school should provide more practical facilities in the school to ensure that

students have more practical knowledge of their profession before going on SIWES

attachment.

46
 REFERENCES

 A. Esan [1997] "An innovative Engineering Training Program" Nigerian SOCiety0-

Engineers Technical Transactions, Vol. 30, No.3, pp. 32 -39

 Senate Curriculum Committee, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State. Academic

programs (undergraduate and sub degree) 1984-1987.

 ASSESSMENT OF SIWES RELEVANCE TO BUSINESS EDUCATION

PROGRAMME OBJECTIVES, accessed Saturday 2nd October 2022,

https://nairaproject.com/projects/665.html#:~:text=Benefit%20of

%20SIWES&text=develop%20and%20enhance%20personal%20attributes,potential

%20employers%20while%20on%20training.

 History of Siwes, Aims and Objectives, accessed Friday 1st October,<

https://mtu.edu.ng/history-of-siwes/

 NCC, accessed Friday 1st October 2022, Nigerian Communications Commission

(ncc.gov.ng).

 What are the methods of Propagation of a Radio Wave? accessed Friday 1st October,

2022, https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-are-the-methods-of-propagation-of-a-radio-

wave.

 millimeter wave (MM wave), accessed Saturday 2nd October,

https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/millimeter-wave-MM-wave.

 Spectrum refarming: A new paradigm of spectrum sharing for cellular networks, accessed

Sunday 3rd October, https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7036922

 Wikipedia, accessed Friday 1st October, https://en.wikipedia.org/

47
48