8.

MODULE 8 – ROTATIONAL DISPLACEMENT

8.1. Lesson 1. Rotational Displacement
8.1.1. Definition

It may be more than 1 revolution. It may be measured in radians, degrees, revolutions, turns, etc.
Normally, we do not measure the rotational displacement. But rather, we measure the change in
rotation displacement. The rotation must occur in a plane with a single rotational axis.

Rotational displacement is a dimensionless quantity.

Since both s and r are lengths, the result is a ratio, which is dimensionless.

8.1.2. Conversions of Angular Displacement

8.1.3. Questions
Q: What is rotational displacement?

Q: Mathematically define a radian.

Q: List the conversion process for degrees, gradians, radians, revolutions and turns.
Q:

Q: A car skids in a parking lot, doing an unsafe 3 360's, or a full 360 degrees three times. Ignoring any
other movement across the parking lot, how many radians does the car turn?

Q: If you take a 180o panorama view for a digital photograph, how many radians are you turning?
180∗𝑝𝑖
𝛼= 180
=pi

Q: Assume flat ground, such as a prairie. A robotic astronomy camera is programmed to scan 3.14159
radians from horizon to horizon. How many degrees does the camera turn?

Q: Explain why the answers to the following problems are different:

"If you take a 180 degrees panorama view for a digital photograph, how many radians are you turning?"

And

"Assume flat ground, such as a prairie. A robotic astronomy camera is programmed to scan 3.14159
radians from horizon to horizon. How many degrees does the camera turn?"

8.2. Lesson 2. Angular Velocity

8.2.1 Definition

It is commonly measured in rad/s, or revolutions/min. Occasionally we can see degrees/s.

It is a vector whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of the angle and parallel to the axis of the
turn. The change in angle has the same vector direction as the angular velocity.

It is a vector that points along the axis of the rotation so that the fingers of the right hand point in the
direction of the rotation when wrapped around the axis, and the thumb points in the direction of the
angular velocity.

8.2.2. Relationships of Angular Velocity and Angular Displacement

8.2.3. Average Angular Velocity

8.2.4. Questions
Q: Explain the Right-Hand Rule.

Q: Convert 3pi radians per second into revolutions per minute. 90 rpm

Q: The Earth rotates at approximately 1 revolution per day. How many radians is that?

Q: A merry-go-round in a park is gradually accelerated from rest to 6 revolutions per minute with a
smooth, constant acceleration over ten seconds. What is its average angular velocity?

Q: State the equations for angular kinematics.

Q: Consider the previous equations for motion, velocity and acceleration earlier in this course, and then
discuss the significance of their comparison with the equations for angular kinematics.

8.3. Lesson 3. Angular Acceleration

8.3.1. Definitions
Obs: I got -2.58 rad/s2

8.3.2. Questions
Q: Define angular acceleration.

Q: Compare the above answer to the definition of linear acceleration and discuss.

?? Q: A car's tires are rotating at a rate of 6rpm when the car doubles its velocity over a three second period. What is
the angular acceleration experienced by the tires?

OBS: I got 0.21 rad/s2

Q: A bicycle wheel accelerates from rest to 3rpm in 3 seconds. What is its angular acceleration?

Q:
8.4. Lesson 4: Rotational Kinematics
8.4.1. Rotational Kinematics Analogy
We have analogy between the 5 equations of linear kinematics and rotational kinematics.
8.4.2. Further Examples of Rotational Kinematics
8.4.3. Questions
Q: List the equations of motion and their corresponding equations of rotational motion.

Q: List the relations of the variables that relate the equations of linear motion to the equations of
angular motion.

Q: Given an initial angular velocity, a set time and a given angular acceleration, which equation of
rotational motion would you use to work out the remaining details of a given situation?
Q: A bicycle wheel accelerates from rest to 60 rpm over 3 s.

a) How many cycles does it go through in this time? 1.5 revolutions

b) What angular velocity does it experience?

Q: What angular acceleration does a wheel at constant velocity experience?

8.5. Lesson 5: Linear and Rotational Variables

8.5.1. The Connection Between Linear and Angular Variable

Where s is the arc length.

Where: ∆x – distance rolled, ∆v – velocity, aT – tangential acceleration, r – radius of the wheel,

∆𝜃 – angle turned (in radians)
8.5.2. Questions
Q: What is the Arclength?

Q: A bicycle wheel with a circumference of 1.2m has a bead on one of the spokes. This bead makes a
complete cycle around the axle once every second. How fast is the bike travelling along the road?

Q: What are the three linear to rotational relationships?

Q: Some children are playing with a 12cm ball. It is made to roll 36m over the course of 24s.

a) What is the angle of rotation of the ball over the 36m?

b) What is the average velocity of the ball?

c) What is the average angular velocity of the ball?

Q: A bicycle wheel with a circumference of 1.2m has a bead on one of the spokes. This bead makes a
complete cycle around the axle once every second. How fast is the bike travelling along the road? What
would happen if you doubled
 a) the radius?

b) the cycles per second?

c) the wheel radius and the cycles per second?

9. MODULE 9 – FORCES, TORQUES, ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

9.1. Lesson 1: Forces and Torques
9.1.1. Introductions to forces and Torques
Investigation of rigid objects – 2 types of forces:

- those that cause motion around center of mass

- those that cause rotation about its center of mass

Torques are forces that cause rotation.

OBS: The longer the distance is awauy from the axis of rotation, the more powerful is the torque. This is
a direct relationship.
Is it sine or cosine?

We can see that perpedicular forces have the greateast torque.

The further it is away from the turning point, the stringer is the torque.

Where 𝜏 is the torque. The perpendicular sign means the force is perpendicular to the radius vector.

Units for torques is [Nm] (Newton meter)

Its direction is along the axis of rotation, with the arrow pointing in the direction of the thumb of the
right hand wrapped around the axis.
If the torque causes rotation, it will be in the same direction as the angular acceleration.

9.1.2. The Difference between Torque and Energy

Although torque and energy have the same dimensionality, both being force times distance, they are
quite different in concept.

Firstly, torque is a vector, while energy is a scalar.

Secondly, the magnitude of the torque is rFsin𝜃, while the energy work is rFcos𝜃. This means that
torques is at maximum when force and distance are perpendicular, whereas work is a maximum when
the force and distance are parallel.

Torque cand do work, but it does so when multiplying itself times the angle it rotates through. The angle
is dimensionless so it ends up having the same units as work.

It is never appropriate to add or subtract torque and energy, as the yare very different physical
quantities.

Torques are special kinds of vectors. The ycan only be added if the act upon the same object.
9.1.3. Questions
Q: What is Torque?
Q: What letter do physicists usually use to represent torque?

Q: What are the units of torque?

Q: Which of the following are examples of torque?

a) Pulling on the end of the lever. YES

b) Pulling on a lever at a point halfway along its length.

c) Pushing a box straight along the ground. NO

d) Pushing a box straight along the ground. NO
e) Stopping a spinning wheel by squeezing it with brakes.

Q: Imagine a door. If you pull it straight out from the hinges, pull it at a 45 degree angle from the direction the
door is pointing, or pull straight out from the doorknob on the opposite end of the door from the hinges, which
would be the most efficient method of opening or closing the door?

Consider your answer to above, and determine the angle required for optimal operation of the door.
Q: Imagine a door. If you pull it straight out from the hinges, pull it at a 45 degree angle from the direction the
door is pointing, or pull straight out from the doorknob on the opposite end of the door from the hinges, which
would be the most efficient method of opening or closing the door? If you apply the same force to any point,
would it be best to push on the door near the hinges, near the middle or opposite the hinges if you want it to
move with the greatest ease?

Q: Mathematically express the formula for torque.

Q: You pull on the end of a 3m lever with 12N of force at an angle of 81 degrees from the direction the lever is
pointing. What torque do you therefore apply?

Q: A 3.0 m long light plank has a mass of 100 kg placed at a point 1.0 m from one end. If I am to lift the plank at
the opposote end, what is the minimum force needed?
Q: A 3.0 m long plank has a mass of 100 kg placed at a point 1.0 m from one end. If I am to lift the plank at the
opposote end, and the plank has a mass of 12 kg, what is the minimum force needed?

F=385 N
9.2. Lesson 2: Rigid Body Statics
9.2.1. What Are Rigid Bodies
Rigid bodies can never change shape or volume.

Statics mean that the acceleration is zero. In the case of rigid bodies, the angular accelelration is also
zero.

Conclusion: There is no motion at all.

In 2 dimensions, we have 3 equations:

In 3 dimensions, there are 6 equations.

9.2.2. Rigid bodies free body diagrams

All forces must be placed on the rigid body where they are actually acting. There will often be a spot on
the body where there will be a natural tendency for the rotation to occur, like and axle or a hinge.

Pin joints alsways have 2 extra forces at the joint:

- One in the x direction

- One in the y direction

These are generally unknown forces.

In statics, where we choose our origin is mathematically unimportant (because the sum of torque is 0
and there is no motions in statics). Often, the pin joint is a good place to have the origin, since there are
usually 2 unknown forces acting there, and 2 of our torques therefore vanish.

Draw a rigid body free body diagram:

Select coordinate system and origin at the pin joint, where Fx and Fy are:

9.2.3. Questions
Q: Define a “rigid body".

Q: Define “rigid body statics".

Q: Which of the following are examples of rigid bodies?

a) A stone wall.

b) An ideal ball in a free-body-diagram for a physics thought experiment.

c) A billiard ball. YES

d) A soft foam toy ball.

Q: Which of the following are examples of predominantly rigid body statics situations?

a) A stationary chandelier hanging from a ceiling. YES

b) A chandelier hanging from a ceiling. NO
c) A ceiling fan which is turned off and stationary, hanging from a ceiling. YES
d) A ceiling fan which has just been turned on and is starting from rest, spinning faster until it is at
full speed.

e) A ceiling fan which has been turned on for a while and is presently spinning at constant velocity.

Q: Mathematically express the sum of all forces for each direction (x, y, and z) of a rigid body in three
dimensions.

Q: An Atwood’s machine is set up such that there are two masses of 3000kg attached by a heavy cord
draped over a 3000kg pulley, with the masses resting at the same level as each other.
 a) Draw a free-body diagram, and list the forces acting in or on the system.

b) Will the pulley move? Prove your answer mathematically. NO

c) Determine if this situation counts as an example of rigid body statics and explain your answer.

d) Now image the same machine but with the second mass to be 6000kg, but the pulley is bolted
and cannot turn or allow the cord to slide. Is this an example of a rigid body static situation?
Explain your answer.

Q: Can an object change volume without changing mass? Explain and provide examples to support your
answer.

Would any of your examples count as a rigid body? Explain.

Q: A hoop is grabbed by a 100 kg man who dangles on the end. What is the compression force in the
strut?
F=3530 N

9.3. Lesson 3: Center of Mass

9.3.1. Center of Gravity (COG)
Let’s assume we have point objects linked together so that the group of masses will move together as a
unit.
9.3.2. Center of Mass (COM)
From previous example:

If we cancel the g in the equation, we obtain a simpler equation for the center of mass.

Where x represents the x center of mass.

9.3.3. 2 or 3 Dimensions
9.3.4. Center of Mass With Holes

9.3.5. Questions
Q: What is the Center Of Gravity?

Q: What is the Center Of Mass?

Q: When is it OK to use the COM and COG interchangeably?

Q: When is it not OK to use the COm and COG interchangeably? Explain.

Q: A 6m, massless board is placed such that it pivots exactly at its center, and is resting horizontally. At
t=0, a 3kg mass is resting on the left-most end, and a 6kg mass is resting halfway from the center to the
right-most end.

a) What is the total mass of the system? Mtotal=9 kg

b) What is the center of mass of the system? COM = 4 m from the left edge
c) What is the total torque on the system? 𝜏=0 Nm
d) Explain why your answers to parts b) and c) of this question (above) may differ.

e) Imagine the board also has a uniformly distributed mass of 1.23kg. Explain what effects this
would and would not have on the system.

Q: Three identical masses are placed at the points of a perfect, equilateral triangle. Explain the location
of the center of mass.

Q:

a) Ignoring the effects of the other planets and celestial bodies (moons, asteroids, etc) determine
the center of mass of the Earth-Sun system.

b) Determine the center of mass of the Earth-Moon system.

 c) Counting the Earth and Moon as one object with a shared center of mass, recalculate the Earth-
Sun center of mass with this new information.

9.4. Lesson 4: Rigid Body Dynamics

9.4.1. The Moment of Inertia
F=ma (Newton’s 2nd law)

where I is moment of inertia.

9.4.2. Newton’s Second Law for Rigid bodies
9.4.3. Questions
Q: What is the Moment Of Inertia?

Q: Mathematically define the moment of inertia.

Q: Mathematically state Newton's Second Law For Rigid Bodies.

Q: What is the Radius Of Gyration?

Q: State the equations for the moment of inertia provided in this chapter, and state the situations to
which they apply.
Q: In the equations mentioned below,

a) What does 𝛽 represent?

b) What does K represent?

Q: A basketball star is spinning a basketball of radius 12cm and mass 600g on the top of his finger such
that it is spinning perfectly and at constant velocity about a vertical axis directly through the center of
the ball.

a) State the equation which applies to this situation.

b) Determine the ball's moment of inertia.

Q: A mass of 30kg is attached to a massless cord which is then wrapped around a pulley. At t=0, the
mass is released an falls downward from the pulley. If the pulley's mass is 12kg, its radius 12cm
(ignoring the thickness of the cord), at what rate does the mass accelerate?

9.5. Lesson 5: Rotational Energy

9.5.1. The Kinetic Energy of Rotation
The Kinetic Energy of Rotation is similar to the kinetic energy of translation.

For rolling bodies:

9.5.2. Example of Rotational Energy
9.5.3. Questions
Q: What is the formula for Kinetic Energy in a non-rotational frame?

Q: What is the formula for Kinetic Energy in a rotational frame of reference?

Q: How do these two equations relate to each other?

Q: Briefly explain rolling bodies.

Q: Which of the following have rotational kinetic energy?

a) A perfectly round chandelier hanging, stationary, from a ceiling. NO

b) A car's tires as the driver coasts down a gentle hill. YES
c) The car itself in the situation of part b) above.

d) A car losing control on the same hill when the driver returns in the winter to find it covered in
ice.

e) A flat tire resting on the ground, unable to roll. NO

f) The same flat tire being pushed along the ground.

g) A baseball spinning through the air towards a bat. YES

h) A record on a spinning record-player.

i) A merry-go round at rest. NO

j) The same merry-go round spinning while children play on it. YES

Q: What is the formula for the kinetic energy of a rolling body?

Q: A perfectly spherical asteroid is rotating in space. It has mass 100kg, angular velocity 20 radians per
2
second, radius 1m and moment of inertia I=5mr2. What is it's kinetic energy? KE=8000 J

Q: A perfectly spherical asteroid is rotating in space. It has mass 100kg, angular velocity 20 radians per
2
second, radius 1m and moment of inertia I= mr2. If the asteroid is also travelling through space at 3m/s
5
as well as spinning, what is it's total kinetic energy? KE=8450 J

Q: A free wheel of mass 10kg and radius 0.15 is rolling down a hill at 2m/s. if it has moment of intertia
1
I= mr2 what is it's kinetic energy? KE=30 J
2
9.6. Lesson 6: Angular Momentum
9.6.1. Definition of Angular Momentum
It is an exact analogy to the linear momentum.

9.6.2. Questions
Q: What is Angular Momentum?

Q: Is angular momentum analogous to linear momentum? Explain your answer.

Q: Mathematically express both angular and linear momentum, and state which variables of angular
momentum occur in place of which variables from the linear momentum formula.

Q: Which of the following are examples of angular momentum?

a) A car travelling down the road.

b) A truck coasting down a road which is angled at 3 degrees above the horizontal.
 c) A child swinging on a swing.

d) A planet spinning in space. YES

Q: A figure skater pulls in their arms and their spin speeds up. When they extend their arms, their spin
slows down. In what way, if any, has their angular momentum changed? Explain your answer.

Q: A child's ball of mass 0.3kg and radius 3cm is spinning on the floor around a vertical axis, and
completes 3 rotations every second. What is it's angular momentum?

10. MODULE 10. ELASTIC DEFORMATION. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION.

10.1. Lesson 1: Elastic Deformation
10.1.1. Elastic Deformation Defined
When an object has its shape changed, it is deformed. If it recovers normally to its original shape, we call
it elastic deformation.
There are many kinds of deformation, including compression or expansion, shearing and changes in
volume.

Elastic deformation can be closely approximated by the linear model.

10.1.2. Stress and Strain

Stress is

Deformation of a material can be elastic or inelastic.

An elastic deformation is not permanent. Most materials will deform elstically for small stresses.These
deformation will generally obey a linear model for simple shapes. This deformation can be generally
approximately with Hooke’s Law (F= - k∆x).

Similar to:
The constant k is called the deformation modulus.

10.1.3. Questions
Q: What is deformation?

Q: What is elastic deformation?

Q: Which of the following are examples of deformation?

a) Compression. YES
b) Expansion. YES
c) Bouncing

d) Shearing. YES
e) Changes in volume. YES
f) Spinning. YES

Q: What is required to cause an object to deform?

Q: What units are stresses measured in?

Are these elementary or derived units?

Q: State the formula for stress and explain what each variable in the formula represents.

Q: Mathematically state the formula for:

 a) Young's Modulus

b) Bulk Modulus

c) Shear Modulus

10.2. Lesson 2: Stress and Strain

10.2.1. Stress and Strain Defines
The force of gravity can be viewed as a point mass at the center of the earth applying a force to the
center of gravity of some object. But most of the forces we feel are not like that. Most forces, pushes or
pulls, are spread over the point of contact. The actual interaction is with a force over an area , which
means it’s measured in N/m2. These are units of pressure, but we call it the stress.

When stress acts uponm a body, the body deforms either elastically or inelastically. The deformation is
called the strain.

Type of stress we recognize in this course:

- Tensile or compressile stress

 Where A = area, Y = Young’s modulus

- Shear stress:

Where S=shear modulus

- Volumetric stress:
 where B=bulk modulus

10.3. Lesson 3: Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

10.3.1. Simple Harmonic Motion

(the spring always opposes the force)

Where k=spring or stiffness constant, measured in N/m

A real spring stretches linearly to a certain point and the starts to stretch non-linearly. If we stretch it
farther, it will stretch inelastically and it will not be able to recover its shape, until it finally breaks.
Ideal springs are not only always linear, they are weightless and cannot be broken. They obey Hooke’s
Law exactly.

Simple harmonic motion is one-dimensional motion that obeys the cyclic model. The complete motion
can be described by sine and cosine functions.

It is the motion of a weight on a spring.

The blue dot is undergoing uniform circular motion. The red dot is moving horizontally in simple
harmonic motion. The green dot is moving vertically in simple harmonic motion.

SHM can be defined matematically:

A=amplitude
𝜔=angular frequency (omega)
𝛿=phase (delta) and it is usually 0

Here we have the graph of the above function:

The equilibrium is the x axis. The total motion spans 2 times the amplitude.

T = period
10.3.2. Questions
Q: What is a real spring?

Q: What is an ideal spring?

Q: Why would we consider the properties of an “ideal spring” if it is not a “real spring?

Q: Mathematically express Hooke's Law and then explain it.

Q: What is the formula for the Period of a spring?

Q: What does the Period refer to?

Q: What is the formula for the angular velocity of a spring?

Q: Do formulas for springs behave in any way similar to formulas for circular motion?

10.5. Lesson 5. Energy in SHM

10.5.1. Energy and SHM
Assume the object is oscillating in the y direction.
Kinetic energy in SHM:

Potential energy in SHM:

Total energy in SHM:

10.5.2. Questions
Q: What is the formula for the Kinetic Energy in a spring?
Q: What is the formula for the Potential Energy in a spring?

Q: What is the formula for the total Energy in a spring?

Does this relation indicate that energy is conserved? YES.

Q: A 1kg object is placed on a spring with constant k = 200N/m.

a) What is the motion's angular frequency?

b) What is the motion's period?

Q: A 200kg object is placed on a spring with constant k = 1N/m.

a) What is the motion's angular frequency?

b) What is the motion's period?

Q: A 3kg block attached to a spring on a level surface is moving with amplitude of motion 30cm. The
spring has constant k = 3N/m and the spring is in equilibrium condition at t=0. You may ignore friction
for this question.

a) What is the potential energy of the motion a t=0s?

b) What is the angular frequency of the motion?

c) What is the kinetic energy of the motion at t=0s?

d) What is the total energy of the system at t=0s?

e) What is the period of the motion?
f) What is the total energy of the system at t=3.14s?

10.6. Lesson 6. The Pendulum

10.6.1. The Pendulum
A pendulum is a mass suspended on a long string, attached at one end, but free to swing back and forth.
Period of a pendulum

The torque acting on the bob of the pendulum is given by gravity only, as the tension T acts through the
center of motion.

Where mgL is like a spring constant.

Physical pendulum

When any rigid body is attached to a string is allowed to oscillate about a point that is not the center of
mass.
10.6.2. Questions
Q: What is a pendulum?

Q: What is the source of torque on a pendulum? Gravity.

Q: What is the torque on a pendulum approximately equal to?

Q: What is the angular frequency of a pendulum?

Q: What is the period of a pendulum?

Q: Is pendulum motion analogous to circular motion?

10.7. Lesson 7: Driven and Damped Harmonic Motion

10.7.1. Damped and driven harmonic motion
Picture of damping for SHM:
We see edamping in everyday life. It is damping that causes a pendulum to swing, or the oscillations of a
spring togradually fade away. The amplitude of the SHM gradually decays.

The motion is modelled by multiplying the amplitude by an exponential decaying function:

Where 𝛼 is called the damping factor.

When the damping is small, it’s called the underdamped case. See growth decay model. A typical
formula is:

10.7.2. Resonance

When an oscillating force meets simple harmonic oscillatior, the oscillator graudally responds to the
oscillating force in perfect match to the driving signal. However, if the frequency of the oscillating force
is close to the natural frequency of the simple harmonic oscillator, the amplitude of the simple harmonic
oscillator starts to grow very large. This condition is called resonance. It is used by acoustic instruments
(guitars, horns, etc).

10.7.3. Questions

Q: What is damping? Give an example.

Q: Define the exponential decay function.

OBS: It is minus alpha t

a) What does the variable alpha represent in the exponential decay function?

b) What is the value of e?(Hint: You don't really need to memorize the entirety of the value of e!)

Q: What do we call a case of damped oscillations when the damping is small?

Q: What is resonance?

Q: A spring is part of a system undergoing simple harmonic motion which is decaying according to a
damping factor 0.3. The motion has amplitude 3cm and angular frequency of 3 s-1. Solve the resulting
equation to determine its position at time t = 12s.

11. MODULE 11. ELECTROSTATICS

11.1. Lesson 1. Electrostatics
What are electric charges?

Physicist and chemist use the atomic model which says that all matter si made of atoms and that atoms
are made of electrons and other particles like neutrons, protons.
The above figure shows a simple model of an atom with negative electrons orbiting its positive nucleus.
The nucleus is positive due to the presence of positively charged protons. Nearly all charge in nature is
due to electrons and protons, which are two of the three building blocks of most matter.

The charges of electrons and protons are identical in magnitude but opposite in sign. Magnitude of this
basic charge is:

The symbol is commonly used for charge and the subscript indicates the charge of a single electron (or
proton). The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C).

Atoms are normally neutral – which means they have no charge. When an electron is added to an atom,
the atom is said to be positively charged. The atom that gains the electron is said to be negatively
charged. And the 2 now charged atoms are called ions. Most of the chemical nature of materials comes
from the movement or sharing of electrons.

We say that electrons are negatively charged. So if we have a charge of 1.6*10-19 Coulombs, that charge
is usually abbreviated to -e. All know charges are integer multiples of e.

The electron seems to have no substructure; in contrast, when the substructure of protons is explored
by scattering extremely energetic electrons from them, it appears that there are point-like particles
inside the proton. These subparticles, named quarks, have never been directly observed, but they are
believed to carry fractional charges.

The quark model of particles allows for particles called quarks with charges that are plus or minus 2/3rds
or plus minus 1/3rd of e - the elementary charge.
The naming of the charge negative is due to Benjamin Franklin. He based everything on a fluid model of
electricity which he had developed.

Even a small unit of charge – the coulomb, is a very large number of electrons.

Some of the most basic characteristics of static electricity include:

• The effects of static electricity are explained by a physical quantity called electric

charge.

• There are only two types of charge, one called positive and the other called negative.

• Like charges repel, whereas unlike charges attract.

• The force between charges decreases with distance.

Atomic and molecular interactions, such as the forces of friction, cohesion, and adhesion, are now
known to be manifestations of the electromagnetic force. Static electricity is just one aspect of the
electromagnetic force, which also includes moving electricity and magnetism.

11.1.2. Questions
Q: If you’re getting out of your car and you feel a shock when you come in contact with the metal of the
car’s exterior, what is the likely cause of this called?

Q: What units is electrical charge measured in? Coulombs

Q: What is the charge of an electron?

Q: How is the electron-charge usually written? -e

Q: What does the equation q=Ne mean?

Q: Mathematically verify the estimate earlier in this section regarding the number of electrons in a
single Coulomb of charge.

Q: Who named the electron’s charge as negative? Benjamin Franklin.

Q: What would a charge of 2e be equivalent to in Coulombs?

Q: A group of electrons has a total charge of 0.00000000000000000048 Coulombs.

a) Write this in terms of electron-charge. Q=3e

b) Determine how many electrons there must be present in this group. N=3

11.2. Lesson 2: Coulomb's Law

11.2.1. The Attraction of Charges
When separated, there are forces between ions. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges
attract each other.

If the charged objects come in contact with each other, the electrons may move to neutralize the
charges on the 2 objects.

Because the no of electrons cannot change, there is always conservation of charge. That is the sum of
the charges, including their signs, will always be conserved.

The electric forces obey an inverse square law, similar to gravity. This was discovered by Coulomb.

Coulomb’s Law calculates the magnitude of the force F between 2 point charges, q1 and q2, separated by
the distance r.

Where:

F12 = the vector force of particle 2 on particle 1; the force is understood to be along the line joining the
two charges

r12 = vector from particle 1 to particle 2

k = Boltzmann’s constant

q1, q2 = the charge on each particle

C = unit for coulomb (abbreviated coul)

The vector form for Coulomb’s Law:

There are 2 methods used for 2-dimensional calculations of a vector.

11.2.2. Questions
Q: Does the force between each of the following particle pairs attract or repel?
a) 2 electrons. Repel
b) 2 protons. Repel
c) A proton and an electron. Attract

Q: State Coulomb’s Law.

What is the constant k called and what is it’s value?

Q: Explain what Coulomb’s Law means.

Q: What units are charges measured in? Coulombs

Q: Use trigonometry to determine the vector distance between the endpoints of two perpendicular unit
vectors, from the one in the x direction the one in the y direction.

Q: Use the vector relationship r12=r2-r1 to determine the vector difference between the endpoints of two
perpendicular unit vectors from the one in the x direction the one in the y direction.

Q: Find the force on a particle A at point (2.00 m, 3.12 m) with charge 4.7. 𝜇𝐶 and a particle B at point
(2.96 m, -1.27 m) with charge -3.19 𝜇𝐶.

Q: Assume a proton with two electrons placed exactly opposite each other in orbit around it at exactly
an equal and opposite distance from the proton in the directions of their respective positions. Adapt the
method used in Example 3 of this section to determine the total force experienced by the proton in the
center. Show your work.

(Hint: You should be able to make a good guess at the result, but the answer is the process involved in
showing that)
Q: A charge of 3.12 pC at coordinates (0,3) m has a force exerted on it by a charge of -7.12 pC at
coordinates (3,4) m. What is the direction and magnitude of that force.
Q:

Q:
11.2.3. Understanding Coulomb Force vectors
The first equation to understand is:

It says what the size (magnitude of the force) is. This is how big the force is. But force is a vector. So we
have to have a way of describing which way the force is acting. With charges the force always acts along
a line drawn through the two charges.

But this is the along the same line as the r vector that joins the two points.

The vector 𝑟⃗ 12 means the vector from 2 to 1. So the whole thing reads as the force caused by particle
two acting on particle one. Well, then, what direction does the force act? Well I could right it this way.

in the direction from 2 to 1” and it would mean a force acting like this:

That whole phrase “in the direction of 2 to 1” is summed up in the . It precisely means in the

direction of vector . So the hat means “in the direction of vector …”.

So I can now write the whole vector equation as .

Now it turns out that the direction of any vector is given by .

So I could also write the equation as . Notice the cubed underneath goes with
the vector sign on the r, the squared goes with the hat.
Example1:

Example2:

11.3. Lesson 3: Electric Materials

11.3.1. Electrical Materials and Electrical Induction
All matter has electrical properties because the atoms and molecules that make up matter are made up
of charged particles. Atoms are made up of electrons, which are negatively charged. The electrons
surround a very small nucleus positively charged. Most of the atom is not made up of any particles at all,
but quite empty, except for being filled with electric fields.

Atoms are normally neutral, meaning that the negative charge of the electrons is cancelled out by the
positive charge of the nucleus.

The electrons can be dislodged by electrical means (using high voltage), physical means (rubbing or
bombarding the atom with particles) and chemical means (using other cemically active atoms). Once an
electron is removed from an atom, the atom is said to be ionized. It has a net positive charged so it is
called a positive ion, or anion. These free electrons sometimes reattach themselves to neutral atoms to
create negatively charged ions called cations.

11.3.2. Conductivity. Conductors. Insulators.

Some of these free electrons can be made to move by electrical forces. The degree to which electrons
can be made to move (number and speed) is called the conductivity of a material. Conductivity is a
property of all materials and is one of the widest varying properties.

Materials with high conductivity are called conductors. Any substance that has free electrons and allows
charge to move relatively freely through it is called a conductor. Most metals are good conductors.

Perfect conductors are called superconductors and seem to exist only at very cold temperatures, below -
200 degrees Celsius.

Materials that have low conductivity are called insulators. Examples: ceramics, glass, porcelain, clay.

There are no known perfect insulators, as eventually, all materials, can be broken into their components
which are charged particles. Insulators are used to keep electrical charges from being moved.

Some materials are in between: are good conductors under certain conditions, and poor conditions
under other conditions. These are semiconductors.

Because electrons can be moved by strong electrical forces, we can give materials induced charge, that
is charge without toucing them.

Suppose we bring a positively charged rod close to a neutral object. The electrical forces obey the
inverse square law. The the positive rod affects closer electrons more than electrons further away. So
the electrons start to clump up close to the positively charged rod and this leaves the far away parts of
the material positively charged.

If we now touch these far away electrons, the nearby charges will be neutralized, but the far away
charges will not be affected becuase of the distance. We’ll have a net negative charge.

To induce a positive charge, we bring in a negatively charged rod close to the material.
Because the human body has electrons that are easily moved, we can often be the source that
distributes the charge permanently.

11.3.3. Questions
Q: Is the charge found in each of the following examples positive or negative, or neutral?

a) An electron. Negative
b) A proton. Positive
c) The nucleus of an atom. Positive
d) The total charge of a non-ionized atom. Neutral

Q: What comprises the vast majority of an atom’s volume?

Q: What happens if a neutral atom:

a) Loses an electron?

b) Gains an electron?

Q: If seeking protection against electric shock, would you want gloves made out of material that made a
good insulator or that made a good conductor? Insulator.

Q: If connecting a circuit in an electronic device, would you want material that made a good insulator or
that made a good conductor? Conductor

Q: Explain, in your own words, each of the following terms:

a) Conductor

b) Insulator
 c) Semi-Conductor

d) Induction

11.4. Lesson 4 – Electric fields

11.4.1. electric Fields
Diagram of electrical system with 12 charges:

We need another way to solve the problem of the electric field.

If we imagine a small, fixed charge on a stick, and we move it close to an array of existing charges. Then
we can test the force acting on the stick by measuring the force that’s pushing or pulling on the stick.
This way we can find the force at every point in space just by moving the stick.

We call the force per unit the electric field.

Michael Faraday visualized a series of lines coming out of every positive charge and going into every
negative charge.
The lines of force are proportional to the electric field. The closer the lines of force are together, the
greater the intensity of the electric field.

11.4.2. Questions
Q: State the equation for electric fields.

Q: Who worked out the nature of electric fields? Michael Faraday

Q: Is an electric field a vector or a scalar property? Vector

Q: Given a force of 0.1N for each unit charge of e, what is the electric field strength?

Q:

Q: A 3 Coul charge radiates a field experienced by another object as 0.04 N/Coul. Determine the force
experienced within this electric field.

Q: Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field 20.3 m from a 3.02 mC charge.

Q: We have a 3.02 mC charge at (3,-3), a -2.16 mC charge at (2,2) and a 1.05 mC charge at (-1, -2)m.
What is the magnitude and direction of the total electric field at the origin?
Q: A 3.72 mC charge and a -2.67 mC are separated from each other by a distance of 2.00 m. Where is
the point of zero absolute potential between them?
11.5. Lesson 5. Drawing Field Lines
11.5.1. Rules for Drawing Field Lines

11.5.2. Questions
Q: List the seven rules for drawing Field Lines.
Q: Consider the following images below.

a) In the first picture, which way are the electrons flowing?

b) In the first picture, which way is the current flowing?

c) In the second picture, which way are the electrons flowing?

d) In the second picture, which way are the electrons flowing?

11.6. Lesson 6. Gauss’s Law
11.6.1. Origins of Gauss’ Law
Coulomb’s Law for electricity and Newton’s Law of gravitation are very similar.
The problem is that the light has to hit the surface at a right angle to be measured properly. If it does
not come at a right angle, then we need to compensate for the spreading, which is due to the light
hitting the surface at an angle.

The area of the surface is larger for the same amount of light, when it hits at an angle.

This is called the flux.

Electric fields behave like light. And magnetic fields behave like water. Light and electricity radiates from
the surface, and water circulates.

The net flux:

(integral)

The charges originating the flow are called positive charges. The flow is totally absorbed by the same
amount of negative charge. So flux flows from positive charges to negative charges.

For Gauss’s Law, the Gaussian surface (GS) must be completely enclosed.

In the formula above we have a constant – the Permittivity of Free Space.

If we replace the sun with a single group of positive charges, and the garbage bag with a perfecty sphere
centered on the positive charge, then the electric field will spread all over the area of the surface of the
sphere.
So all the lines of force meet the GS at right angle:

Where E is the electric field.

Comparison to Coulomb’s Law:

In certain substances, mostly metals, electrons can move freely within the material. These materials are
called conductors. When a conductor has an excess of charge, these charges repel each other. These
charges are freed at the surface of the conductor. There will be no net charge on the interior of the
conductor. By Gauss’s Law, the electric charge inside a conductor must be 0.

The case of the infinitely flat plate: we have a very large plate with a charge q on it. S is the charge
density (charge per unit of area). Imagine a small cylinder sticking out of the plate. There is no filed
inside the conductor.
Gauss’Law:

(integral)

11.6.2. Questions
Q: Explain a way in which Coulomb’s Law and Newton’s Law Of Gravity appear similar. (Hint: You don’t
have to worry about similarities in what they refer to at this point, just how the equations appear.)

Q: What is the equation for the surface area of a sphere?

Q: Mathematically state Gauss’ Law

Q: Mathematically state the equation that relates Coulomb's constant:

Q: Mathematically explain that:

Q: What is the electric field strength inside a conductor? 0 N/Coul

Q: Mathematically state Gauss’ Law as it applies to charged plates.

Q: Imagine a charged plate with 3.00 Coulombs per square centimeter, and a surface area of 3 square
meters. Determine the resulting electrical field very close to the surface of the plate.

11.7. Lesson 7 – Applications

11.7.1. Electrostatic Applications
Many high tech devices are based on electrostatics.
11.7.2. Questions
Q: Which of the following are examples of electrostatics?

a) A balloon sticking to the ceiling without an adhesive. YES

b) A light coming on when you plug it in. NO
c) The shock you get when you touch a metallic or other conductive surface such as a car or
another person. YES

Q: Which of the following are examples of current?

a) Lights come on when you flick a switch. YES

b) Your laptop screen stays on, powered seamlessly by your battery when you unplug your laptop.
YES
c) A magnet at rest radiates an electromagnetic field. NO

Q: Which of the following are examples of force due to electromagnetism?

a) An electric printer moves ink to a page of paper using electrical charges. YES
b) A positively charged rod attracts electrons. YES
c) A negatively charged rod repels electrons. YES
12. MODULE 12. CONDUCTORS. INSULATORS. CAPACITORS. RESISTORS.
CURRENT. OHM’S LAW. KIRCHOFF’S LAW
12.1. Lesson 1: Conductors and Insulators
12.1. Insulators

They are made of materials that are non-metallic: sulphur, diamond. Or compounds: table salt, glass,
sapphire. Or organic materials: wood, rubber, leather. Or plastics.

Insulators are necessary to coat wires to keep them from shorting out. They are also used for protection
from high voltage.

12.1.2. Semiconductors

They allow us to control electric charge. Are useful in all modern electrical devices. Semiconductors are
made of materials on the borderline between metals and non-metals: Silicon, Germanium, Gallium.

When we take these compounds and add other compounds to them – called doping, we can create
materials that allow charge to flow in only 1 direction, and when a variable voltage is supplied, give
control to charge flow.

12.1.3. Conductors
Conductors are usually metals, such as gold, silver, copper, aluminum.

12.1.4. Superconductors

However, when temperatures hit zero (0 K), they will allow unhindered charge flow.

???? superconductors are usually the one that are superconducting at relatively high temperatures, like
15-20 K and are usually alloys of various metals.

A new class of superconductors, made from compounds like have critical temperatures
when they become superconductors, like 93 K. These materials are superconductors at liquid nitrogen
temperatures.

Research is underway for organic compounds, looking for materials that are superconducting at room
temperature.
12.1.5. Resistivity
Resistivity is a property of materials that resists flow of charge.

Resistivity varies widely than any other property of substances.

The higher the resistivity, the better the material is for making an insulator. The lower the resisivity, the
better is the material for making conductors.

12.1.6. Questions
Q: What is an insulator?

Q: Give a practical example of an insulator.

Q: What is a semi-conductor?

Q: Give a pratical example of a semi-conductor.

Q: What is a conductor?

Q: Give a practical example of a conductor.

Q: What is a superconductor?
Q: Define resistivity

Q: Which has a higher resistivity, silver or copper? Copper

Q: Which has a higher conductivity, drinking water or rubber? Drinking water

12.2. Lesson 2: Capacitors

12.2.1. Definitions

Capacitors store charge and energy by placing charges of opposite sign directly opposite each other with
an impenetrable gap between them.
Modern capacitors are made from parallel metal plates and use special materials between the plates
called dielectrics, that enhance the capacitors and keep the plates from shorting out. The capacitance of
a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to its area and inversely proportional to its plate separation
distance.

12.2.2. The Function in Circuits

A capacitor uses the attraction of unlike charges across a gap to hold the charges in place.

Ways in which capacitors are symbolized:

Capacitors in parallel: each circuit element has the same voltage across it. In the circuit on the screen,
the positive and negative voltage wires are parallel lines.

Where: Q = charge, V = voltage, C = capacitance

Capacitors in series: each circuit element has the same current through it. Each capacitor has the same
charge Q.
12.2.3. Questions
Q: What is a capacitor?

Q: State the defining equation for capacitance. Q=CV

Solve the equation in the above, for capacitance. C=Q/V

Q: What was the first known capacitor? The Leyden Jar

Q: Describe the construction of a modern capacitor.

Q: What is the equation for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor?

Q: 6 capacitors are placed in parallel in a circuit, with a capacitance of 1F, 2F, 3F, 6F, 9F, and 12F,
respectively. State the appropriate equation and use it to determine the total capacitance in the circuit.

Q: 5 capacitors are placed in series in a circuit, with a capacitance of 50F, 1F, 3F, 2F, and 0.4F, respectively. State
the appropriate equation and use it to determine the total capacitance in the circuit.

Q: A circuit has three capacitors of 1F, 10F and 100F placed in parallel, and this entire section of the
circuit is placed in series with a capacitor of 1000F. Determine the total capacitance of the circuit.

Q: A circuit has 2 capacitors of 1F and 2F placed in series, and this entire section of the circuit is placed in
parallel with a capacitor of 3F. Determine the total capacitance of the circuit.

Q: A capacitor stores a charge of 10Coul and 10V. Determine the capacitance. C=1F

Q: A 10F capacitor has a charge of 10Coul. Determine the voltage. V=!V

Q: A 10F Capacitor handles 10V. Determine the relevant charge. Q=100C

12.3. Lesson 3: Dielectrics
12.3.1. What is a dielectric?
Video ????

Introducing a dielectric into a capacitor decreases the electric field, which decreases the voltage, which
increases the capacitance. A capacitor with a dielectric stores the same charge as one without a
dielectric, but at a lower voltage. Therefore a capacitor with a dielectric in it is more effective.

12.3.2. Questions
Q: What is a dielectric material?
Q: What does the dielectric constant refer to?

Q: What equation relates dielectric properties to capacitance?

Q: Does a dielectric increase or decrease capacitance? Increase

Q: What is the worst dielectric material in the chart in this section? Air

Q: What is the best dielectric material in the chart in this section? Barium Titanate

12.4. Lesson 4: Current

12.4.1. Definitions
Current on a wire is like water in a pipe. Instead of flowing water, we have flowing electrons. The push
we give water can be from a pump. On a wire, the push can be from setting up an electric field. This is
accomplished with a battery. We measure the push in terms of the energy given to each electron in the
desired direction. Resistance in a wire is given by the resistivity of the wire and by resistors in the circuit.

The electric current is defined as the number of coulombs of charge passing at a particular point in 1
second. The unit of current is Ampere.

If:

If the current is constant we use an uppercase I. If it’s variable we use a lowercase i.

In reality, the motion of electrons is very fast and is little affected by voltages. When voltage is applied,
the direction of the electrons slightly favors the direction opposite to the field. So there’s a very small
drift, called a drift current. The drift is what we measure as the current.

Voltage drift:

We can also express as current density:

12.4.2. Questions
Q: What is electrical current?

Q: In which direction does current flow?

Q: In what units is current measured? Amperes

Q: What are Amperes equal to?

Q: State the equation for relating charge carriers per unit volume to current density and identify any
variables or constants in your answer.

Q: State the equation for:

a) Drift Velocity
b) Charges per unit Volume

c) Current

d) Current Density

Q: Solve the current density equation for charge

Q: 12e- of charge pass through a section of wire in 3 seconds. Determine the current.

Q: Determine the drift speed of 24 gauge copper wire carrying a current of 6.0 A. Review this Section for
information regarding Copper. Assume 24 gauge copper wire to have a diameter of approximately
0.51mm.

12.5. Lesson 5: Resistors and Resistance

12.5.1. Introduction
We use the natural resistivity of materials 𝜌 to make devices called resistors.
Ohms are:

Resistors are rated by the resistance and the power they can handle without burnout.

Resistors are labeled by color bands.

The first 3 color bands are used to determine the resistance, as shown in the chart. The final band gives
the precision of the resistor.

The formula for the resistance:

12.5.2. Series and Parallel Circuits
Series Circuits

Parallel Circuits
12.5.3. Questions
Q: What is resistance?

Q: How is resistance usually represented in an equation? R

Q: In what units is resistance measured, and how is this abbreviated?

Q: Would a good resistor have high or low conductivity? Explain your answer.

Q: A resistor is labelled with three blue stripes followed by a gold stripe. What can you determine about
the resistance of this device?

Q: Three resistors of 3Ohms each are placed in parallel in a circuit. Determine the total resistance.

Q: Three resistors of 3Ohms each are placed in series in a circuit. Determine the total resistance.

Q: The set of parallel resistors of 3Ohms are placed in series with the set of in-series resistors of 3Ohms.
Determine the total resistance.

Q: The set of three parallel resistors of 3 Ohms, are placed in parallel with the set of three in-series
resistors of 3 Ohms. Determine the total resistance

Q:

12.6. Lesson 6: Sources of EMF

12.6.1. Introduction
EMF = electromotor force
Sources of EMF below.

- Capacitors: the earliest form of EMF; charged with lightning or static electricity machines (Van der
Graaf generators, for ex). Once charged, capacitors have a voltage of:

- Batteries: discovered by Alessandro Volta. Initially were called voltaic piles. They produce voltage
through chemical means – redox reactions mostly. They produce direct V.

- Magnetic induction : discovered by Michael Faraday. This implies the creation of EMF by utilizing
changing magnetic flux.

- Power supplies:

12.6.2. Questions
Q: What is EMF?

Q: List two common sources of EMF today, and provide a practical example of their occurrence in
modern times.

Q: Who discovered batteries? Alessandro Volta

Q: What is Magnetic Induction?

Q: Who discovered Magnetic Induction? Michael Faraday

Q: State whether an electric field occurs around each of the following things:

a) A battery actively powering a circuit. YES

b) An electric light waiting to be turned on. NO
c) A charged and active capacitor. YES
d) An electric light that has just been turned on. YES
e) An active generator in a hydroelectric dam. YES
f) An electric light that has been on for some time. YES

12.7. Lesson 7: Ohm's Law

12.7.1. Intro
It is an empirical design guideline. Resistors are devices that obey Ohm’s Law precisely.

Most other devices that have resistors (light bulbs, diodes, transistors, heating elements, etc) do not
obey Ohm’s Law, excep approximately, over small regions of voltage, current and temperature. The are
called non-ohmic devices.

Ohm’s Law says that the voltage is directly proportional to the current with a proportionality constant R,
the resistance.

12.7.2. Simple Circuits

After which the current in the circuit will be 0.

To find the current in the resistor at any time, one must first solve a first order differential equation.

However, the current will decrease aymptotically to 0, as in the graph.

We can also add the 3 currents and we get the same answer:

12.7.3. Questions
Q: What is Ohm’s Law?

Q: State the equation for Ohm’s Law.

Q: A voltage of 1000.0 V is in a series circuit with a 100.0 Ω resistor. What is the current I?(Hint: Draw a
circuit diagram). I=10A

Q: Consider the following diagram below: What is the current through the resistor after a while if the
switch remains open? Explain your answer. (Hint: Assume perfect switches)

Q:

Q:
12.8. Lesson 8: Kirchoff's Laws
12.8.1. Definitions: Kirkkoff’s First and Second Law
Kirkkhoff’s First Law: Conservation of Electrons, Conservation of Charge, Equation of Continuity

Kirkkhoff’s Second Law: Conservation of Energy

12.8.2. Series and Parallel Resistor Circuits

a) Series Resistors

b) Parallel Resistors: have the same voltage

Answer: 14 ohms

12.8.3. Multiloop Circuits

For example, for the circuit below, most engineers use the loop method to solve problems like this.

We look at the direction of the currents. When a resistor is in 2 loops, the current in the resistor is the
difference of the 2 currents. Start each loop in the same place – say, the upper left corner. Go round
each loop in the direction of the arrow, clockwise. A current going in the direction of the loop is positive
current. Else, is negative current. If you hit the negative end of a batter subtract ots EMF. Otherwise,
add its EMF. You’ll get 2 equations and 2 unknowns to solve simultaneously.
If you have more than 2 loops – say 4 loops, then you’ll have 4 equations and 4 unknown to solve.

12.8.4. Questions
Q: Explain Kirchhoff’s First Law.

Q: Mathematically state Kirchhoff’s First Law.

Q: Explain Kirchhoff’s Second Law

Q: Mathematically state Kirchhoff’s Second Law.

Q: State the resistance equation for resistors in series.

Q: State the resistance equation for resistors in parallel.

Q: A circuit has three resistors in series, with resistances of 100 Ω, 200 Ω and 300 Ω, respectively. If the
resistors are placed in reverse order, what effect will this have on:

a) The circuit’s current?

b) The circuit’s voltage?

Q: A circuit has three resistors in parallel, with resistances of 100 Ω, 200 Ω and 300 Ω, respectively. If
the resistors are placed in reverse order, what effect will this have on:

a) The circuit’s current?

b) The circuit’s voltage?

Q: Consider a multiloop circuit. Draw a rectangle, and put a 12V battery on each end with positive up on
the left, and down on the right. Divide the rectangle in the middle with a 12 Ω resistor. What is the
current in the resistor? I=0 A

Q: Two resistors of 5 Ω and 10 Ω respectively are placed in series in a circuit with a 12VBattery. (Hint:
Remember what the voltage drop needs to sum to.)

a) Determine the current through each resistor. I=0.8 A

b) Determine the voltage drop across each resistor. V1=4V, V2=8V

Q: Two resistors of 6 Ω and 12 Ω respectively are placed in parallel in a circuit with a 9VBattery. (Hint:
Remember what the voltage drop needs to sum to.)

a) Determine the voltage drop across each resistor. 9V across both resistors
b) Determine the current in each resistor. I1=1.5A, I2=0.75A

Q:
Q:

13. MODULE 13. WAVES

13.1. The Wave Model
13.1.1. Introduction to Waves
Waves are cyclic systems that transfer energy with only local movement of matter. That means that the
particles that make up the wave do not move very far. But the energy transferred can travel far.

Electromagnetic waves can travel in a vacuum, but most waves travel only through matter in any state.

Properties of wave motion:

Waves involve the vibrations of matter and therefore vary in space and time. There is a relationship
between the spatial and temporal movement of all waves, given by the formula:

We can represent any complex wave form in terms of sums of sine and cosine. We need only study
plane waves.

Plane waves are flat wave fronts that extend to infinity on all sides, perpendicular to the wave velocity.

The plane wave traveling in the x direction is given by (you can use a sin or cos function):

The waves always vibrate. It matter the category into which the waves vibrate.

Waves that vibrate in the direction of the propagation are called longitudinal waves (sound waves in the
air, pressure waves in fluids).

Waves that vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation are called transverse waves (surface
waves in water, electromagnetic waves).
Water waves are a combination of longitudinal and transverse waves.

Solids conduct sound using 3 modes of vibration: 2 approximately transverse, and 1 approximately
longitudinal. The amount of transverse and longitudinal in each mode of vibration depends on the
crystal structure.

What causes wave propagation? The molecules can only move locally. But each point in the wave front
has a different phase. The motion of each molecule affects the motion of molecules close by, but slightly
delayed because of their inertia. It is this delay which causes a phase change that seems to produce the
wave motion.

13.1.2. Questions
Q: Do waves usually travel through a matter medium? Yes or no? Yes

Q: What kind of waves can travel in a vacuum?

Q: State the formula for relating spatial and temporal movement of waves, identifying any and all
constants and variables.

Q:

Q:
Q:

Q: What is the formula for a plane wave travelling in the x direction?

Q: Given a wave with an amplitude of 5, an angular frequency of 3 existing at x-position 4m at time t =

3s, determine z from the equation in your response to the previous question.

13.2. Lesson 2: Velocity of Waves

13.2.1. Introduction to Wave Velocity
In a vacuum, light travels at 3*108 m/s. In transparent materials, the speed of light is slower. The fact
that light speed in materials depends on its wave length is called dispersion. It gives rise to rainbow, like
that in a prism.

Dispersion exists for sound waves as well. The speed of sound, however, is much more variable. It can
depend on:

etc

- Velocity of waves on a string (example: guitar, violin)

Higher sound velocity means higher pitch.

- Velocity of sound in gases

K = Boltzman’s constant

T = temperature in Kelvin

M = molecular mass in loes

- Velocity of sound in liquids

B = Bulk modulus of the liquid

𝜌 = density of liquid

- Velocity of sound in solids

There are 3 sound velocities in crystalline solids.

In general, the calculations are very complex and dependent on the crystal structure. However, the
longitudinal velocity, for a long thin rod, can be found easily and is given by the formula below:

Y = Young’s modulus

𝜌 = density of solid

13.2.2. Sound Waves, Sound Intensity, Doppler Shifts

Sound Intensity

There are 2 units of measurement for the intensity of sound.

The first measurement unit: W/m2

The second unit of measurement is based on comparing logarithmically the sound intensity with the
threshold of hearing estimated to be about 10-12 W/m2.

The second unit of measurement based on the logarithmic scale is dB (decibels).

Doppler Shift

The picture shows sound wave fronts moving out from the sound wave source.

This effect is called the Doppler Shift. This effect causes the frequency in front of the wave to be higher
than the frequency behind. There are 3 related causes that affect the pitch and these are: sound source,
medium and observer.
Upper sign means vo and v are moving towards each other. Lower sign means they’re moving apart.

f = original frequency

13.2.3. Questions
Q: Explain what the power of a sound wave refers to.

Q: How does the power of a sound wave relate to the sound wave’s intensity?

Q: List the various units for measuring sound intensity.

Q: What is doppler shift?

Q: What is the formula for doppler shift? Identify any and all constants and variables.

Q: Explain the meaning of wave dispersion.

Q: A sound wave of 1J/s passes through an open square window which has 1 meter per side. What is
the wave’s intensity? Write your answer in both notations.

Q:

Q:

Q: State each of the following equations, and list any and all constants and variables.
Q: A sound of frequency 120Htz is produced in a cable under 1.2kg/m cable under 12N of tension. What
is the velocity of the sound?

Q: The cable in Question 8, above, breaks and drops a rock into a lake below an atmosphere of
30.0g/mol at 291K. Determine the velocity of the sound wave in the air above the lake.

Q:

Q:

Q: A train is producing a 342m/s sound wave while approaching you at a speed of 15km/h. The wind is
blowing directly from the train towards you at 3km/h. The train’s whistle sounds off at a frequency of
210Htz. What is the change in frequency between the whistle’s output and what you hear.
Q: A car is being driven along a highway at a speed limit of 100km/h on a clear, calm day. The car’s radio
picks up a radio signal of 102.3MHtz which travels at 2.99×108m/s. What is the actual frequency of the
broadcast?

Q: An astronomer notices three stars in space. They use spectroscopy – the splitting of the light from a
source into its component wavelengths – to analyze the rainbow-like colour bands of the light from each
star. The stars all seem to give off the colour-bands associated with hydrogen stars, which we are
familiar with thanks to our own star, Sol, the Sun. The thing is, while one of the stars seems normal, the
other two seem shifted, the colors of one star appear bluer than normal, and the remaining star seems
redder than normal. All colour-bands are otherwise consistent in their layout, width and division. What
does this tell the astronomer about the stars?

13.3. Lesson 3: Matter Interfaces

13.3.1. Reflection and Refraction
When a wave strikes a different region of matter 3 things always happen:

- part of the wave is reflected off the boundary

- part of the wave is transmitted by the boundary

- part of the wave is absorbed

Reflection

There are 2 waves that are reflected by the boundary: specular and diffuse.

Specular reflection occurs when all of the wave front is scattered in the same local direction. Specular
relfelction tends to occur when the uneveness of the boundary is much smaller than the wave length of
the wave. Otherwise diffuse relfection occurs. Where specular reflection is the norm, we say the surface
is smooth. Otherwise it is rough.
Specular reflection occurs in such a way that the reflected wave front travels in a direction that the
angle of incident wave front is the same as the angle of the reflected wave front, as measured from the
normal to the surface.

Diffuse reflection is often called scattering, as the wave front is broken into many pieces, each going in
its own direction.

Transmission

Transmited rays almost always change velocity when the material changes and this always brings about
a change in direction of the wavefront.
The waves obey Snell’s Law, after Snellius. Initially discovered by Ibn Sahl. Because of the erroneous
attribution, we will call it the Law of Refraction.

13.3.2. Questions
Q: List the three things that occur when a wave strikes a different region of matter.
Q: List the two types of wave reflection. Specular and diffuse.

Q: A wave in a swimming pool strikes the smooth, even wall of the swimming pool at an angle of thirty
degrees from the pool-wall’s plane.

a) What type of reflection occurs? Specular

b) What is the angle between the reflected wave and the plane of the wall?

Q: Mathematically state Snell’s Law, indentifying any and all constants and variables.

Q: A water wavefront strikes the beach at an angle of 45 degrees with a phase velocity of 1m/s. If the
angle of incidence of the waves refracting through the beach is 30 degrees, determine the new phase
velocity.

Q: If a wavefront strikes an uneven surface such as in the case of small water ripples striking a rough and
jagged cliff, what is the likely result? Explain your answer.

Q: What phenomenon explains the missing energy after a wavefront interaction with a surface?
Absorbtion.

Q: Explain diffraction.

13.4. Lesson 4: Wave Meets Wave

13.4.1. Interference
Theoretical physics treats all waves as infinite plane waves.

In order to have waves interfere, waves must overlap. And because of duration, lenghts, this means that
there are only brief periods of time when waves overlap. When we see overlapping waves, they are
actually overlapping but they are at different times, and so, there is no interference.
13.4.2. Constructive and destructive interference
Suppose a wave pulse is reflected at the end of a rope. The reflected pulse and the original pulse are in
the same direction. We say we have constructive interference.

When waves are in opposite directions, they tend to cancel. We call this cancellation destructive
interference.

When a continuous wave strikes a barrier so that the reflective waves are returned to interfere with the
original wave and if the wavelenght is just right, we get standing waves. Standing waves have places on
the rope where there is no motion, in places where the rope vibrates up and down, but there is no
specific pulse direction. The places of no vibration are called null points, or nodes.

13.4.3. Questions
Q: What does theoretical physics treat all waves as?

Q: What is an infinite plane wave?

Q: What are the two types of interference that can occur when two waves interact?

Q: What is constructive interference?

Q: What is destructive interference?

Q: What is a standing wave, and what conditions must occur in order for it to exist?
Q: Two identical waves meet travelling in opposite directions. What can be said of the amplitude of the
resulting wave when:

a) The two waves are perfectly in phase?

b) The two waves are completely out of phase?