Advanced Academic Writing

Week 5
11/2 (Wed)
 • With different names
• Methodology, Materials and Methods, Experimental,
Simulations, Model, Experimental design, or the specific
name of your method
• Factors influencing how the Methods section is
communicated
Methods • The number of peer-reviewed articles is increasing every year

section
• The way research articles are accessed is changing
• Online; the advent of so-called supplementary materials (including
appendices)
• People usually don’t have time
• Sometimes people don’t read the entire paper
• Abstract
• Abstract → Results → Discussion
• Abstract → Results → Discussion

2
 What’s purpose of Methods?
• To present enough information so that other researchers can replicate what you did
• Does this mean you should include all detailed information possible?
• You need to strike the balance between how much you put in the paper and how much
you put in the supplementary materials
• The best way to find the balance is to research your target articles
• But(!), too much supplementary materials could be bad
• Readers have to shift through many pages to find information they want
• What’s cited in supplementary is not usually tracked

• Rule of thumb:
• It is better to give slightly too much information than too little

3
Your methods and choices
are obvious to you but not to
your readers.

4
Methods section =

Which method used

+
Information ABOUT the method
• Brief background of the method
• Any previous research with the same method
• Justification of why choosing the method

5
 The structure of the Methods section – reverse-engineering it
Title
Introduction
Abstract

Introduction

(Literature
review)
Analyze
Methods
Body
Results
1. State the importance of the topic
2. Provide the background
Discussion
Identify 3. Discuss relevant research
Conclusion 4. Point out the gap in the literature
5. Describe your research
References
6
 • Break into groups of 4-5 people
• Read the following example of the Methods section
individually
• Discuss the function of each sentence
• Write a short description of what each is doing (not
what it’s saying)
Building a https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/17P4KnVYxK
model b_MdGlheks-
9Zy8jYV_Va5NARkNHAPYIbU/edit?usp=sharing
• Make sure to think about the following questions:
1. What are some common ways to start the section?
2. What is normally in the section, and in what order?
3. What are some common ways to end the section?

7
 A method to analyze levels of dissolved CO2 in pristine groundwater
[1] The current investigation involved collecting and analyzing groundwater samples
from six wells in the Mahomet Aquifer region to determine levels of dissolved CO2 . [2] This
region is in the Midwestern United States, and since groundwater in this area contains virtually
no modern contaminants wells in this area have been frequently used to interpret groundwater
evolution.
[3] A total of 18 3 mL samples were collected for analysis; three from each well. [4] Prior
to collection, stagnant water was pumped out of the wells using a Grundfos® Redi-Flo II electric
submersible pump. [5] pH levels were monitored during pumping using a pH meter (Sartorius
AG, Professional Meter PP-50, Gottingen, Germany) until stable pH readings were obtained, at
which point the samples were taken. [6] The samples were transferred to amber glass bottles,
which were sealed tightly and then stored under refrigeration at 5°C to prevent contamination
until they could be analysed. [7] Samples were shipped directly to two separate laboratories at
Imperial College London, where the amount of dissolved organic carbon was measured using a
revised version of the method established by the Illinois Sustainable Technology Center. [8] This
method uses a carbon analyser with a detection limit of 0.050 mg L−1, which ensured highly
sensitive detection of carbon residues. [9] All filters used were glass or stainless steel, and
although two samples were at risk of CFC contamination as a result of brief contact with plastic
and other anthropogenic materials at the source location, variation among samples was
negligible. 8
In sentence 1, the writer

In sentence 2, the writer

In sentence 3, the writer

In sentence 4, the writer gives details of what was done and the sequence of events.

In sentence 5, the writer gives details of what was done and the sequence of events.

In sentence 6, the writer

In sentence 7, the writer

In sentence 8, the writer

In sentence 9, the writer

9
In sentence 1, the writer gives an overview of the methods, including the aim of the investigation and the
source of the sample.
In sentence 2, the writer provides background information and justifies the choice made via factual
information and/or references to previous studies.
In sentence 3, the writer makes a general statement about the procedure.

In sentence 4, the writer gives details of what was done and the sequence of events.

In sentence 5, the writer gives details of what was done and the sequence of events.

In sentence 6, the writer further describes what was done in detail, with language that communicates that
care was taken, and providing justification.
In sentence 7, the writer provides more details of what was done/used, with reference to and citing existing
methods.
In sentence 8, the writer provides more detail about the procedures that were used, and justifies the choice
made using language that specifies the advantage.
In sentence 9, the writer mentions a possible difficulty or problem in the method.

10
Sentence 1 & 3: Providing an overview
Common ways (to provide an overview):
1. Provide a general overview by outlining the parameters of the work, e.g., the number
of tests, the number/size of the sample, the materials/equipment
• A three-step approach was used to determine the muscle forces needed to restore ATT in the ACLd knee
• The MC code system PENELOPE 2003 and the main program PENCYL were used to calculate the absorbed dose in the detector and
surrounding water phantom.

2. Provide information about the source of the materials/equipment or background

information, e.g., the properties, characteristics of the materials/equipment.
• The current investigation involved collecting and analysing groundwater samples from six wells in the Mahomet Aquifer region to
determine levels of dissolved CO2.
• We adopted the computational model developed by Holmes and Watson (2021) to simulate the phenomena of STAR.

3. Refer to something in the previous section, such as the aim of the project or the
problem you are addressing.
• In the literature review, we discussed that the methodological issue in the existing research is that researchers do not consider for the
potential effect of confounding variables that may affect how ESCA would function.

→ However, you do not necessarily have to begin with this!!

• Especially if your journal is targeted for those who are likely familiar with the method
11
Sentence 2: Provide background information

How much information should I give?

• Think about the following question:
• What can all readers of this article be assumed to know and what do they all need to understand the method?
• In the case of an example [Sentence 2], the author decided that s/he cannot assume that the readership of the
article cannot be assumed to know about the the Mahomet Aquifer region.
• Doing so will give you an opportunity to justify what you did

Make sure to state the justification of what you did!!

• Use:
• Reference to previous studies
• Factual information
• Again, your choice may be obvious to you but not to your readers
• We used laminated plates as the core of the transformer.
• We used laminated plates as the core of the transformer to minimize eddy current losses.
• to V(erb), in order to V, so as to V, so that …

12
Sentence 4, 5, 6, 7, & 8: Provide details of and about methods

How much detail do I need to provide?

• Again, consult your target journal, but given that an increasing number of people access
research, It is better to give slightly too much information than too little.
Include citation references for your methods
• In most cases, your method (or part thereof) comes from a method that was developed by
another researcher.
• If the method is well known in your field, you do not need to fully describe it but should still
provide a citation reference.
• Again, check recent studies that used the same method!
• Even if it is described in the literature review, you should still cite!
• People usually don’t have time and it is unprofessional to have them look back in the paper to find information
when you can simply point it out

Present vs. Past tense

• Standard methods are usually described in the Present tense.
• I adopted the X algorithm to estimate the parameters of the model. This algorithm computes
the probability of the best-fitting parameters given the dataset. 13
Sentence 9: Mention a difficulty or problem

Why would I mention problems? That makes my article look bad…

• In research, you often realize that you could have gotten better results by doing certain
things (e.g., adjusting your simulation parameters)
• Would you delay writing it then? What happens if you find a new thing? Delay again?
• Two reasons for mentioning problems or limitations:
• It is common to discuss suggestions for future work at the end of a research article based on
problems or limitations in the study, However, doing so at the end may affect the reader’s
confidence in your work.
• Mention the issue in the Methods section and refer back to it at the end when you discuss suggestion for
future work
• If you don’t mention about problems, it appears as though you are unaware of them.
• Use language that minimizes the problem and your responsibility and maximize
good aspects
• Let’s look at the example!

14
 A method to analyze levels of dissolved CO2 in pristine groundwater
[1] The current investigation involved collecting and analyzing groundwater samples
from six wells in the Mahomet Aquifer region to determine levels of dissolved CO2 . [2] This
region is in the Midwestern United States, and since groundwater in this area contains virtually
no modern contaminants wells in this area have been frequently used to interpret groundwater
evolution.
[3] A total of 18 3 mL samples were collected for analysis; three from each well. [4] Prior
to collection, stagnant water was pumped out of the wells using a Grundfos® Redi-Flo II electric
submersible pump. [5] pH levels were monitored during pumping using a pH meter (Sartorius
AG, Professional Meter PP-50, Gottingen, Germany) until stable pH readings were obtained, at
which point the samples were taken. [6] The samples were transferred to amber glass bottles,
which were sealed tightly and then stored under refrigeration at 5°C to prevent contamination
until they could be analysed. [7] Samples were shipped directly to two separate laboratories at
Imperial College London, where the amount of dissolved organic carbon was measured using a
revised version of the method established by the Illinois Sustainable Technology Center. [8] This
method uses a carbon analyser with a detection limit of 0.050 mg L−1, which ensured highly
sensitive detection of carbon residues. [9] All filters used were glass or stainless steel, and
although two samples were at risk of CFC contamination as a result of brief contact with plastic
and other anthropogenic materials at the source location, variation among samples was
negligible. 15
The menu of the Methods section
Provide an overview of or a general statement about the methods

Provide details of the materials/methods (e.g., +/- justify choices

temperature, sequence) +/- indicate that you took appropriate care

Refer to materials and methods in other to compare

studies to justify your choices

Provide background information in the to support the reader

present simple tense to justify your readers

Indicate issues or problems

16
Influence of electrodes on the photon energy deposition in CVD-diamond dosimeters studied with the Monte
Carlo code PENELOPE
Materials and methods
The MC code system PENELOPE 2003 (Salvat et al. 2003) and the main program PENCYL were used to calculate the
absorbed dose in the detector and surrounding water phantom. In order to minimize the time of the simulations, the
geometry of the diamond layer and electrodes was simplified by adopting an infinite-slab geometry [...] Since the
present study focuses on the metal/diamond/metal interface phenomena, the housing of the detector was regarded as
water equivalent and thus replaced by water. The influence of metallic electrodes of different thicknesses on the
absorbed dose to the diamond was investigated. Electrodes made of silver were simulated first. Silver is a common
material because it has a high electrical conductivity, forms ohmic contact with diamond and the technology of its
thermal deposition as well as contacting the detector with silver epoxy glue is well established. [...]
A careful selection of simulation parameters was needed in order to preserve accuracy while completing the
calculations within reasonable CPU times. In the course of the simulations, each particle (a primary or secondary
photon, electron or positron) was transported until its energy fell below the corresponding pre-selected absorption
energy, Eabs; when this happened, its energy was deposited locally and simulation of the particle was discontinued. The
mixed algorithm implemented in PENELOPE for the tracking of electrons and positrons is governed by specific
simulation parameters, namely C1, C2, Wcc and Wcr, whose definitions and role are explained at length in Salvat et al.
(2003). For the sake of brevity, here we just enumerate them and quote the adopted values. [...]. We found it convenient
to use different simulation parameters depending on the distance of the particles to the active layer and electrodes. To
this end, we considered that the detector, where the most ‘conservative’ simulation parameters were selected, was
surrounded by three ‘shells’ of water with successively increasing thickness and values of Eabs. [...]. In this way,
charged particles which were far away from the detector and did not have sufficient energy to reach it were absorbed
and no longer simulated. [...] This procedure substantially reduced the simulation time. In fact this approach is
equivalent to the variance-reduction technique called range rejection, but did not require any changes in the main
program and could be implemented straightforwardly through the input file.
17
Adjusting the model to your target articles
• Now look at your target articles (at least two articles) and read their
method section
• How does the model generalize to your target journal/field?
• What components are there?
• Do you need any additional components?
• Creta a model for yourself and drop it here:
• https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16rW6pQmgeN76CKsYWNpW00LE5t-
u8MAB?usp=sharing

18
Exercise
Look carefully through the following example of Methods section and find
words/phrases that could be used in the four areas below:
Describe the source of materials/equipment used

Provide details about materials and methods (+/- justification or indication that you took appropriate care)
Example

Compare with materials/methods in other studies

Example

Indicate issues or problems

Example
19
Given the source of the materials/samples/equipment used

• acquire We acquired sample specimens by X-ing.

• carry out We carried out the analysis using the A-algorithm.
• choose We chose to adopt the B-method.
• conduct We conducted a computer simulation of the phenomenon.
• collect We collected the data at C site.
• devise We devised the D data collection method by adapting E’s method.
• generate We generated simulated samples of F from the G distribution.
• modify We modified H’s method by changing its scale parameter to I.
• obtain We obtained the analysis code from J and K (2002).
• perform We performed our analysis developed by L and M (2022).

20
Language to provide specific and precise details of materials and methods (Verbs)

• adapt • control • input • place • solve

• add • convert • insert • plot • stabilize
• administer • create • install • position • substitute
• adopt • define • invert • prepare • synthesize
• adjust • derive • isolate • process • transfer
• analyze • design • locate • produce • treat
• apply • determine • maintain • quantify • vary
• arrange • employ • maximize • record • utilize
• assemble • estimate • measure • recover
• assume • evaluate • minimize • regulate
• attach • examine • model • represent
• calculate • extract • modify • restrict
• calibrate • fabricate • monitor • retain
• carry out • formulate • normalize • retrieve
• collect • generate • obtain • sample
• combine • implement • operate • score
• compute • include • optimize • select
• conduct • incorporate • perform • simulate
21
Language to provide specific and precise details of materials and methods
(Sequence language)
The following is language you can use when giving a precise description of the timing and order of each step in the
procedure. This sequence language is also equally important when describing the results.

Group 1 refer to events that occur before beginning the experiment/simulation

Group 2 mark the beginning of the experiment
Group 3 show the order in which events occur but don’t give information about the timing of the
sequence
Group 4 communicates that there was a short period of time between two events or something
occurred after a short period
Group 5 communicate that the period of time between the events was long or something occur at the
end of the sequence
Group 6 communicate that two events occur at the same time – VERY USEFUL AND IMPORTANT
Group 7 mark the end of a sequence
Group 8 refer to events that occur after the experiment

22
Categorize the following words in the eight groups

• after • earlier • in time • secondly

• afterwards • eventually • initially • shortly after
• as • finally • instantly • simultaneously
• as soon as • firstly • lastly • soon
• at once • followed by • later • straight away
• at first • following • later on • subsequently
• at that point • formerly • meanwhile • then
• at the beginning • immediately • next • to begin with
• at the end • in advance • once • to start with
• at the same time • in due course • originally • towards the end
• at the start • in the beginning • previously • until
• beforehand • in the end • prior to • when
• directly • in the meantime • quickly • while

23
 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
• beforehand • at first • after • prior to • quickly
• earlier • at the beginning • afterwards • secondly • shortly after
• formerly • at the start • earlier • subsequently • soon
• in advance • firstly • followed by • then
• originally • in the beginning • following
• previously • initially • formerly
• prior to • to begin with • next
• initially • to start with • previously

Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group8

• eventually • as • in the meantime • at the end • afterwards
• in due course • as soon as • meanwhile • eventually • eventually
• in time • at once • once • finally • later
• later • at that point • simultaneously • in the end • later on
• later on • at the same time • straightaway • lastly • subsequently
• subsequently • directly • until
• towards the end • immediately • when
• instantly • while

Group 1 = before the experiment Group 5 = at the end of the sequence

Group 2 = at the beginning Group 6 = at the same time
Group 3 = the order in which events occur without details Group 7 = mark the end of the sequence
Group 4 = a short period of time Group 8 = after the experiment 24
Language and Writing Skills

• Agentless passive and verb tense

• Prepositions
• Using A, THE, ϕ

25
Agentless passive and verb tense
• Using agentless passive can create ambiguity
• It looks identical whether the method is by your own work or the work of another researcher
• It risks losing ownership of your contribution and unknowingly contribute someone else for
your work
→ Very confusing for the reader and more importantly reviewers!
• Inappropriate use of verb tense can create confusion
• An analysis was conducted using the XY algorithm.
• An analysis is conducted using the XY algorithm.
• Be meticulous!
• Your job is not to simply to make it possible for the reader to understand but to make it
impossible for the reader not to understand.

26
Some better approaches
• XY was collected (by me in the procedure or work that I carried out)
• Change to the active: We collected XY.
• Add words like here, in this study, etc.: In this study, XY was collected.
• XY was collected (by someone whose work I am using as a basis for mine)
• Give reference: XY was collected using the Z method (AB & CD, 2012).

• XY is collected (normally as part of an established or standard procedure)

• Still give reference: We collected samples of XY using the Z method. The method is considered
a standard when sampling XY (AB & CD, 2012).
• Add phrases like: using the standard procedure: We collected samples of XY using the
standard procedure through the Z method (AB & CD, 2012).

27
Prepositions
• Prepositions have an impact on meaning
• evidence of X vs. evidence for X
• X was substituted for Y = ? replaced ?
• X was substituted with Y = ? replaced ?
• Even if you think you are familiar with these …
• Your reader (and a wider audience) may not be!
• BE METICOUS!

28
Some strategies for dealing with prepositions

1. Begin by paying attention to prepositions

• on which ones are used, how they are used, etc.
2. Pay attention to the verb + preposition clusters used to describe processes
The MC code system PENELOPE 2003 (Salvat et al. 2003) and the main program PENCYL were
used to calculate the absorbed dose in the detector and surrounding water phantom. In order to
minimize the time of the simulations, the geometry of the diamond layer and electrodes was
simplified by adopting an infinite-slab geometry [...] Since the present study focuses on the
metal/diamond/metal interface phenomena, the housing of the detector was regarded as water
equivalent and thus replaced by water. The influence of metallic electrodes of different thicknesses
on the absorbed dose to the diamond was investigated. Electrodes made of silver were simulated first.
Silver is a common material because it has a high electrical conductivity, forms ohmic contact with
diamond and the technology of its thermal deposition as well as contacting the detector with silver
epoxy glue is well established. [...]

29
Some strategies for dealing with prepositions

1. Begin by paying attention to prepositions

• on which ones are used, how they are used, etc.
2. Pay attention to the verb + preposition clusters used to describe processes
The MC code system PENELOPE 2003 (Salvat et al. 2003) and the main program PENCYL were
used to calculate the absorbed dose in the detector and surrounding water phantom. In order to
minimize the time of the simulations, the geometry of the diamond layer and electrodes was
simplified by adopting an infinite-slab geometry [...] Since the present study focuses on the
metal/diamond/metal interface phenomena, the housing of the detector was regarded as water
equivalent and thus replaced by water. The influence of metallic electrodes of different thicknesses
on the absorbed dose to the diamond was investigated. Electrodes made of silver were simulated
first. Silver is a common material because it has a high electrical conductivity, forms ohmic contact
with diamond and the technology of its thermal deposition as well as contacting the detector with
silver epoxy glue is well established. [...]

30
Some strategies for dealing with prepositions

1. Begin by paying attention to prepositions

• on which ones are used, how they are used, etc.
2. Pay attention to the verb + preposition clusters used to describe processes
3. Consider replacing prepositions with words that make the meaning clear
• From this method → Using this method
• With the increase in processing speed → As a result of the increase in processing speed
• With many attempts → After many attempts
4. Look for patterns in preposition use
• For example, you will notice:
• using occurs more often than with

5. Avoid strings of prepositional phrases

• The tray with the samples was placed in the oven at 250 °C with protective gloves to avoid
injury for one hour

31
Using 1. Which ones are countable nouns?
A, THE, ϕ 2. Should I use a/an, ϕ, or the?

32
Which ones are uncountable nouns?
absence danger failure information paper reality treatment

advice design fire intelligence philosophy research trouble

air distribution fuel knowledge physics risk truth

analysis earth harm light pollution safety velocity

atmopshere electricity health loss power science vision

behavior energy heat machinery pressure strength waste

blood environment height noise progress stuff water

calculation equipment help oil protection technology

capacity evidence independence organization purity temperature

concrete existence industry oxygen quantity transport

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1uMLzpW7sUjHT8uxYOKgwemHnmz1Xhd
QjCx0XmfAOcUQ/edit?usp=sharing 33
Which ones are uncountable nouns?
absence danger failure information paper reality treatment

advice design fire intelligence philosophy research trouble

air distribution fuel knowledge physics risk truth

analysis earth harm light pollution safety velocity

atmopshere electricity health loss power science vision

behavior energy heat machinery pressure strength waste

blood environment height noise progress stuff water

calculation equipment help oil protection technology

capacity evidence independence organization purity temperature

concrete existence industry oxygen quantity transport

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1uMLzpW7sUjHT8uxYOKgwemHnmz1Xhd
QjCx0XmfAOcUQ/edit?usp=sharing 34
Should I use a/an, ϕ, or the?
• Use a/an
• when you mention a singular countable noun for the first time
• when it does not matter, or you don’t know or the reader does not know which thing you mean
• to make a general statement about a countable noun in the singular
• A semiconductor can conduct electricity under certain conditions

• Use ϕ
• to make a general statement about in the plural
• Use to make a general statement about an uncountable noun
• when you mention a plural countable noun for the first time
• Use the
• when there is really only one possibility
• when it is definitely known or obvious to the reader

35
 Any Question so far?
Provide an overview of or a general statement about the methods

Provide details of the materials/methods (e.g., +/- justify choices

temperature, sequence) +/- indicate that you took appropriate care

Refer to materials and methods in other to compare

studies to justify your choices

Provide background information in the to support the reader

present simple tense to justify your readers

Indicate issues or problems

36
Results

37
 Four possible options to structure the final sections
• Most versatile
Option 1 Results Discussion Conclusion
• Second common

Option 2 Results Discussion ϕ • Possible but unlikely …

Option 3
Results and Conclusion
• Most common in engineering articles
• When preliminary results influence later ones
Discussions • When you have multiple hypotheses and predictions

Option 4 Results ϕ Conclusion • I’ve seen several!

38
Charts and graphs: Types

Line graph Bar graph

Radar chart Pie chart Flow chart

39
Charts and graphs: How to Improve?

40
https://www3.nd.edu/~pkamat/pdf/graphs.pdf
 Charts and graphs: Examples
A B
AAA1
40 40 BRWK
CQQP
35 AAA1 35 DTYI
BRWK
CQQP FP5A
30 DTYI
FP5A 30
Data from site A

Parameter Y
25 25 Newly developed
Parameter Y

machine
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Parameter X Parameter X
Figure 1. XXXX Figure 1. XXXX
41
Charts and graphs: Summary (Tufte, 1983, p. 183)
A good graphic
• Avoids abbreviations
• Lists a legend and/or label that runs from left to right (Avoid vertical and
multiple directions)
• Does not require repeated references to the main text
• Uses appropriate colors
• Uses a clear, precise, and modest font à Upper and lower case, with serifs

Avoid 'jet' colormap for contour

plots as jet is not the default
colormap of python version 3.

42
Workshop: Presenting Results Data
Problem:
• Solar radiation intensity decreases exponentially as you move further
from the sun.
• At Venus (0.8 Astronomical Units) the intensity is 2600 W/m2
• At Earth (1.0 Astronomical Unit) the intensity is 1400 W/m2
• At Mars (1.5 Astronomical Units) the intensity is 600 W/m2
• At Jupiter (5.0 Astronomical Units) the intensity is 50 W/m2

Which graph would you use to

present this data?
Venus

Earth

Mars

Jupiter
Workshop: Presenting Results Data
Problem:
• The five largest economies in the world are:
1. United States (GDP = $21.4 Trillion USD)
2. China (GDP = $14.1 Trillion USD)
3. Japan (GDP = $5.8 Trillion USD)
4. Germany (GDP = $3.9 Trillion USD)
5. India (GDP = $2.9 Trillion USD)

Which graph would you use to

present this data?
Let’s think!

What’s the difference between results and findings?

https://app.one.learnwiz.jp/events/2936248965

47
 • Report all the main and important findings
• Summarize the data in good arranged graphs
and tables and state your main findings
based on them
• Do NOT omit contradictory results (but you
do not have to include all your results)
Results • Never provide results without an
interpretation. To interpret you should be
able to present your results talking about:
• Sequence
• Frequency
• Quantity
• Causality
48
On-bicycle exposure to particulate pollution: using a portable device for accurate measurement
[1] Data obtained in previous cycling safety studies1,5,7 used fixed monitors positioned at high-emission
locations to measure weekday concentrations of black carbon (BC) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Those studies
found no significant difference in BC and NO2 emissions between cycle lanes shared with buses and cycle
lanes separated from vehicle traffic. [2] In our study, BC and NO2 concentrations were measured using a
PEMS-43, a portable emissions measurement system developed by Noxious et al.7 The PEMS-43 was fixed to
a bicycle and recorded the emissions hourly along each route type.
[3] Figure 1 shows the BC and NO2 concentrations measured hourly on each route type from 6.00
a.m. to 10.00 a.m. [4] In line with results from previous studies, the BC and NO2 concentrations were broadly
similar for both route types over this 4-hour period. However, the data obtained by PEMS-43 for journeys
later in the day were significantly different. [5] We recorded a striking reduction in the NO2 concentrations
along bike paths separated from vehicle traffic, beginning shortly after 10. 00 a.m. (Figure 2). [6] As can be
seen, by 2.00 p.m. the NO2 levels had fallen by as much as 33%, and this low level was maintained even
during the 5.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. peak traffic density period. [7] These results suggest that NO2 levels along
bike paths separated from vehicle traffic may not match those of BC at all times throughout the day. [8] The
presence of vegetation is known to slightly alter BC and NO2 concentrations at different times of day11,18, and
the effect of this along the two routes was not investigated. [9] Nevertheless, the data obtained here suggest
that using a portable emissions measurement system to measure BC and NO2 exposures hourly may provide
more accurate information for traffic management strategies than traditional on-site measurement.

What does each group of the sentence(s) do? 49

What does each group of the sentence(s) do?
1 The writer revisits the methods and findings of studies mentioned earlier in the article
2 The write briefly summarizes the method in the study
3 The writer invites the reader to look at a Results graphic
4 The writer compares the results with those in other studies, using subjective, evaluative
language (In line with, broadly similar, significantly different)
5 The writer directs the reader’s attention to a specific result, describing it with strongly
evaluative language (striking)
6 The writer selects a specific result to present in more detail, and comments on it (as much
as, even)
7 The writer mentions a possible implication of the results
8 The writer mentions a possible limitation, minimizing its potential impact (slightly) on the
results
9 The writer focuses the reader’s attention away from the problem and towards the positive
value of the study in terms of the implications and applications of the results
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 Why should I revisit the previous part of the
article?
• Helpful to remind the reader of the main research questions, methods, and analytical methods of
the study
• The goal of your article is to tell the narrative of the project
• Readers look for patterns and trends, and it is the writer’s responsibility to remind the reader of the
overall framework of the study before introducing results.
• To be clear about where you are going:
• Some people may read and interpret the results in a different way than you would expect; It is your
responsibility to present the results within a narrative that leads naturally towards the interpretations
you want to draw.
• How to do this:
• Begin with a brief statement about the overall trends of the results
• Begin by restating the aim of the study
• Begin by revisiting the key aspects of the methods

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General Model of Results
• Revisiting a previous part of the article
• Revisit the aim of the study or RQs and Hypotheses
• Give a general statement about the results
• Invite to view specific graphics or tables as a summary
• Provide specific results with some evaluative language
• Compare with results in previous studies
• Compare with model, simulation, or predicted results
• Explanation of results via known facts or methods
• Issues with results
• Possible implication of results

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 Sample passage 1

Fig. 6 180-degree bending test results for (a) 0.7 mass%Fe (b) 1 mass%Fe
The hemming process is performed at the end of a plate during the
manufacturing of the automobile body. The judgment of whether or not a
plate is suitable for hemming is done using the 180-degree bending test.
Fig. 6 shows the results of the bending test. When the Fe content was less
than 0.7 mass%, no influence was observed on the surface of the bent strip
(a). However, when the content of Fe was greater than 1.0 mass%, a crack
was observed on the outer surface (b). These results show that an Fe
content of up to 0.7 mass% is allowable for high-speed twin-roll casting.
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 Sample passage 1

General explanation
Fig. 6 180-degree bending test results for (a) 0.7 mass%Fe (b) 1 mass%Fe
The hemming process is performed at the end of a plate during the
manufacturing of the automobile body. The judgment
Figure of whether or not a
plate is suitable for hemming is done using the 180-degree bending test.
Fig. 6 shows the results of the bending test. When the Fe content was less
than 0.7 mass%, no influence was observed on theFindings
surface of the bent strip
(a). However, when the content of Fe was greater than 1.0 mass%, a crack
was observed on the outer surface (b). These results show that an Fe
content of up to 0.7 mass% is allowable for high-speed twin-roll casting.
Comments
54
Sample passage 2

Analytical method

Figure
...

Findings

Riquelme, Mario A., Eliot Quataert, and Daniel Verscharen. "Particle-in-cell simulations of continuously driven mirror and
55
ion cyclotron instabilities in high beta astrophysical and heliospheric plasmas." The Astrophysical Journal 800.1 (2015): 27.
 Results
What to write: How to write it:
• Main and important findings • Interpret and comment on (vs.
discuss) the findings
• Well organized tables and/or
clear figures • Describe figures in the text
and point the reader to figures
• Interpretation of the results and tables
Grammar Can your paper answer these
• Use past tense for what was questions?
done and present tense for
statements of general validity • What are the main findings?
• Use precise vocabulary • How did you interpret the
• Avoid wordiness results?
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 • according to the data in Fig. 1 • (see Fig. 1)
• as can be seen from/in Fig. 1 • We observe X from/in Fig. 1
• based on Fig. 1
• X can be found in Fig. 1 • contains
• X can be seen from/in Fig. 1 • demonstrates
• Fig. 1 indicates • displays
Language • (close) inspection of Fig. 1 • illustrates

tips: Figures indicates

• Data in Fig. 1 indicates
• presents
• shows
• Evidence for this is in Fig. 1
• summarizes
• X is apparent from/in Fig. 1
• X is clearly visible in Fig. 1
• X is evident in Fig. 1
• X is shown in Fig. 1

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 Language tips: Describing results
• is absent • exist • abrupt • extensive • pronounced • virtually
• is constant • fall • adequate • generally • predominant • weakly
• is different • increase • appropriate • in general • rapid
• is equal • match • brief • in principle • remarkable
• is higher/highest • occur • broadly • inadequate • severe
• is identical • precede • by and large • mainly • sharp
• is present • produce • clear • major • similar
• change • reduce • comparable • merely • steep
• decline • remain • consistent • minor • striking
• decrease • resume • dramatic • more or less • sufficient
• delay • rise • effectively • obvious • unexpected
• drop • vary • essentially • profound • unlikely

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