Tran et al.

BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-018-5363-9

RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access

Characterization of G-protein coupled

receptors from the blackback land crab
Gecarcinus lateralis Y organ transcriptome
over the molt cycle
Nhut M. Tran1, Donald L. Mykles2, Abigail Elizur1 and Tomer Ventura1*

Abstract
Background: G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are ancient, ubiquitous, constitute the largest family of
transducing cell surface proteins, and are integral to cell communication via an array of ligands/neuropeptides. Molt
inhibiting hormone (MIH) is a key neuropeptide that controls growth and reproduction in crustaceans by regulating
the molt cycle. It inhibits ecdysone biosynthesis by a pair of endocrine glands (Y-organs; YOs) through binding a
yet uncharacterized GPCR, which triggers a signalling cascade, leading to inhibition of the ecdysis sequence. When
MIH release stops, ecdysone is synthesized and released to the hemolymph. A peak in ecdysone titer is followed by
a molting event. A transcriptome of the blackback land crab Gecarcinus lateralis YOs across molt was utilized in this
study to curate the list of GPCRs and their expression in order to better assess which GPCRs are involved in the
molt process.
Results: Ninety-nine G. lateralis putative GPCRs were obtained by screening the YO transcriptome against the Pfam
database. Phylogenetic analysis classified 49 as class A (Rhodopsin-like receptor), 35 as class B (Secretin receptor),
and 9 as class C (metabotropic glutamate). Further phylogenetic analysis of class A GPCRs identified neuropeptide
GPCRs, including those for Allatostatin A, Allatostatin B, Bursicon, CCHamide, FMRFamide, Proctolin, Corazonin,
Relaxin, and the biogenic amine Serotonin. Three GPCRs clustered with recently identified putative CHH receptors
(CHHRs), and differential expression over the molt cycle suggests that they are associated with ecdysteroidogenesis
regulation. Two putative Corazonin receptors showed much higher expression in the YOs compared with all other
GPCRs, suggesting an important role in molt regulation.
Conclusions: Molting requires an orchestrated regulation of YO ecdysteroid synthesis by multiple neuropeptides. In
this study, we curated a comprehensive list of GPCRs expressed in the YO and followed their expression across the
molt cycle. Three putative CHH receptors were identified and could include an MIH receptor whose activation
negatively regulates molting. Orthologs of receptors that were found to be involved in molt regulation in insects
were also identified, including LGR3 and Corazonin receptor, the latter of which was expressed at much higher
level than all other receptors, suggesting a key role in YO regulation.
Keywords: Neuroendocrine signalling pathways, Rhodopsin-like receptors, Secretin-like receptors, Decapod
crustaceans, Ecdysis regulation, Crustacean Hyperglycemic Hormone family of neuropeptides, Molting, Ecdysteroids,
G protein-coupled receptor

* Correspondence: [email protected]
1
GeneCology Research Centre, School of Science and Engineering University
of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland 4556, Australia
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 2 of 20

Background reproduction and molting. In premolt, the epidermal

Crustaceans are a diverse subphylum of arthropods com- layer enlarges and starts to separate from the old exo-
prising of close to 67,000 species, classified into six clas- skeleton. It then synthesizes the outer layers of the new
ses, which together with their derived insects, comprise exoskeleton, while degrading the inner layers of the old
the pancrustacea superphylum clade [1]. Malacostraca is exoskeleton. Ecdysis then takes place, by which the ani-
the most diverse and species rich class of crustaceans, mal emerges from its old exoskeleton. The postmolt
including the decapod crustaceans, which comprise the stage begins by the rapid uptake of water and minerals
more familiar groups of species, such as crabs, cray- (and in some species, minerals are also retrieved from
fishes, lobsters, and shrimps. Crustaceans are adapted to internal storages that dynamically fill prior to ecdysis as
a wide range of conditions, which explains their wide pouches outside the stomach, called gastrolithes) and
distribution across many ecological niches. Apart from harden the new exoskeleton to complete the molt cycle.
their ecological significance, decapod crustaceans are During this stage, the animals start to consume food
highly prized in fisheries and aquaculture. In 2015, [11]. Molting in arthropods is triggered by a peak in the
nearly 7.4 billion tonnes of crustaceans were cultured hemolymph level of derivatives of the steroid hormone
worldwide, with nearly 90% of total production attrib- ecdysone, which is synthesized in a pair of endocrine
uted to coastal regions of Asian countries [2]. Addition- glands, known as the Y-organs (YOs), located bilaterally
ally, decapod crustaceans are listed among the worst in the cephalothorax. The YOs ecdysteroid production
invasive species globally [3–5]. This great importance capacity varies over the molt cycle; it is highest in pre-
necessitates a better understanding of key biological pro- molt and lowest in postmolt (see review [10]).
cesses of crustaceans in order to address key bottlenecks In decapod crustaceans, ecdysone is secreted from the
in the fishery and aquaculture industries to enable it to YOs into the hemolymph and is carried to target tissues,
meet the ever-growing demand in quality protein [6], as where it is hydroxylated into the active molt hormone:
well as to devise species-specific treatments for invasive 20-hydroxyecdysone (20HE) [12–16]. 20HE binds to the
species. One potential application is monosex biotech- ecdysteroid receptor, which then initiates a signaling cas-
nology to minimize the species’ invasive potential [7]. cade of transcription factors that alter the molecular
Growth control is another area of active research. program for molting and metamorphosis [17–20]. The
In crustaceans, like other arthropods, locomotion is fa- synthesis of ecdysteroids by the YO is inhibited by a
cilitated by a rigid exoskeleton. Chitin, the second most neuropeptide known as the molt-inhibiting hormone
abundant carbohydrate in nature following cellulose, is (MIH), produced predominantly by the X-organ (XO)
the major component of the exoskeleton, providing a [21, 22]. The XOs are located bilaterally in the eyestalks
scaffold for cuticular proteins that form links between and are responsible for producing a suite of endocrine
the chitin fibers, as well as stabilize deposition of min- factors conveyed to the nearby sinus gland (SG) for stor-
erals that harden the cuticle. The skeletal muscles attach age and regulated release to the hemolymph. These fac-
internally to the exoskeleton and contract to enable limb tors include MIH, crustacean hyperglycemic hormone
movements [8]. In some crustacean species, such as (CHH), vitellogenesis-inhibiting hormone (VIH), man-
crabs, the rigid, highly calcified exoskeleton, provides dibular organ-inhibiting hormone (MOIH), and ion
protection against predators [9]. Unlike holometabolous transport peptide (ITP) [23]. From a practical point of
insects (where following larval development there is a view, most of the decapod crustaceans produced through
complete metamorphic transition through from pupae aquaculture in farms globally require removal of the eye-
to adult, for example: flies, mosquitos etc.), crustaceans stalks of broodstock females in order to induce spawn-
continually grow after they metamorphose into the ju- ing in captivity [24–26]. A better understanding of the
venile stage. In order to grow and develop following mechanism which regulates each process can lead to
metamorphosis, they must shed their old exoskeleton specific treatments that avoid the use of such an extreme
and produce a new larger one. In this process termed and labor-intensive method.
molting (or ecdysis) crustaceans synchronously form a Our model organism is arguably the most well stud-
new flexible exoskeleton under the existing one, absorb ied decapod crustacean in the context of molting.
the minerals from the old exoskeleton, and then emerge One of the earliest scientific studies on Gecarci-
from the old exoskeleton and harden the new one [10]. nus lateralis was published in 1952 by Bliss and
An advantage of continual growth is that crustaceans Welsh [27], describing the XO-SG ultrastructure. Ex-
can increase in size and also regenerate lost limbs. perimental studies by Skinner and later by Chang and
The molt cycle involves well-defined stages including Mykles have contributed to a better understanding of
intermolt, premolt, ecdysis, and postmolt. The longest the hormonal regulation of molting [10, 11], as well
stage is intermolt, when the animal accumulates organic as the development of tools to investigate the molting
compounds and stores the energy required for process. YO assays [28–30] and transcriptomics [31–
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 3 of 20

34] have been used to investigate the signaling path- Veenstra identified one contig (Pc-GPCRA9) as an ITP-like
ways controlling YO ecdysteroidogenesis. However, receptor based on clustering with BNGR-A24 and three re-
one mystery remains, which is the identity of the ceptors as putative ITP receptors (Pc-GPCRA52,
MIH receptor. Although CHH and MIH share a simi- Pc-GPCRA53, Pc-GPCRA63) in the red swamp crayfish Pro-
lar function of inhibiting ecdysteridogenesis by the cambarus clarkii, based on clustering with BNGR-A34 [48].
YO, the signaling pathways of these two neuropep- A recent study in the eastern spiny lobster Sagmariasus ver-
tides are distinct. A membrane guanylyl cyclase reauxi has also proposed two putative ITP receptors based
(GC-II) is considered as the receptor activated by on phylogenetic alignment to BNGR-A34 and Pc-GPCRA53
CHH, resulting in immediate increase of the intracel- [49]. These studies, together with the high similarity shown
lular messenger guanosine 3', 5' cyclic monophosphate between insect and decapod neuropeptidomes [50, 51], make
(cGMP) level. As proposed, an unidentified receptor it possible to predict the receptors for decapod neuropep-
activated by MIH temporarily increases the cAMP tides based on those deorphanized in insects. This study cu-
level followed by upregulation of cGMP (see [10, 35] rated a comprehensive list of GPCRs in the G. lateralis YO
for reviews). This suggests that the MIH receptor is transcriptome across the molt cycle.
not a GC-II. In 2009, Zmora et al. performed binding
assays using radio-labeled MIH with YO membranes Results and discussion
collected from blue crab juveniles in intermolt stage GPCRs play a central role in cell signaling as receptors
and hepatopancreas membrane of mature vitellogenic for several transmitters, mediators, hormones, and neu-
females. MIH was found to bind to both YO and hep- ropeptides. In crustaceans, most of the neuropeptides
atopancreas membranes, but with far higher affinity with known receptors act through GPCRs. Although
to the YO, suggesting that the main binding site of many dozens of neuropeptides have been identified in
MIH is the YO membrane [36]. hundreds of crustacean species over the last decade [48,
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are ancient, ubiqui- 52, 53], information about their receptors (GPCRs) in
tous, constitute the largest gene family of transducing cell terms of sequence, structure, and function, is very lim-
surface proteins, and are integral to cell communication ited. Recent studies on decapod crustaceans formed a
[37–39]. All members of the GPCR gene family contain a foundation for the future discovery of GPCRs. In 2015,
domain of seven transmembrane α-helices with three extra- Veenstra mined publically-available databases of P. clar-
cellular loops and three intracellular loops [40]. The GPCR kii and found several neuropeptide receptors, including
gene family is subdivided into three main classes depending those for Ast C, LGR, PDF, DH31, and DH44 [48]. In
on the pharmacological nature of their ligands and sequence 2016, Buckley et al. computationally identified 86
similarity [41]. These are rhodopsin-like receptors (class A), GPCRs in the eastern spiny lobster S. verreauxi, includ-
secretin-like receptors (class B), and metabotropic-glutama- ing important neuropeptide receptors [49]. In this study,
te-receptor-like (class C), which represent about 89%, 7%, transcriptomic analysis identified 99 GPCRs in the
and 4%, respectively [42], of the known GPCRs [42]. In in- G. lateralis YO. Of these, 71 were annotated either by
sects, most of the neuropeptide-activated receptors are pre- phylogenetic or domain analysis, which include Ast re-
dominantly rhodopsin-like receptors and some are ceptor, Crz receptor, CHHamide receptor, and FMRFa-
secretin-like receptors [43]. GPCR sequences within these mide receptor. These outcomes are comparable to
families can share less than 25% identity between species previous studies in Decapoda [48, 49]. N-glycosylation
[44], making it difficult to annotate newly identified candi- motif arrangement analysis of selected receptors was
date receptors. More than 1,000 GPCRs have been charac- used to confirm the annotation.
terized in Caenorhabditis elegans [45], while the number of In silico transcriptomic analysis identified 299 se-
GPCRs is over 200 in Drosophila melanogaster [46], adding quences with seven TM (Table 1). Ninety-nine of the
another level of complexity presented by the vast variation of 299 sequences, have the seven TM domain characteristic
GPCR number across ecdysozoans. In crustaceans, there are of GPCRs. Among them, 49 proteins were identified as
many efforts to deorphanize neuropeptide receptors, but Rhodopsin-like receptors (designated as GeclatGP-
there are only a few species where a comprehensive list of CR_A1 to 45). Phylogenetic analysis and blast search
GPCRs have been identified. Recently, advances in sequen- using annotated GPCRs from other arthropods enabled
cing technologies have facilitated transcriptome-based anno- annotation of 37 Rhodopsin-like receptors (class A
tation. In 2014, Nagai et al. characterized two GPCRs, GPCRs; Additional files 1, 2 and Table 2). Thirty-five
BNGR-A2 and A34, as ITP receptors, and A24 as an GPCRs were classified as secretin-like (class B) GPCRs.
ITP-like receptor (member of CHHR family) in the silk- Of the 35 class B receptors, one was annotated as diur-
month Bombyx mori, using in vitro binding assays with ITP etic hormone 44 (DH44) receptor, one diuretic hormone
peptides and 30 GPCRs [47]. Using these ITP and ITP-like 31 (DH31) receptor, one parathyroid hormone (PTH) re-
receptors from B. mori as references for phylogenetic study, ceptor, and three were annotated as putative pigment
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 4 of 20

Table 1 The numbers of sequences comprising each of the Pfam accessions

Domain name Pfam accession Description of domain Number of unique predicted
peptide sequences
7tm_1 PF00001.16 7 transmembrane receptor (rhodopsin family) 108
7tm_2 PF00002.19 7 transmembrane receptor (Secretin family) 54
7tm_3 PF00003.17 7 transmembrane sweet-taste receptor of 3 GCPR 17
7tm_7 PF08395.7 7tm Chemosensory receptor 1
7TM_GPCR_Srsx PF10320.4 Serpentine type 7TM GPCR chemoreceptor Srsx 31
7TM_GPCR_Srv PF10323.4 Serpentine type 7TM GPCR chemoreceptor Srv 11
7TM_GPCR_Srw PF10324.4 Serpentine type 7TM GPCR chemoreceptor Srw 15
7TM_GPCR_Srx PF10328.4 Serpentine type 7TM GPCR chemoreceptor Srx 16
ABC_tran PF00005.22 ABC transporter 159
ABC_tran_2 PF12848.2 ABC transporter 9
ABC_transp_aux PF09822.4 ABC-type uncharacterized transport system 1
Frizzled PF01534.12 Frizzled/Smoothened family membrane region 10
Na_Ca_ex PF01699.19 Sodium/calcium exchanger protein 7
GpcrRhopsn4 PF10192.4 Rhodopsin-like GPCR transmembrane domain 4

dispersing factor (PDF) receptors. Nine class C and six cockroaches, which includes the conserved C-terminal
class F receptors were inferred based on BlastP results sequence F-G-Lamide (other cases Y/F-X-F-G-L/Iamide)
and the Frizzled domain in class F. [56]. The second family of ASTs was isolated in crickets.
A heat-map profile of GPCR expression was generated These are C-terminally amidated peptides with trypto-
based on reads mapping to the transcriptome database phan in the second and ninth positions, and are desig-
using a normalized read count (RPKM) [32] in five dif- nated as the W(X)6Wamide or B-type ASTs [57, 58].
ferent molt stages. The RPKM of most GPCRs showed The third family of ASTs was first isolated in 1991 from
down-regulation at the postmolt stage (67% of the the brain of the lepidopteran Manduca sexta [59]. It is a
GPCRs; Fig. 1). single 15 amino acid peptide with the nonamidated
It is noteworthy that one GPCR (A37) showed specific C-terminal pentapeptide P-I-S-C-F (Ast C). All three
expression at the postmolt stage, and one putative cora- classes of peptides have since been identified in crusta-
zonin receptor (A6) was not expressed in the intermolt ceans [60–62].
and early premolt stages, but was expressed in the mid Ast A regulates metabolism, feeding homeostasis, and en-
and late premolt stages with higher expression in the ergy mobilization by controlling release of glucagon-related
postmolt stage. All three predicted CHHRs (A9, A10, adipokinetic hormone (AKH) and Drosophila insulin-like
A12) were expressed throughout the molt cycle except peptides (DILPs) [63]. One putative Ast A receptor
in the postmolt stage. GPCR families known to be in- (AstA_R; Gl-GPCRA1) was identified through phylogenetic
volved with molting in arthropods and those that show analysis. G. lateralis Ast A receptor (AstA_R) contains
differential expression in the present study are discussed three N-glycosylation motifs at the N-terminus and two
in further detail below. N-glycosylation motifs at the C-terminus, while P. clakii
AstA_R has three N-glycosylation motifs at the N-terminus
Rhodopsin-like receptors (class A) and one at the C-terminus (Fig. 2a). In G.lateralis, the
Allatostatin receptors AstA_R was up-regulated during intermolt and premolt
Allatostatins (ASTs) are pleiotropic neuropeptides that stages, and was not expressed at the postmolt stage, which
function as inhibitors of juvenile hormone (JH) produc- is consistent with the role of Ast A in regulating metabol-
tion. JH is synthesized in the corpora allata in insects, ism and energy.
while its crustacean active analogous compound (the JH Ast B is known for its myoinhibitory role and is there-
precursor, methyl farnesoate; MF) is synthesized in the fore also referred to as myoinhibitory peptide (MIP)
mandibular organ [54]. JH/MF maintains the appropriate [64]. In D. melanogaster, Ast B (also called sex peptide
stage and size and prevents metamorphosis [55]. Three in insects) blocks the receptivity of copulated females
types of ASTs have been identified in insects and charac- and increases food uptake after copulation [65]. Ast B is
terized based on their conserved C-terminal sequences. also known as a signaling molecule for settlement behav-
The first class is FGLamide (Ast A), first discovered in ior in Platynereis larvae [66]. One putative Ast B
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 5 of 20

Table 2 List of GPCR class A (Rhodopsin-like receptor) Table 2 List of GPCR class A (Rhodopsin-like receptor)
ID Predicted function Predicted ligand (Continued)
Gl_GPCR_A1 Allatostatin A receptor Allatostatin A ID Predicted function Predicted ligand

Gl_GPCR_A2 TRH receptor TRH Gl_GPCR_A41 Unknown receptor Unknown

Gl_GPCR_A3 ETH receptor ETH Gl_GPCR_A42 Unknown receptor Unknown

Gl_GPCR_A4 GPA2/GPB5 receptor GPA2/GPB5 Gl_GPCR_A43 Unknown receptor Unknown

Gl_GPCR_A4b GPA2/GPB5 receptor GPA2/GPB5 Gl_GPCR_A44 HPR1 receptor Unknown

Gl_GPCR_A5 Allatostatin B receptor Allatostatin B Gl_GPCR_A45 CCAP receptor CCAP

Gl_GPCR_A5b Allatostatin C receptor Allatostatin C

Gl_GPCR_A6 Corazonin receptor Corazonin
receptor (AstB_R; Gl-GPCRA5) was identified, which
Gl_GPCR_A7 Corazonin receptor Corazonin
clustered with AstB_R identified in P. clarkii (Fig. 2b).
Gl_GPCR_A8 CCHamide receptor CCHamide Gl-GPCRA5 showed the same RPKM expression trend
Gl_GPCR_A8b CCHamide receptor CCHamide as most other receptors, with the highest level in the
Gl_GPCR_A9 CHH-like receptor CHH family intermolt stage and gradually decreasing in expression
Gl_GPCR_A10 CHH-like receptor CHH family in premolt stages, with no expression at the postmolt
Gl_GPCR_A11 FMRFamide receptor FMRFamide
stage (Fig. 3). This expression pattern is opposite to
that found in holometabolous insects [11] (also based
Gl_GPCR_A12 CHH-like receptor CHH family
on expression data in D. melanogaster as found in Fly-
Gl_GPCR_A13 Proctolin receptor Proctolin base; Sex peptide receptor (CG16752, FBgn0029768)),
Gl_GPCR_A14 LGR-C1 receptor Unknown where AstB_R expression increases towards the molt
Gl_GPCR_A14b LGR-C2 receptor Unknown and persists in the postmolt, when the animal is not
Gl_GPCR_A15 Unknown receptor Unknown feeding, suggesting a different role for Ast B in crusta-
Gl_GPCR_A16 HPR1 receptor Unknown
ceans. Another plausible explanation is that in this
study we focused on the expression of AstB_R in the
Gl_GPCR_A17 HPR1 receptor Unknown
YOs, the crustacean analog of the prothoracic gland
Gl_GPCR_A18 HPR1 receptor Unknown (PG) in insects, while the AstB_R temporal expression
Gl_GPCR_A19 Bursicon receptor Bursicon pattern in insects was examined in whole animals.
Gl_GPCR_A20 Unknown receptor Unknown Ast C or PISCF-type Ast was originally described as
Gl_GPCR_A21 TIE receptor Unknown an unknown neuropeptide in M. sexta [67]. Its analog
Gl_GPCR_A22 Unknown receptor Unknown
was then identified in several insect species, e.g. D. mel-
anogaster [68], Tribolium castaneum [69], and later in
Gl_GPCR_A23 Moody receptor Unknown
the decapods P. clarkii [48] and S. vereauxi [49]. Ast C
Gl_GPCR_A24 Unknown receptor Unknown inhibits JH biosynthesis in M. sexta, Helicoverpa zea and
Gl_GPCR_A25 Unknown receptor Unknown Aedes aegypti [70]. It also functions as an immunosup-
Gl_GPCR_A26 sNPF receptor sNPF pressive factor that prevents immunopathology or re-
Gl_GPCR_A27 Unknown receptor Unknown duces unnecessary metabolic costs following microbial
Gl_GPCR_A28 Unknown receptor Unknown
exposure [71]. One putative Ast C receptor (AstC_R;
Gl_GPCRA5b) was predicted through phylogenetic ana-
Gl_GPCR_A29 Unknown receptor Unknown
lysis (Fig. 4). The RPKM expression of Gl-GPCRA5b
Gl_GPCR_A30 Serotonin receptor Serotonin remained at a low level throughout the molt cycle, and
Gl_GPCR_A31 Unknown receptor Unknown could not be detected at early premolt, mid premolt, and
Gl_GPCR_A32 Serotonin receptor Serotonin postmolt stages.
Gl_GPCR_A33 Adenosine receptor Adenosine
Gl_GPCR_A34 Octopamine receptor Octopamine
Corazonin receptors
Gl_GPCR_A35 Prostaglandin receptor Prostaglandin
Corazonin (Crz) was initially discovered as a strong car-
Gl_GPCR_A36 Prostaglandin receptor Prostaglandin dioaccelerator in the American cockroach Periplaneta
Gl_GPCR_A37 Prostaglandin receptor Prostaglandin americana [72] and later in other insect species [73]. It
Gl_GPCR_A38 Prostaglandin receptor Prostaglandin is also found in decapod crustaceans [74–76]. Crz has
Gl_GPCR_A39 Peropsin receptor Peropsin various functions in different species. In locusts, Crz
Gl_GPCR_A40 FMRFamide receptor FMRFamide
participates in the pigmentation process [77], while it is
also recognized as a cardioaccelerator in the American
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 6 of 20

Fig. 1 Gene expression (RPKM) heat map of GPCRs in different molt stages. Clustered by gene expression profile in a transcriptome dataset based
on 5 different stages. Scores are coloured on a log2 scale with the red maximum and white minimum. Putative GPCR receptors are predicted
based on a phylogenetic study and domain analysis

cockroach [78]. In addition, Crz indirectly affects ecdysis sequences (72%). This suggests that both receptors are
in M. sexta [79], serving as an ecdysis initiator [80]. closely-related isoforms. GPCRA6 (Crz_R1) and A7
Although Crz receptors are well conserved in amino (Crz_R2) showed much higher expression in the YO
acid sequence across species, a number of isoforms have (more than 10 times), compared with all other putative
been discovered in insects, crustaceans, and ticks [78]. GPCRs. The expression pattern of these two putative re-
Two putative Crz receptors were predicted in our ceptors showed different trends. Crz_R1 showed no ex-
study. Gl-GPCRA6 and Gl-GPCRA7 are clustered into pression in the intermolt and early premolt stages,
the Crz receptor clade, sharing similar amino acid distri- peaking at the postmolt stage. This expression suggests
bution in the seven TM domain with three a role of Crz_R1 in postmolt. This is consistent with
N-glycosylation motifs at the N-terminus and one Alexander et al. (2017) who report that, in C. maenas,
N-glycosylation motif at the C-terminus (Fig. 5a). Motif Crz_R1 (C. maenas clustered to Gl_GPCRA6 (Fig.. 5a))
analysis indicates that both Crz receptors have identical is highly expressed in the YO, but it has little effect
amino acid sequences in the transmembrane domain, on ecdysteroid biosynthesis, except a modest stimulation
and a pairwise alignment shows high similarity in their in early postmolt [76]. While Crz_R1 peaked in
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 7 of 20

Fig. 2 Statistical analysis of transcript RPKM expression. Molt-related GPCRs in G. lateralis YO were differentially expressed in five different stages of
molt cycle (P < 0.05 and FDR < 0.05, highlighted in green in Additional file 2). Abbreviations: IM, intermolt stage; EP, early premolt stage; MP, mid
premolt stage; LP, late premolt stage; and PM, postmolt stage. Significance level is marked as: * = P < 5E-02; ** = P < 5E-04; *** = P < 5E-06

expression in the postmolt, Crz_R2 showed high expres- CCHamide receptor

sion in intermolt, peaked in early premolt, and decreased CCHamide is an invertebrate neuropeptide that was ini-
towards the postmolt stage (Fig. 5b). Crz initiates tially designated as ‘synthetic peptide, CCM’ [81]. Roller
ecdysis-triggering hormone (ETH) production in ‘inka’ and colleagues assigned it with the new name CCHa-
cells in insects. ETH, in turn, triggers a signal cascade mide (CCHa) based on two conserved cysteines and an
that leads to ecdysis. The elevated expression of the Crz amidated histidine residue at the C terminus [82]. A
receptors in the YOs reflects the key role of Crz recep- comprehensive study found two CCHamide neuropep-
tors in molt regulation. Further studies are warranted to tides (CCHamide-1, CCHamide-2) in eleven insect spe-
clarify the function of Crz_R2 in relation to the molt cies [53]. In D. melanogaster, CCHamide-2 is mainly
cycle in crustaceans. located in endocrine cells in the gut, where the cells

Fig. 3 Pruned tree of Ast receptors and their amino acid sequence arrangement. a G. lateralis Ast A receptors in comparison with P.clarkii Ast A
receptor and b G. lateralis Ast B receptors in comparison with P. clarkii Ast B receptor
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 8 of 20

Fig. 4 Phylogenetic tree of class A GPCRs presented as circular cladogram with different identified protein groups. The tree was constructed by
the neighbor joining method with bootstap 1000 following multiple sequence alignment of 7TM regions in CLC workbench. Abbreviations:
Aa=Aedes aegypti, Ad = Anopheles darlingi, Ag = Anopheles gambiae, Am = Apis mellifera, Bd = Bactrocera dorsalis, Bm= Bombyx mori, Bt = Bombus
terrestris, Cq = Culex quinquefasciatus, Cs= Callinectes sapidus, Dm= Drosophila melanogaster, Dp= Daphnia pulex, Es = Eriochier sinensis, Gl= Gecarcinus
lateralis, Ha = Homarus americanus, Haa = Hasarius adansoni, Lp = Limulus polyphemus, Lv = Litopenaeus vannamei, Mr = Macrobrachium rosenbergii, Nl
= Nilaparvata lugens, Nv = Nephrops norvegicus, Ob = Ooceraea biroi, Pa = Periplaneta americana, Pc= Procambarus clarkia, Pm = Penaeus monodon, Px
= Plutella xylostella, Sm = Strigamia maritima, Sp = Scylla paramosain, Sv= Samariasus verreauxi, Tc= Tribolium castaneum, Tu= Tetranychus urticae

sense the quality of food and signal for the transport of and late premolt stages, and no expression at the post-
CCHamide-2 to the brain, where it binds to a molt stage also implicates CCHamide receptor in early
CCHamide-2 receptor and alters feeding behavior [83]. premolt. CCH_R2 was expressed at low levels from the
Two putative CCHamide receptors were identified intermolt to late premolt stage, and peaked in expression
(CCH_R1; Gl-GPCRA8, and CHH_R2; Gl-GPCRA8b), at the postmolt stage (Fig. 3). The SEM of RPKM ex-
which were clustered with P. clarkii CCHamide receptor pression at postmolt stage of CCH_R2 was relatively
in the phylogenetic analysis (Fig. 6a). CCH_R2 contained high because of high variation between replicates. The
a partial sequence with an incomplete 7-TM domain. great difference in RPKM expression between postmolt
Comparison of the 7-TM domain distribution across the stage to other stages suggests an important role in the
membrane between CCH_R1 and CCH_R2 showed one postmolt stage.
N-glycosylation motif in common at the second extra-
cellular loop of both CCHRs. CCH_R1 showed high ex- Crustacean cardioactive peptide receptors
pression in all four molt stages except postmolt (Fig. 3). Crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) is produced in
The rapid increase from the intermolt stage to early pre- the pericardial organ of the shore crab Carcinus maenas,
molt stage, followed by a drop in expression at the mid where it accelerates heart contraction [84]. It was later
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 9 of 20

Fig. 5 Pruned tree of Crz receptors and their amino acid sequence arrangement on their membrane. a G. lateralis Crz receptors and their
sequence arrangement. b Statistical analysis of gene expression in term of RPKM for GPCRA6&7 in G. lateralis which were expressed in five
different stages of molting cycle (P < 0.05 and FDR < 0.05, highlighted in red in Additional file 2)

found in the pericardial organ of Homarus americanus ecdysis in several insect species. CCAP initiates the ec-
and Cancer productus [85, 86]. CCAP also plays a role dysis motor program in M. sexta [90] and regulates tim-
in stress response and biosynthesis adaptation in deca- ing of ecdysis behavior in D. melanogater [91]. One
pod crustaceans [87]. In Macrobrachium nipponense, putative CCAP receptor (CCAP_R) was identified that
CCAP is among six key neuropeptides found to be in- clusters with P. clarkii CCAP_R in the phylogenetic tree
volved in reproduction regulation [88]. Although the (Fig. 4). RPKM expression analysis showed a similar ex-
specific name of CCAP applies to crustaceans, it also pression to that of other receptors, with low expression
stimulates the heartbeat in insect species, such as P. at the intermolt stage and higher expression throughout
americana, D. melanogaster, Baculum extradentatum, the premolt stages, followed by no expression at the
and Locusta migratoria [89]. CCAP also functions in postmolt stage (Fig. 3).

Fig. 6 Putative CCHamide, FMRamide, GRL 101 like and LGR3 receptors. a & b Pruned tree of CHHamide and FMRFamide receptors and amino
acid sequence arrangement of their putative receptors on their membrane. B) RPKM expression of FMRF receptor in five different molt stages. c
RPKM expression of both putative FMRFamide receptor through molt stages. d LGR receptors with the number of LDLa motif, and LRR motif in
the ectodomain. Abbreviations: IM, intermolt stage; EP, early premolt stage; MP, mid premolt stage; LP, late premolt stage; and PM,
postmolt stage
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 10 of 20

CHH/CHH-like receptor bound predominantly to membranes extracted from

MIH is a neuropeptide that controls molting in deca- the YOs but to a lesser extent also to membranes ex-
pod crustaceans. The identification of its receptor has tracted from the hepatopancreas [36]. Based on this
been the focus of crustacean endocrinological research result, the spatial expression pattern of the putative
for decades. In 2014, Nagai et al. identified two putative CHHRs identified in this study cannot determine
GPCRs, BNGR-A2 and A34, as ITP receptors, and A24 which receptor might be binding MIH and therefore
as an ITP-like receptor (member of CHHR family) in receptor activation assays are required.
the silk moth B. mori. This led to the identification of
CHH-like family receptors in crustaceans. Veenstra Ecdysis-triggering hormone receptors
identified three CHH-like receptors clustered with Ecdysteroids are responsible for initiating the molting
BNGR-34 in P. clarkii, and two putative CHH-like re- process, and are synthesised and released from the
ceptors have also been found in S. verreauxi [46]. PGs in insects or from the YOs in crustaceans [10].
Three putative GPCRs (Gl-GPCRA9, Gl-GPCRA10, In insects, ecdysteroids trigger the production of ETH
Gl-GPCRA12) were identified as CHH-like receptors, in ‘inka’ cells, a specialized group of endocrine cells
as these sequences clustered into the CHHR clade scattered across the epithelial cells of the insect tra-
(Fig. 7a). Further analysis of the transmembrane do- cheae [92]. ETH production causes a surge in Eclo-
mains of these three proteins with TMHMM indi- sion Hormone (EH) secretion, which leads to the
cated that Gl-GPCRA9 and Gl-GPCRA10 contain a release of CCAP and upregulation of cGMP [93].
complete 7-TM domain, while Gl-GPCRA10 contains ETH travels to the central nervous system (CNS)
6 transmembrane helices (data not shown). This where it stimulates the sensitivity of the CNS to ETH
could be explained by incomplete recovery of the se- by promoting the expression of the ETH receptor
quence from the assembled contigs. Gl-GPCRA9 and (ETHR). In M. sexta, two alternatively spliced ETHRs
Gl-GPCRA10 were expressed in all molt stages, while (ETHR-A and ETHR-B) are encoded by ethr gene and
the expression of Gl-GPCRA12 decreased in late pre- expressed in discrete central neurons [94]. Previous
molt and postmolt stages. Two CHHRs (Gl_GPCRA9 studies indicated ETH is a key regulator that initiates
and Gl_GPCRA12) were examined using RT-PCR ecdysis in insects [reviewed in [95]]. In D. melanoga-
expressed in the YOs. Notably, both receptors were ter, the eth gene encodes two neuropeptides desig-
expressed not only in YOs, but they were also nated ETH1 and ETH2. Injection of ETH1 into
expressed in other tissues (Fig. 7b). Zmora et al. con- pharate pupae strongly induces proecdysis within 1-3
ducted MIH binding assays in the blue swimmer crab minutes, followed by ecdysis, while injection ETH2
Callinectes sapidus [36]. This study showed that MIH has no effect [96]. One putative ETHR was identified

Fig. 7 Putative CHH receptors and their tissue distribution. a Pruned tree of CHHRs and amino acid sequence arrangement of putative CHHRs.
Transmembrane domains of both Gl_GPCRA9 and Gl_GPCRA12 were predicted using TMHMM online tool. b RT-PCR was carried out using cDNA
from ten different organs of G. lateralis. Primers were designed to amplify two putative CHHR receptors (Gl_GPCRA9 and Gl_GPCRA12) (Table 1).
Tissue expression pattern obtained from RT-PCR gel image visualized under UV light
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 11 of 20

and clustered with P. clarkii ETH_R1. ETHR was motifs, and the structure of the hinge region [109].
expressed at a similar level of RPKM through the Type A LGRs contain 7–9 LRRs and a long hinge re-
molt cycle except the postmolt stage, where no ex- gion in their ectodomain, while type B LGRs typically
pression was detected (Fig. 3). have about twice the number of LRRs (16–18 LRR)
and a shorter hinge region. In D. melanogaster, LGR1
FMRFamide/ FMRFamide-like receptor (Type A LGR) is activated by GPA2/GPB5 neuropep-
FMRFamides are widely distributed neuropeptides with tide, a heterodimer formed by GPA2 and GPB5 [110],
four signature amino acids at their C terminus and LGR2 (Type B LGR) is activated by bursicon
(F-M-R-F) [97]. Many isoforms with variations of this [111]. Bursicon is a heterodimeric protein, consisting
signature tetrapeptide occur, which therefore classified of α and β subunits. In C. maenas, Bursicon is
as FMRFa-like peptides (FLPs) [98]. The first FLP was co-localized with CCAP, both being released from
identified in D. melanogaster by cDNA cloning [99]. neurons in the CNS. Bursicon plays a key role in cu-
More FLPs have since been identified in insects using ticle hardening during post molt [112, 113]. Bursicon
mass spectrometry [100, 101]. The FLP family comprises is also involved in reproduction by increasing vitello-
several neuropeptides that include sulfakinin, neuropep- genin and stimulating ovarian development in female
tide F (NPF), short neuropeptide F (sNPF), and myosup- shrimp, Penaeus monodon [114]. The number of LRRs
pressin [102–104]. FMRFamides are gut and heart in type C is similar to type A, but the hinge region is
contraction factors that also control digestive processes quite short and the LDL motifs are N-terminal to the
[105, 106]. Their role also extends to the ecdysis process LRRs. The Type C LGRs are subdivided into two sub-
by activating FMRFamide neurons during premolt in groups: C1, which contains only one LDL motif and
D. melanogaster [96] through direct innervation of the two cysteines in their hinge region and C2, which has
PG [107, 108]. five, six, ten or twelve LDLs N-terminal to the LRRs
Two G. lateralis putative FMRFamide receptors clus- and four cysteines in their hinge region [109].
tered with P. clarkii and S. verreauxi FMRFamide recep- Five putative LGRs were predicted in the phylogenetic
tors (FMRF_R1; Gl_GPCRA11 and FMRF_R2; analysis. Gl_GPCRA4 and Gl_GPCRA19 clustered with
Gl_GPCRA40). Motif analysis of the S. serreauxi and the Bursicon receptor (type B LGR) and Gl_GPCRA4b
G. lateralis FMRFamide receptors showed high similarity clustered with the GP2/GP5 receptor (type A LGR).
between FMRF_R1 and FMRFamide receptor of S. ser- Another LGR identified (Gl-GPCRA14) clustered with
reauxi. In particular, there were three N-glycosylation GRL 101-like. Like other GRL 101-like receptors,
motifs at the N-terminus and one N-glycosylation motif Gl-GPCRA14 consists of 11 LDLs and 7 LRRs in its ecto-
at the seven TM domain. The only difference was at the domain, which defines it as type C2-like LGR (Fig.
C-terminus where two additional N-glycosylation motifs 6d). Gl-GPCR14b clustered into the LGR3 clade, be-
were predicted in G. lateralis (Fig. 6b). Motif analysis of longing to type C1 LGR, as it contains 1 LDL and 6
FMRF_R2 showed distinct organization of one LRRs in its ectodomain. In D. melanogaster, LGR3 is
N-glycosylation motif at the N-terminus, two at the activated by Dilp8, a member of the insulin-like neuo-
C-terminus, and one at the first TM domain. RPKM ex- peptide family [115]. LGR3 activation induces nitric
pression analysis showed a similar trend in both FMFFa- oxide synthase production in the PG in response to
mide receptors, in which they were expressed high levels Dilp8, which is elevated in injured imaginal discs
in the intermolt stage, slightly decreased in the next [116, 117]. The increased nitric oxide synthase activity
two molt stages, followed by an increase in the late reduces ecdysone synthesis by the PG, which coordi-
premolt, and no expression in the postmolt stage nates molting with the growth of the regenerating im-
(Fig. 6c). A small neuropeptide F (sNPF) receptor is aginal discs [118]. The identification of LGR3 in
also predicted based on the phylogenetic analysis G. lateralis YOs suggests a similar function for this
(Gl-GPCRA26), where it clustered with the P. clarkii receptor in delaying the molt by damaged or lost
sNPF receptor (Fig. 4). limbs [11, 119, 120]. Autotomy of a regenerating limb
in early premolt suspends molting until a secondary
Leucine-rich repeats containing GPCRs limb regenerate differentiates and grows to replace
Leucine-rich repeats-containing GPCRs (LGRs) belong the lost regenerate (108). Secondary limb regenerates
to the rhodopsin-like GPCR family. LGRs have, in produce a peptide-like factor, designated limb autot-
addition to the GPCR-conserved 7-TM domain, mul- omy factor - proedysis (LAFpro) (11), that delays
tiple repeats of leucine-rich regions (LRRs) and low molting by lowering hemolymph ecdysteroid titer
density lipoprotein (LDL) motifs for hormone binding. (109). Given that several insulin-like peptides were re-
LGRs are classified into three types (A, B, and C) cently identified in decapods [121, 122], it is possible
based on the number of LRRs, number of LDL that LAFpro functions as the Dilp8 ortholog.
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 12 of 20

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone/ Thyrotropin-releasing and defense using lectins, antimicrobial peptides, and
hormone like receptors clotting/melanization mechanisms [133]. A recent study
In mammals, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is a on immune-related genes of P. clarkii activated by
hypothalamic releasing factor that is synthesized mainly Aeromonas hydrophila infection identified a putative
in the hypothalamus. Upon release TRH stimulates the GPCR that is similar to HPR1 (protein receptor in hepato-
release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by pancreas 1) [39]. Three putative receptors (Gl-GPCRA16,
the pituitary. TRH is also produced in peripheral tissues A17, A18, and A44) clustered with P. clarkii HPR1 in the
and the nervous system [123]. TRHs have a tripeptide phylogenetic analysis (Fig. 4). It is yet to be determined if
Glu-His-Pro in their sequences and stimulate they have a direct role in the innate immunity.
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) biosynthesis [124].
In vertebrates, two TRH receptor (TRHR) isoforms are Secretin-like family
classified as type 1 (TRH-R1) and type 2 (TRH-R2). Class B1
These two receptors belong to the rhodopsin/β-adrener- Diuretic hormones (DH) regulate water balance in ar-
gic receptor-like family of GPCRs and share up to 50% thropods [134]. There are three primary insect DHs:
similarity in their amino acid sequences [125]. In arthro- corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-related peptides,
pods, TRH-like receptors were identified both in insects calcitonin (CT)-like peptides, and the insect kinins
(Nilaparvata lugens, Rhodnius prolixus [126]) and a [135]. CRF is structurally related to mammalian cortico-
crustacean S. verreauxi [49] by phylogenetic analysis. tropin, and is called Drome-DH31 in D. melanogaster
One putative G. lateralis TRHR clustered with P. clarkii [136]. DH31 was recently identified in several tissues of
and S. verreauxi TRHRs. the green shore crab C. maenas and its function in
rhythmic coordination was established [137]. CT peptide
Biogenic amine, adenosine, and prostaglandin receptors is structurally related to mammalian calcitonin-like pep-
Biogenic amines are neuroactive molecules involved tide and is called Drome-DH44 in D. melanogaster
in synaptic transmission in the nervous system [127]. [138]. One putative diuretic hormone type 44 (DH44)
This group includes serotonin, dopamine, and octopa- receptor (Gl-GPCRB25) and one diuretic hormone type
mine. Serotonin (5-HT) increases blood glucose, while 31 (DH31) receptor (Gl-GPCRB25b), were identified by
dopamine decreases blood glucose in hemolymph in phylogenetic analysis (Fig. 8).
several crustacean species [128]. Dopamine has a Pigment dispersing factor (PDF) is a neuropeptide pro-
hyperglycemic effect in intact P. clarkii [129] and duced by the XO in crustaceans, and is found across
Macrobrachium malcolmsonii [130], but it has no ef- inverterates. It has a variety of functions, including pig-
fect on bilaterally eyestalk-ablated individuals. In in- ment dispersal in chromatophore cells [139] and regula-
sects, serotonergic neurons innervate the PG and tion of locomotion behavior and egg-laying [140]. In
control ecdysterodogenesis [131]. Autocrine signaling B. mori, PDF binds to the BNGR-B2 receptor and stimu-
through the ββ3-octopamine receptor is essential for lates the ecdysone biosynthesis in the PGs [141]. Deca-
PTTH and insulin-like peptide stimulation of ecdys- pod PDF receptors have been identified based on
teroidogenesis in the Drosophila PG [132]. similarity with a gene from D. melanogaster (CG13758),
Three putative receptors clustered in the biogenic including those in P. clarkii and M. rosenbergii [48, 142].
amine clade. Gl_GPCRA30 and Gl_GPCRA32 clustered Three putative PDF/PDF-like receptors were identified
with serotonin receptor 1 and serotonin receptor 2, re- in our study (Gl-GPCRB26-A28).
spectively. Gl_GPCRA34 clustered with the octapamine Parathyroid hormone (PTH) belongs to the parathy-
receptor clade. One adenosine (Gl_GPCRA33) and four roid hormone family, which includes PTH, PTH-related
prostaglandin (Gl-GPCRA35-A38) receptors were also peptide (PTHrP), and tuberoinfundibular peptide
identified (Fig. 4). These results are comparable with (PTH2). In vertebrates, the PTH family regulates the cal-
previous studies in decapods [48, 49]. The expression cium titer in serum, affecting most organs [143]. One
of Gl_GPCR32-34 did not change significantly between putative PTH receptor (PTHR) in the G. lateralis YOs
stages in the YOs, while Gl_GPCR31, Gl_GPCR35-36, transcriptome clustered with P. clarkii PTHR in the
and Gl_GPCR38 show no expression in the postmolt phylogenetic tree (Fig. 8).
stage.
Class B2
Immune-related GPCRs The class B2 of the secretin-like receptor family includes
Crustaceans have an innate immune system to protect the calcium-independent receptor, brain-specific angio-
them from pathogenic bacteria and viruses. This im- genesis inhibitor, starry night receptor, latrophilin recep-
mune system relies on the recognition of pathogen tor, HE6 receptor, and homologs of the vertebrate
membrane proteins using pattern recognition proteins adhesion receptor [144]. Class B2 members share a
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 13 of 20

Fig. 8 Phylogenetic tree of class B GPCRs presented as circular cladogram. Five protein groups were identified, including latrophilin,
lipoprotein, methuselah, PDF, and DH44 receptor. The phylogenetic trees were constructed by neighbor joining method with bootstrap
1000 following multiple sequence alignment of 7-TM regions in CLC workbench. Abbreviations: Cs= Callinectes sapidus, Dm= Drosophila
melanogaster, Dp= Daphnia pulex, Gl= Gecarcinus lateralis, Pc= Procambarus clarkii, Tc= Tribolium castaneum, Tu= Tetranychus urticae

structural similarity in the form of a long extracellular Class C

N-terminus in the ectodomain, which consists of cleavage Class C GPCRs are classified based on their sequence phyl-
and binding sites, such as proteolytic site (GPS) and epi- ogeny and conservation in the 7-TM domain [114]. These
dermal growth factor (EGF) domains [145]. Five putative receptors possess a large (hundreds of residues) N-terminal
latrophilin receptors (Gl-GPCRB4, B11, B22-24) and two extracellular domain [115]. Class C GPCRs include metabo-
lipoprotein receptors (Gl-GPCRB2, B3 and B12) were tropic glutamate (mGlu), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), Ca2
+
identified in the G. lateralis YO transcriptome (Fig. 8). -sensing (CaS), sweet and amino acid taste, pheromone,
The expression did not change significantly between and odorant receptors in fish, as well as several orphan re-
stages in the YOs. ceptors [114]. One putative mGlu receptor (Gl-GPCRC3)
and one putative boss receptor (Gl-GPCRC1) were identi-
fied, as they clustered with D. melanogaster mGlu and boss
Class B3 (Methuselah-type receptors) receptors, respectively (Fig. 9).
Methuselah/Methuselah-like was originally identified in
D. melanogaster [146], and named after the methuselah gene. Notable ommisions
Most methuselah receptors contain conserved cysteine resi- Several GPCRs that are conserved across arthropods were
dues and glycosylation sites [147, 148]. This subfamily com- not identified in the G. lateralis YO transcriptome, perhaps
prises 15 paralogs based on the similarity in their due to high divergence of these GPCRs between crusta-
ectodomain, as well as a 7-TM domain [149]. Methuselah/ ceans and insects, or simply because they are not expressed
Methuselah-like are found in several insects, such as T. cas- in the YO. These include NPF, CNMamide, and Tachykinin
taneum and B. mori [150, 151]. They are involved in stress receptors. A Blastp search against nr database at NCBI
response and are associated with extended lifespan in D. showed Gl_GPCRA24 as an NPF receptor but with low
melanogaster [146]. Mth2 in T. castaneum also plays a role identity (maximum of 23%) and marginal E-value (higher
in heat resistance and eclosion [152]. Twelve variants of the than 1.0E-7). With the rapid expanding availability of tran-
putative methuselah (Mth) receptor in G. lateralis clustered scriptomes and genomes of decapod species, the
with D. melanogaster Mth receptor (Gl-GPCRB1, B6-8, spatial-temporal expression pattern and genomic context of
B17-20, B31, and B33-34) (Fig. 8). these receptors is expected to be elucidated.
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 14 of 20

Fig. 9 Phylogenetic tree of class C GPCRs presented as circular cladogram. Two protein groups were identified, including mGlu receptor and boss
receptor. The phylogenetic trees were constructed by neighbor joining method with bootstrap 1000 following multiple sequence alignment of 7-
TM regions in CLC workbench. Abbreviations: Cs= Callinectes sapidus, Dm= Drosophila melanogaster, Dp= Daphnia pulex, Gl= Gecarcinus lateralis,
Pc= Procambarus clarkii, Tc= Tribolium castaneum, Tu= Tetranychus urticae

Conclusions contigs were expressed at high or their highest levels in

Bioinformatic analysis of RNA-Seq data provides a com- postmolt and one in particular, a progesterone receptor
prehensive and cost-effective method to catalog and anno- (A37), was only expressed in postmolt (Fig. 1), suggesting
tate sequences and discover novel sequences (31). Using that these genes are involved in maintaining the repressed
this approach, we identified contigs encoding 99 GPCRs state and/or are involved in preparing the YO to transition
in the YO transcriptome of G. lateralis (Fig. 1). The to the basal state in the intermolt stage (33).
GPCRs were distributed between the three known GPCR The analysis identified several GPCRs expressed in the YO
classes. Seventy-two contigs were assigned to 17 identified that are of special interest. The proposed model for MIH
GCPR groups based on ligand binding specificity and signaling pathway consists of a transient cAMP/Ca2
+
structural motifs (Fig. 4); 27 (27%) remained unidentified -dependent triggering phase and a prolonged NO/
(Fig. 1). These data suggest that the YO has at least the cGMP-dependent summation phase, which inhibits YO
potential for responding to a large number and diversity ecdysteroid secretion between MIH pulses (10, 14, 28).
of ligands. Moreover, most were differentially expressed The identity of the MIH receptor has remained elusive,
over the molt cycle (Figs. 1, 2, 5, and 6), suggesting that but it is assumed that it is a GPCR, the activation of which
the sensitivity of the YO to these ligands is molt initates the triggering phase. Three contigs, designated
stage-specific. A striking example is the gene expression CHH_1 (A9), CHH_2 (A10), and CHH_3 (A12), were
pattern of the repressed YO in postmolt animals. The re- identified as receptors for the CHH neuropeptide family,
pressed YO is characterized by low global gene expression which includes MIH, CHH, and ILP (13, 14, 22), and
(33). It is hypothesized that this low transcriptional activity therefore are candidates for the MIH receptor (Figs. 1, 7).
prevents YO activation until the synthesis of the new exo- CHH_2 was expressed at high levels in the YOs from
skeleton is completed and the animal is in the intermolt intermolt and premolt animals (Fig. 2), making it the lead-
stage (33). The majority (67%) of the GPCR contigs follow ing candidate. However, conclusive identification of the
this pattern of higher levels in intermolt and premolt MIH receptor awaits a functional assay that shows MIH
stages and low levels in postmolt (Fig. 1). However, 33 activation of MIH receptor candidates expressed in a
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 15 of 20

heterologous reporting system [15, 153]. The identifica- duplicates. The seven TM sequences were then categorized
tion of FMRFamide, serotonin, and octopamine receptors into GPCR subclasses comprising rhodopsin-like (class A),
raise the possibility that the YO is controlled by direct in- secretin and adhesion (class B), metabotropic glutamate
nervation. To our knowledge, innervation of the YO has (class C) based on Pfam. The references list were created
yet to be demonstrated. However, the insect PG receives using annotated sequences from previous studies [49, 156],
neuronal projections that directly control ecdysteroido- and the BLAST analysis of GPCR protein sequences from
genesis [154]. FMRFamides and FMRFamide-related pep- YO against protein sequences from the NCBI
tides bind to the myosuppressin receptor and inhibit non-redundant (nr) database with Arthropoda organism fil-
ecdysteroidogenesis by lowering cAMP production [107, ter, and protein sequences blasted against the FlyBase data-
108]. Serotonergic neurons innervating the Drosophila PG base. The reference list was entered into TMMHMM [157]
stimulate ecdysteroidogenic activity [131]. GABA and using default parameters to obtain the seven TM domain of
dopamine have indirect effects on the P. americana PG, each protein sequence.
as they have an inhibitory and excitory effect, respectively, The Reads Per Kilobase of transcript, per Million mapped
on the activity of the PG nerve [155]. The identification of reads (RPKM) were obtained by mapping sequence reads
an octopamine receptor suggests that octopamine has a against YOs database using the RNA-seq tool of CLC
direct effect on the YO. However, to our knowledge, there Genomics Workbench (CLC Bio, version 10.0) with default
are no published studies determining the effects of oc- parameters. The RPKM was calculated as follows:
topamine on YO ecdysteroid secretion. A Crz receptor
was identified in the YO transcriptome that may be in- Total exon reads
RPKM ¼
volved with molt regulation (Fig. 5) [76]. Finally, LGR3 mapped readsðmillionsÞx exon length ðKBÞ
may provide a parallel pathway in decapods and dipterans
for the coordination of molting and tissue regeneration. The RPKM values of proteins relating to molt cycle
LGR3 in the YO may mediate the suspension of molt by were then imported into CLC for statistical analysis to de-
LAFpro that is released by secondary limb regenerates, termine whether there were significant differences in
much like Dilp8, released from damaged imaginal discs, RPKM between different molt stages. The Empirical ana-
inhibits the PG. Transcriptomics has revealed that neuro- lysis of DGE was performed to compare RPKM between
peptide control of the YO is becoming more complex. molt stages with the probability distribution less than 5%
(P < 0.05). To avoid false positive result, the P values were
Methods then corected using false discovery rate (FDR < 0.05).
Transcriptome analysis
The transcriptome as well as FASTQ of G. lateralis YOs Phylogenetic and functional study of GPCR families
were obtained from a previous study [34]. In brief, the ani- To further annotate the G. lateralis GPCRs for phylogenetic
mals were collected from the Dominican Republic, shipped analysis, the seven TM domains of all GPCRs were extracted
by air to Colorado, and maintained as described [29]. Ani- and compiled with the reference list. Multiple sequence
mals were immobilized by severing the brain before remov- alignment was carried out using MUSCLE tools imple-
ing sections of the carapace containing the YO. Animals mented in CLC Genomics Workbench (CLC Bio, version
were frozen at -20 ˚C. The animals were induced to molt 10.0). The sequence alignment file was used to generate a
using multiple leg autotomy (8 walking legs) and the YOs phylogenetic tree with CLC Genomics Workbench (Neigh-
from 2-3 individuals were then collected from animals at the bor-joining phylogeny with 1,000 bootstraps). The lists of
same molt stage. Five different molt stages including inter- GPCRs used for phylogeny are given in Additional file 1.
molt (IM - stage C4), early premolt (EP - stage D0), mid pre-
molt (MP - stage D1), late premolt (LP - stage D2) and Tissue specific expression of predicted CHHR by RT-PCR
postmolt (PM), were collected and sequenced in triplicates Tissues were harvested from three adult intermolt G. later-
(a total of 15 libraries). The transcriptomic data was screened alis males. A competitive ELISA assay was performed to
for the longest open reading frames (ORFs) using transdeco- confirm that the animals were in intermolt (stage C4) by
der (version 5.0), generating a fasta file with the amino acid measuring hemolymph ecdysteroid titer (19.0 ± 2.3 pg/
sequences. The amino acid sequences were scanned against μμl, n = 7). The samples were stored in RNA later at -20 °
the PfamA database (version 27.0) using hidden Markov C until extraction. Total RNA was extracted from 10 tis-
models (HMMs) to identify the seven TM families. Se- sues comprising claw muscle (CM), eyestalk ganglia
quences with seven TM profile were extracted (represented (ESG), gill (G), heart (H), hindgut (HG), hepatopancreas
in Table 1). Transmembrane HMM (TMHMM) scan was (HP), midgut (MG), testis (T), thoracic ganglia (TG), and
then applied in parallel on the G. lateralis YOs ORF file to Y-organs (YOs). Trizol® Reagent (Invitrogen), was used to
find the predicted helices. Two lists of PFAM HMM and extract total RNA according to manufacturer’s instruction
TMHMM search outputs were cross-referenced to remove and quantified using a ND-2000 (NanoDrop
Tran et al. BMC Genomics (2019) 20:74 Page 16 of 20

Table 3 Set of primers used for RT-PCR Availability of data and materials
All data generated in this study is available as Additional files.
Identifer Forward primers Reverse primers
Gl-GPCRA9 ggccaacagagtgattgcaa gtgacgtcggtggtagatcc
Authors’ contributions
Gl-GPCRA12 tgactacaacttcacggacag agc gtacacgtgcatcttgttcacctc NT and TV designed the study and performed the analysis. NT wrote the
initial draft of the manuscript and AE, DLM, and TV assisted with the writing
Beta-actin ctgacaccactccaccatgt tcatagatggggacggtgtg and provided proofreading and editing of the manuscript. All authors have
read and approved the manuscript.

Technologies, DE, U.S). The extractions were stored at Consent for publication
-80 °C for RT-PCR experiment. Primers were designed Not applicable.
using Primer 3 (http://bioinfo.ut.ee/primer3-0.4.0/) and
synthesized by Sigma–Aldrich company (Table 3). The Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
stored RNA was then converted into cDNA by
reverse-transcription reaction in which 1 μμg RNA of each
sample was used as templates, using Tetro cDNA synthe- Publisher’s Note
sis kit (Bioline, Australia) following manufacturer’s in- Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
structions. PCR was performed using Mytaq Red kit
(Bioline, Australia), complemented with 1 μμl of cDNA as Author details
1
the template, 0.8 nM of forward and reverse primers and GeneCology Research Centre, School of Science and Engineering University
of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland 4556, Australia. 2Department of Biology,
up to 20 μμl DNase-free water. Touchdown PCR was set Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
up as follows: 94 °C for 3 min, followed by 5 cycles of 94 °
C for 30 s, annealing at 62 °C for 30 s and gradually de- Received: 25 July 2018 Accepted: 11 December 2018

crease 1 °C in each cycle, elongation at 72 °C for 45s. An-

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