MARINE ENGINEERING LAB

STUDENTS REFERENCE MANUAL

S7 Naval Architecture and Ship Building

Name : .........................................

Semester : ....................................

Roll Number : ..............................

Prepared by

Yash S Batra
(Assistant Professor)

Joseph J Kaippen
(Assistant Professor)

CHRIST KNOWLEDGE CITY

Mannoor, MC Road, Muvattupuzha

[Affiliated to APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University and approved by AICTE]

 VISION AND MISSION OF INSTITUTE

VISION
To emerge as a global leader in engineering through quality education, grounded in ethics and critical thinking to
transform the graduates best suited to serve the nation and the world.

MISSION
 Promote excellence in professional education through excitement of discovery and
innovations.

 Inculcate the quality of effective leadership among the graduates in multiple arenas to face
professional challenges and prepare them for global placements.

 Develop highest professional competence among the graduates with character building and
skill development process.

 Transforming the technical knowledge of students in community development and betterment

of the society.

VISION AND MISSION OF DEPARTMENT

VISION
Facilitate and promote high quality education in Naval Architecture and Shipbuilding to achieve global
excellence in maritime and inter-disciplinary sectors by nurturing finest intellectuals.

MISSION
 Produce high-quality intellectuals best suited for the national and global society through
Knowledge and compassion.

 Enhance the analytical and numerical skills of the students to enrich innovation and research
applicable for shipping and allied industries.

 Provide global opportunities to exchange contemporary knowledge , ideas and practices among
Naval Architecture and Shipbuilding Professionals worldwide.

 Engage the students in lifelong learning, prepare them for a sustained career of engineering
leadership and service in marine and allied industries.

 Inculcate ethical and social responsibilities to transform the life through educational excellence.

1
 General Instructions to Students

• The experiments here are designed to demonstrate the applications of the basic engineering
principles and to provide a more intuitive and physical understanding of the theory. The main
objective is to introduce a variety of classical experimental and diagnostic techniques, and the
principles behind these techniques. This laboratory exercise also provides practice in making
engineering judgments, estimates and assessing the reliability of your measurements, skills which
are very important in all engineering disciplines.

• Read the lab manual and any background material needed before you come to the lab. You must
be prepared for your experiments before coming to the lab. In many cases you may have to go
back to your textbooks to review the principles dealt with in the experiment.

• Actively participate in class and don’t hesitate to ask questions. Utilize the teaching assistants.
You should be well prepared before coming to the laboratory, unannounced questions may be
asked at any time during the lab.

• Carelessness in personal conduct or in handling equipment may result in serious injury to the
individual or the equipment. Do not run near moving machinery. Always be on the alert for
strange sounds. Guard against entangling clothes in moving parts of machinery.

• Students must follow the proper dress code inside the laboratory. To protect clothing from dirt,
wear a lab apron. Long hair should be tied back.

• Calculator, graph sheets and drawing accessories are mandatory.

• In performing the experiments, proceed carefully to minimize any water spills, especially on the
electric circuits and wire.

• Make your workplace clean before leaving the laboratory. Maintain silence, order and discipline
inside the lab.

• cell phones are not allowed inside the laboratory.

• Any injury no matter how small must be reported to the instructor immediately.

• Wish you a nice experience in this lab!

2
 CONTENTS

1 Study of Internal Combustion Engine and its Components 5

2 Overhauling of Reciprocating Pump. 14

3 Determination of the Characteristic Curves of centrifugal pumps. 22

4 Retardation test on Four Stroke Single Cylinder Vertical Diesel Engine 27

5 Load Test on Four Stroke Single Cylinder Vertical Diesel Engine 32

6 Load Test on Four Stroke Single Cylinder Horizontal Diesel Engine 37

7 Energy Balance Test of Diesel Engine 42

8 Testing of Fuels and Lubricants - Determination of flash and fire points of

Petroleum products - Determination of kinematic and absolute viscosity of lubricating oils – 48
Determination of calorific values

9 Study of Fuel Injection Valve and Pump. 58

10 Study of Various Types of Filters and Incinerator 62

11 Determination of the Characteristic Curves of Screw Pump. 68

12 Overhauling of Gate valve, Globe Valve 74

3
INDEX

4
 Study of Internal Combustion Engine and its Components

Aim
Detailed study on Internal Combustion engines

Introduction
Heat engines absorb energy in the form of heat and convert part of it into mechanical energy and deliver
it as work, the balance being rejected as heat. These devices derive the heat energy from the combustion
of a fuel. Based on the location of the combustion process, heat engines are classified into internal
combustion and external combustion engines.

Internal combustion engines (IC engines) are those where the combustion of the fuel takes place inside
the engines – eg. automobile engines. In the case of external combustion engines, combustion of fuel oc-
curs outside the engines and the working gas so heated is then admitted into the engines for conversion
and work extraction – eg. steam generated in a boiler is then admitted to steam engines for producing
work.

Parts of an IC engines

Figure 1: I C Engine

Cylinder head

This is the top cover of the cylinder and holds the inlet and exhaust valves, their operating mechanisms,
and the spark plug or fuel injector, as the case may be. The valves along with their operating mechanism
are together called the valve gear.

Cylinder block and cylinder liner

The cylinder head is fitted over the cylinder block and liner. The space between the block wall and
cylinder liner acts as the cooling water jacket.

Piston

The piston is of cylindrical shape to fit the inside bore of the cylinder. Gas tightness is ensured by means
of the piston rings in the slots on the outer cylindrical surface of the piston.

5
Piston rings

A piston in the cylinder must be a fairly loose fit So, that it can move freely within the cylinder. If the piston
is too small to suit, it will expand as it gets hot and may stay Tightly in the cylinder, and if it loses too much,
The vapor pressure will leak. Pistons are fitted with piston rings to provide good sealing Fit and less friction
resistance between the piston and the nozzle. These rings are fitted with grooves cut into the piston.
They are split at one end to allow them to expand or slip over the piston’s edge. There are two piston
rings in a small two- Stroke engine to provide effective sealing, But a four-stroke engine has an additional
ring known as the oil ring. Piston rings are made of fine-grain cast iron and High elastic material not
affected by working heat.

Gudgeon pin/ piston pin

These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston bosses and the small end bushes or
eyes to allow the connecting rods to swivel. It connects the piston to the connecting rod. It is made
hollow for lightness.

Engine bearing

Everywhere there is rotary action in the engine, bearings are needed. Bearings are used to support the
mov- ing parts. The crankshaft is supported by bearing. The connecting rod big end is attached to the
crankpin on the crank of the crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the small end is used to attach the
rod to the piston is also rides in bearings. The main function of bearings is to reduce friction between
these moving parts. In an IC engine sliding and rolling types of bearing used. The sliding-type bearing
which is some- times called bush is used to attach the connecting rod to the piston and crankshaft. They
are split in order to permit their assembly into the engine. The rolling and ball bearing is used to support
crankshaft so it can rotate freely. The typical bearing half is made of steel or bronze back to which a
lining of relatively soft bearing material is applied.

Connecting rod

This is the link connecting the piston to the crankshaft for transmission of the forces from and to the
piston. The pin connecting it to the piston is called the gudgeon pin and that connecting it to the
crankshaft as the crank pin.

6
Crank shaft

This is a shaft with radial cranks, which converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary
motion of the shaft.

Sump

The bottom cover of the engine is the sump which usually acts as a lubricating oil reservoir.

Crank case

The main body of the engine at which the cylinder is attached and which contains the crankshaft and
crankshaft bearing is called the crankcase. It serves as the lubricating system too and sometimes it is
called oil sump. All the oil for lubrication is placed in it.

Spark plug

A spark plug (sometimes, in British English, a sparking plug, and, colloquially, a plug) is a device for
deliver- ing electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition
engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion
pressure within the en- gine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a central
electrode by a ceramic insulator. The central electrode, which may contain a resistor, is connected by a
heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The spark plug’s metal shell
is screwed into the engine’s cylinder head and thus electrically grounded. The central electrode
protrudes through the porcelain insu- lator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark
gaps between the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or structures
attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the side, earth, or ground electrode(s).

Fuel injector

Fuel injector is actually a simple solenoid valve used in diesel engine for fuel injection to the cylinder. When
the solenoid is energized, the suction is generated. The needle valve is sucked up, the nozzle is opened,
and the fuel is ejected at a high speed through the annular gap between the needle of the needle head and
the nozzle. It forms a mist, which is good for burning. In the past, the injectors used in diesel engines
were mechanically controlled, and the mechanical diesel nozzles were operated by controlling precision
couplers (needle valves, needle valves). The nozzle part is one of the three precision parts of the
traditional
7
diesel engine, three precision parts: plunger, plunger sleeve, needle valve, needle valve body, oil outlet valve,
oil outlet valve seat.

Valve system

Engine valves are mechanical components used in internal combustion engines to allow or restrict the
flow of fluid or gas to and from the combustion chambers or cylinders during engine operation.
Functionally, they perform similarly to many other types of valves in that they block or pass flow,
however, they are a purely mechanical device that interfaces with other engine components such as
rocker arms in order to open and close in the correct sequence and with the correct timing.

Four stoke or four-cycle internal combustion engines make use of two primary types of valves – the in-
take valve and the exhaust valve. Intake valves are opened to allow the flow of an air/fuel mixture into
the engine’s cylinders prior to compression and ignition, while exhaust valves open to permit the
expulsion of exhaust gases from the combustion process after ignition has occurred.

In normal operation, a crankshaft in the engine to which the pistons are attached is tied to a camshaft
as part of a valve train arrangement for the engine. The movement of the crankshaft transfers motion to
the camshaft through a timing chain, timing belt, or other geared mechanism. The timing and alignment
between the position of the crankshaft (which establishes the position of the piston in the cylinder) and
the position of the camshaft (which determines the position of the valves for the cylinder) is critical not
only for peak engine performance but also to preclude interference between pistons and valves in high
compression engines.

Manifold

The main function of the manifold is to supply the air-fuel mixture and collects the exhaust gases
equally from all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine two manifold are used, one for intake and
other for exhaust. They are usually made of aluminum alloy.

Camshaft

Camshaft is used in the IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at proper timing. For
proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of the exhaust stroke and closed at the end of the
intake stroke. A cam, which is oval in shape, is used to control its timing and exerts pressure on the
valve to open
8
and release to close. It is operated by the crankshaft’s timing belt. It is mounted at the cylinder’s top or
bottom.

Pushrod

The pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated at the bottom end of the cylinder. It carries the
camshaft motion to the valves which are situated at the cylinder head.

Fly wheel

The flywheel is a cast iron, aluminum, or zinc disk that is mounted at one end of the crankshaft to
provide inertia for the engine. Inertia is the property of matter by which any physical body persists in its
state of rest or uniform motion until acted upon by an external force. Inertia is not a force, it is a
property of mat- ter. During the operation of a reciprocating engine, combustion occurs at distinct
intervals. The flywheel supplies the inertia required to prevent loss of engine speed and possible
stoppage of crankshaft rotation between combustion intervals.

During each stroke of an internal combustion engine, the flywheel, crankshaft, and other engine compo-
nents are affected by fluctuations in speed and force. During the power event in a four-stroke cycle
engine, the crankshaft is accelerated rapidly by the sudden motion of the piston and connecting rod
assembly. The flywheel smooths out some of the rpm and force deviation by its resistance to
acceleration. The inertia of the flywheel provides a dampening effect on the engine as a whole to even
out radial acceleration forces and rpm deviations produced in the engine.

9
Comparison of Petrol Engines and Diesel Engines

Four stroke engines

In a four stroke internal combustion engine, one cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the
en- gine piston in the engine cylinder. One stroke is the distance travelled by the piston from one end of
the cylinder to the other end, during which the crankshaft makes half a revolution. The end positions of
the piston in the cylinder are known as the dead centres. In a vertical engine they are the top dead centre
(TDC) and the bottom dead centre (BDC). In a horizontal engine the respective positions are the outer
dead centre and the inner dead centre. The distance between the two dead centres is the stroke length of
the piston which will be two times the crank length or the crank radius.

The four strokes making up a thermodynamic cycle of a four-stroke I.C. engine are (i) suction stroke,
(ii) compression stroke, (iii) expansion or power stroke and (iv) exhaust stroke.

10
Suction stroke

• Piston movement : from TDC to BDC.

• Valve position : inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed.

• Process : vacuum created inside the cylinder draws the charge into the cylinder through inlet valve.

Charge is air fuel mixture in petrol engines or air in diesel engines.

Compression stroke

• Piston movement : from BDC to TDC.

• Valve position : both valves are closed.

• Process : the charge in the cylinder is compressed from the full

• cylinder volume to clearance volume.

Expansion/ power stroke

• Piston movement : from TDC to BDC.

• Valve position : both valves are closed.

At the end of the compression stroke a spark is struck by the spark plug in SI engines. This causes the
com- bustion of the fuel in the charge and the instantaneous increase of pressure. In CI engines, fuel is
sprayed into the hot compressed air resulting in combustion of fuel. During the period of fuel injection
the piston moves in its expansion stroke and so there is minimal pressure increase.

As the charge in the cylinder burns it pushes the piston from TDC to BDC; expansion of combustion
prod- ucts (gas) takes place; power is produced. A fraction of the power is used for the other strokes, the
balance being supplied to the surrounding (useful power output of the engine).

Exhaust stroke

• Piston movement : from BDC to TDC.

• Valve position : inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve is open.

• Process : the combustion products are pushed out of the cylinder.

Two stroke engine

In a two-stroke internal combustion engine one cycle of operation is completed in two strokes of the
piston in the engine cylinder, that is, one revolution of the crankshaft. The construction of the two-stroke
I.C. engine is similar to the four-stroke I.C. engine except that there are no valves in a two-stroke engine
as there are in a four-stroke engine. Instead ports are provided in the engine cylinder which are operated
by the engine piston itself. The arrangement is shown in the figure on the previous page. The three ports
are:

1. Crank case inlet port - admits the charge into the crank case.

2. Transfer port - admits the charge from the crank case into the cylinder.

3. Exhaust port - exhausts the burnt gases from the cylinder.

11
Stroke 1

• Piston movement : from BDC to TDC.

• Processes : 1. the charge inside the cylinder is compressed increasing its pressure and temperature;

2. vacuum is created inside the crank case and when the piston uncovers the crank case inlet port
the charge enters the crank case.

Stroke 2

• Piston movement : from TDC to BDC.

• Processes : 1. At the end of the compression stroke a spark is struck by the spark plug in petrol en-
gines or fuel is sprayed into the cylinder through the injection nozzle in diesel engines, resulting in
combustion of fuel. The pressure and temperature of gases increase pushing the piston downwards
in its power stroke.

2. When the piston uncovers the exhaust ports in its downward stroke the burnt gases leave the
cylin- der through the exhaust ports.

3. When the piston uncovers the transfer port. The charge in the crank case, which has been com-
pressed during the downward movement of the piston, gets into the cylinder through the transfer
port. The deflector on top of the piston directs the charge upwards which helps in pushing out the
burnt gases through the exhaust ports which remain uncovered. This is called scavenging.

Comparison of 4 stroke and 2 stroke engines

12
Result
Study of IC engine is done and Studied all parts and functions

Click here for video session

13
 Overhauling of Reciprocating Pump

Aim
To Overhaul a reciprocating pump and to understand the parts associated.

Introduction
Reciprocating pumps can be defined as the hydraulic machines which converts mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy (or pressure energy) by sucking the liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is
reciprocating which exerts the thrust on the cylinder and increases its pressure energy.

Main parts of reciprocating pump are,

1. Suction pipe : Suction pipe connects the source of liquid to the cylinder of the reciprocating
pump. The liquid is suck by this pipe from the source to the cylinder.

2. Suction valve : Suction valve is non-return valve which means only one directional is possible in this
type of valve. This is placed between suction pipe inlet and cylinder. During suction of liquid it is
opened and during discharge it is closed.

3. Delivery pipe : Delivery pipe connects cylinder of pump to the outlet source. The liquid is delivered
to desired outlet location through this pipe. Delivery valve : Delivery valve also non-return valve
placed between cylinder and delivery pipe outlet. It is in closed position during suction and in
opened position during discharging of liquid. Cylinder : A hollow cylinder made of steel alloy or
cast iron. Arrangement of piston and piston rod is inside this cylinder. Suction and release of
liquid is takes place in this so, both suction and delivery pipes along with valves are connected to
this cylinder.

4. Piston and piston rod : Piston is a solid type cylinder part which moves backward and forward
inside the hollow cylinder to perform suction and deliverance of liquid. Piston rod helps the piston
to its linear motion.

5. Crank and connecting rod : Crank is a solid circular disc which is connected to power source
like motor, engine etc. for its rotation. Connecting rod connects the crank to the piston as a result
the rotational motion of crank gets converted into linear motion of the piston.

6. Strainer : Strainer is provided at the end of suction pipe to prevent the entrance of solids from
water source into the cylinder.

7. Air vessel : Air vessels are connected to both suction and delivery pipes to eliminate the frictional
head and to give uniform discharge rate.

Figure 2: Parts of reciprocating pump

14
Working
Figure shows a single acting reciprocating pump which consists of a piston which moves up and down
(or forward and backward) in fitting cylinder. The movement of the piston is obtained by connecting the
piston rod to crank by means of connecting rod. The crank is rotated by means of an electric motor.
Suction and delivery pipe with suction valve and delivery valve are connected to the cylinder. The
suction and delivery valve are one way or no return valve which allow the water to flow in One
Direction only. Suction valve allows water from suction pipe to the cylinder which delivery valve allow
water from cylinder to delivery pipe only.

Figure 3: 3D model reciprocating pump

When the crank start rotating the Piston moves to and fro in the cylinder. When the crank is at A the
piston is at the extreme lowest position in the cylinder. As the crank is rotating from A to C the piston is
moving towards right in the cylinder. The movement of piston towards right creates a practical vacuum
in the cylinder. But on the surface of the liquid in the sump atmospheric pressure is acting which is more
than the pressure inside the cylinder. Thus the liquid in forced in the suction pipe from the sump. This
liquid open the suction valve and enters the cylinder.

Figure 4: working of reciprocating pump

When the crank is rotating from C to A the piston from its extreme right position start moving
towards left in the cylinder. The movement of the piston towards left increase the pressure of the liquid
inside the cylinder more then atmospheric pressure. Hence suction valve closes and delivery valve
opens. The liquid is forced in to the delivery pipe and is raised to a required hight.

15
Field of application
• Oil drilling operations

• Pneumatic pressure systems

• Light oil pumping

• Feeding small boilers condensate return

OS-22 Power sprayer

OS-22 Power sprayer is a horizontal triplex piston reciprocating pump using for agricultural power spraying
applications.

It is mainly used for

• Cleaning & disinfecting spraying on rice, tea, cotton, gardening plants and other agricultural plants.

• Farmland irrigating, hillside water carriage and yard spraying.

• Car, motorcycle and air-cooler cleaning. Water supply of construction site.

• As a fire-fighting machine. Cooling-down system of greenhouse.

• Pressure test of new installed pipes inside a building.

Operation procedure
1. Adjust the belt and pulley in order to make the belt straightly. The V-belt must not be set loosely
as to slip away or drop out of its position.

2. Fill 30 or 40 Oil through the oil hole. Keep the oil level just half of the oil gauge. Change the oil after
50 hours use for the first time and every 100 hours since then. The proper time for changing oil is
after operating and the machine is still warm. Remove the drain plug and begin draining.

3. The three grease cups on the cylinder must always be filled with grease. After using for every two
hours, wind the grease cups about two circles per time.

4. Fix firmly the suction hose (1a), overflow hose (1b) and spraying hose (1c) on the suction metal, over
flow body and cock respectively. Make sure they must be set firmly and let no air leak out.

5. Operate the power and start the power sprayer.

6. Turn off the cock.

16
 7. After the power sprayer is normally operating, adjust the pressure screw. Then turn on the cock
and begin operating the power sprayer.

Trouble shooting

• Feeding failure & pressure instability:

– Check whether the suction hose is any leaking of air. Tight it up.
– Check whether the strainer is stuck. Clean it up, if necessary.
– Turn on the cock for a little while to let out the air left in the feeder and then turn it off.
– Check whether the suction metal, cylinder and six valves are stuck. Clean it up, if necessary.
– Check the flat valve and valve seat to see whether they are damaged.
– Check whether the valve springs are damaged.

• Cylinder Leaking:

– Take the stopper away from the cylinder with screw driver.
– Remove the plunger cover and wind by the three grands on the cylinder (for 1/3 round 1/2
round). If leaking is still uncontrollable, change the V-packing in the cylinder.

• Pressure Falling:

– Check whether the V-belt is loose.

– Check whether the spraying hose and coupling packing of spraying hose are broken. Renew
the parts if necessary.

Maintenance

1. Operate the power sprayer with clean water for about 5minutes after use in order to clean the
pesticide left in the machine.

2. Remove the suction hose, over flow hose, and spraying hose. Then wipe every part of the
machine dry.

3. Check the oil in the crank case. Refill oil, if necessary.

4. Check whether every screw is set firmly.

5. Check whether there is any leak of oil.

17
Overhauling procedure
1. Removal of valve and suction metal

2. Cleaning of 3 inlet struct/normal non return valves(78)

3. Removal of the cylinder(61) from the crank case(1)

4. Removal of the delivery valve metal from the cylinder

5. Cleaning of 3 delivery struct/normal non return valves

6. Wiping of the excess grease from the grease cup(62) and removal of the grease cup

7. Remove the crank case cover(3) from crank case

8. Drain the oil from the crank case

9. Overhaul the crank shaft(30), weights, counter weights and roller bearings by removing connecting
rod(31) end cap and main bearing cap attached to the crank case

10. After overhauling attach back the lid to the crank case

11. Apply grease on to the plunger/piston(33)

12. Fix back the oil seals(12) and the ’O’ rings(5) in respective positions

13. Fill the oil till it reaches ’F’ position in the oil gauge

14. Check for any leakage from the crank case

15. Remove the spraying hose from the delivery valve metal then wipe every part of the hose
assembly (This is only when OS-22 A1 reciprocating pump is used as a irrigation spray pump)

16. Fix back the spraying hose into the delivery valve metal

17. Fill the grease cup with grease and tighten the grease cup by rotating clockwise direction

18. Fix back the cylinder on to the crank case

19. Fix back the delivery metal assembly on to the cylinder

20. Tighten all the bolts(15)

21. Fix back the valve and suction metal assembly

22. Tighten all the bolts

18
Parts and specification

19
20
Result

Click here for video session

Overhauling of reciprocating pump is done with OS-22 power sprayer and studied its parts and functions
of eac

21
Determination of the characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps

Aim
To conduct the performance test on centrifugal pump and draw the following characteristic curves.

1. Efficiency v/s Discharge

2. Head v/s Discharge

3. Input power v/s Discharge

Introduction
The hydraulic machine which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy are called pumps. The
hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure
energy by means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid the hydraulic machine is called centrifugal
pump.

The centrifugal pump act as a reverse of an inward radial flow reaction turbine. This means that the flow
of centrifugal pump in the radial outward directions. The centrifugal pump works on the principle of
forced vortex flow which means that when a certain mass of liquid is rotated by an external Torque the
rice in pres- sure head at any point of the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of tangential
velocity of liquid at
v2 ω2r 2.
that point pressure head = 2g
= 2g
Thus at the outlet of the impeller where radius is more, the rise in pressure and will be more and the
liquid will be discharged at the outlet with a high pressure head. Due to this high pressure head the
liquid can be lifted to a high level.

Main parts of a centrifugal pump

The following are the main parts of a centrifugal pump.

1. Impeller : The rotating part of the centrifugal pump is called the impeller. It consists of a series
of backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the shaft of
an electric motor.

2. Casing : The casing of a centrifugal pumps is similar to the casing of a reaction turbine. It is an airtight
passage surrounding the impeller and is designed in such a way that the kinetic energy of the
water discharge at the outline of the impeller is converted into pressure energy before the water
leaves cas- ing and enters the delivery pipe. Following three type of the casing are commonly
adopted
a) volute casing
b) vortex casing
c) casing with blades

(a) Volute casing : Volute casing surrounds the impeller. It is of spiral type in which area of
flow increase gradually . The increase in area of flow of decrease the velocity of flow. The
decrease in the velocity increase the pressure of the water flowing through the casing. It has
been observed that in the case of volute casing the efficiency of the pump increase slightly as
a large amount of energy is lost due to the formation of Eddie’s in the type of casing.
(b) vortex casing : If a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and the impeller the cas-
ing is known as vortex casing. By introducing the circular chamber the loss of energy due to

22
the formation of Eddie’s reduced to a considerable extent. Thus the efficiency of the pump is
more than the efficiency when only volute casing is provided.

23
 (c) casing with Guide blades : The type of casing in which the impeller is surrounded by a series
of Guide blades Mounted on a ring which is known as diffuser. The guide vanes are designed
in such a way that the water from the impeller enters the guide vanes without stock. Also the
area of guide vanes increases thus the velocity of flow through the guide vane is reduces and
consequently increase the pressure of water. The water from the guide vanes passes through
the surrounding using which is in the most of cases concentric with the impeller.

Figure 8: (a) Vortex casing (b) Casing with guide blades

3. Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer : A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of
the pump and the other end dipped into water in a sump is known as suction pipe. A foot valve which
is a non return valve or one way type of valve is fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe. The foot
valves opens only in the upward direction. A strainers also fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe.

4. Delivery pipe : A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and and other end
delivers the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.

Figure 9: Centrifugal pump

Definitions of head of a centrifugal pump

1. Suction head hs : It is the vertical height of the centre line of the centrifugal pump above the
water surface in the tank or pump from which water is to be lifted as shown in figure. This height
is also called suction lift.

2. Delivery head hd : The vertical distance between the centre of the pump an the water surface in
the tank to which water is delivered is known as delivery head.

3. static head Hs : The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as static head.
Hs = hs +h d

4. Mano-metric head Hm : The mano-metric head is defined as the head against which a centrifugal
pump has to work.

24
 Figure 10: Centrifugal pump

Priming of centrifugal pump

Priming of centrifugal pump is defined as the operation in which the suction pipe, casing of the pump
and the portion of the delivery pipe up to the delivery valve is completely filled up from outside source
with the liquid to be raised by the pump before starting the pump. thus the air from these parts of the
pump is removed and these parts are filled with a liquid to be pumped.

The
1 work done by the impeller per Unit Weight of liquid per sec is known as the head generated by the
pump. The head generated by the pump is given by
the Vw u 2 meter.
2 This is independent of the density of
2
liquid. This mean that when pump is running in air the head generated is in the terms of metre of air. If
the pump is primed with water the head generated is same metre of water. But as the density of air is
very low the generated head of air in terms of equivalent weight of water head is negligible and hence
water may not be sucked from the pump. To avoid this difficulty priming is necessary.

Principle
Output power
1. Overall efficiency of pump, η = × 100 %
Input power
n × 3600
2. Input Power, IP = ×ηm kW
t ×Em
• n =Number of revolution of energy meter.
• t =Time for ’n’ revolution of energy meter in seconds.
• Em =Energy meter constant rev/kW hour.
• ηm =Mechanical efficiency = 80%
ρ × g ×Q × H
3. Output power, OP = kW
1000
• ρ =Density of flowing fluid in kg/m3
• g =Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
• Q =Discharge of flowing fluid in m3/s
• H =Total head of pump in meter = Pressure head + Suction head + Datum head.
A ×R 3
4. Actual discharge, Qact = m /s
t
• A = Area of collecting tank in m2
• R = Rise of water in collecting tank in m.
• t = Time in seconds for R meter rise in collecting tank.

25
Observation table

Sample calculations (Set no........)

n × 3600
1. Input Power, IP = ×ηm = .................. =...................kW
t ×Em
• Number of revolution of energy meter,n = 10 rev
• Motor efficiency, ηm = 80%
• Time for 10 revolution of energy meter,t =........s
• Energy meter constant,EM = 1600 imp/kW-hr
ρ × g ×Q × H
2. Output Power, OP = = ...................... =...............kW
1000
• Density Of water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3
• Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2
A ×R
• Actual discharge, Qact = = ............................... =...................m3/s
t
• Area of collecting tank, A = 0.25 × 0.25m2 =..................m2
• Height of water collected, R = 0.2 m
• Time for collection, t =...............sec
• Total Head, H = Hp+Hv = ................... =.....................m of water
• Pressure head, Hp = ............... kg/cm2 =................× 10 m of water
• Vacuum head, Hv = ................. kg/cm2 =................× 10 m of water
Output power
3. Overall efficiency, η = × 100 = ......................... =............................%
Input power

Procedure
1. The delivery valve, pressure gauge valve and vacuum valve are fully closed.

2. Start the motor and open the delivery valve fully. Allow the flow to stabilise by regulating the
gauge valves.

3. Note down the pressure and vacuum gauge readings.

4. Note down the manometer readings h1 & h2.

5. Note down the time for ’n’ revolution of energy meter disc, and also note the speed of pump by
using a tachometer.

6. The above procedure is repeated by gradually decreasing the flow of water by controlling the delivery
valve (take minimum 6 set of readings).

26
Graphs
1. Efficiency v/s Discharge

2. Head v/s Discharge

3. Input power v/s Discharge

Result
Performance test is conducted and required graphs are plotted.

Click here for video session

Inference

27
 Retardation test on Four Stroke Single Cylinder Vertical Diesel
Engine

Aim
To determine the frictional power of a four stroke single cylinder diesel engine by retardation test

Introduction
The difference between indicated power and the brake power output of an engine is the friction power.
Almost invariably, the difference between a good engine and a bad engine is due to difference between
their frictional losses. The frictional losses are ultimately dissipated to the cooling system (and exhaust)
as they appear in the form of frictional heat and this influences the cooling capacity required. Moreover,
lower friction means availability of more brake power; hence brake specific fuel consumption is lower.
The bsfc rises with an increase in speed and at some speed it renders the sue of engine prohibitive. Thus,
the level of friction decides the maximum output of the engine which can be obtained economically. In
the design and testing of an engine; measurement of friction power is important for getting an insight
into the methods by which the output of an engine can be increased. In the evaluation of IP and
mechanical efficiency measured friction power is also used.

IP = BP +FP

Indicated power

It is the total power available from the expanding of the gases in the cylinders negating any friction, heat
loss or entropy within the system.
Pm × L × A × n × k
I .P = 60
• Pm - Mean effective pressure

• A - Area of piston

• L - Stroke length

• k - Number of cylinders
N
• n - Number of working stroke per minute (n = N for 2 stroke and n = for 4 stroke)
2

Brake power

It is the actual power available at the output shaft or crankshaft of an IC engine.

2 ×π× N × T
B.P = 60
• N - Speed of the engine in rpm

• T - Torque produced on the output shaft

Frictional power

power lost especially in an internal-combustion engine through friction between parts of the machine itself

F.P = I .P −B.P

28
Principle
60 × BP rated
1. Full load torque, T = N-m
fl
2 ×π× N rated
Tf l
2. Half load torque, T1/2 = N-m
Tf 2
t2
3. =
T1/2 t1 − t2

• t1 Time for the fall of...........rpm at no load

• t2 Time for the fall of...........rpm at half load

4. Frictional toque,
t2
f
T = ×T
1/2
N
−m t1 − t2
5. Frictional power,
2 ×π× N × T f
FP = 60 W
6. Mechanical efficiency,
BP BP
ηmech = = × 100
IP BP +FP

Figure 11: 4 stroke single cylinder diesel engine with break drum

Procedure
1. Start the engine and allow it to stabilize the speed.

2. Cut-off the fuel supply completely by pulling the fuel cut-off valve.

3. Note down the time taken (t1) in seconds for the speed to come down from rated to required rpm.

4. Now Load the break drum with half load and Repeat the steps 2 to 4 and note down the time (t2)
for the engine to come down from rated to required rpm.

5. Repeat the experiment for different required rpms.

29
Observation table

Sample calculations (Set no........)

60 × BP rated
1. Full load torque, T = = ................................... =....................N-m
fl
2 ×π× N rated
Tf l
2. Half load torque, T1/2 = = ..................................................... =........................N-m
2
• Rated rpm = 660 rpm
• Rated BP = 6 HP = 4.476 kW
Tf t2
3. =
T1/2 t1 − t2

• Required speed, N2 =.....................rpm

• t1 =..................s
• t2 =..................s

4. Frictional toque,

t2
T f = t1/2− ×T = ................................................. =.............................N −m
t1 2

5. Frictional power,

2 ×π× N × T f ...................................................................................................................................
FP = 60 W

6. Mechanical efficiency,
BP BP
ηmech = = × 100 ................................................. =..........................%
IP BP +FP

Graph
1. Time v/s Speed drop (for no load)

2. Time v/s Speed drop (for half load)

30
31
Result
Retardation test is conducted in 4 stroke vertical diesel engine

Click here for video session

Inference

32
 Load Test on Four Stroke Single Cylinder Vertical Diesel Engine

Aim
To conduct load test on single cylinder, Vertical, water–cooled diesel engine and hence to determine
fric- tional power and draw the performance characteristic curves.

Introduction
The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the
fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to the mechanical compression
(adi- abatic compression); thus, the diesel engine is a so-called compression-ignition engine (CI engine).
This contrasts with engines using spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine
(gasoline engine) or a gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas).

Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder
to such a high degree that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites
spontaneously. With the fuel being injected into the air just before combustion, the dispersion of the fuel
is uneven; this is called a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture. The torque a diesel engine produces is
controlled by manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ); instead of throttling the intake air, the diesel engine
relies on altering the amount of fuel that is injected, and the air-fuel ratio is usually high.

The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or
external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which enables
heat dissipa- tion by the excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non-direct-
injection gasoline engines since unburned fuel is not present during valve overlap and therefore no fuel
goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and
other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can reach effective efficiencies of
up to 55%.

Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles. They were originally used as
a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s, they have been used in sub-
marines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants
followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use
of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US has increased.

Principle
π× D × N × (W1 +W2) × 9.81
1. Break Power, BP = kW
60000
• W1&W2 = Dynamo meter reading in kg
• D = Diameter of drum in m
• N = Engine RPM

10 × 3600 ×ρ f ×
2. Fuel consumption per hour, FCH 10−6
=
t
• t = Time for 10 cc fuel consumption
• ρ f = Density of fuel in kg/m3
FC H
3. Specific fuel consumption, SFC =
BP
4. Frictional Power, FP : Plot the graph between F.C Vs BP for different sets of readings Extend the line
of graph backside till it cuts the X-axis The power on negative scale at which FC is zero, is the friction
33
power. The plot is known as willian’s Line.

34
 5. Indicated power, IP = FP + BP kW
BP
6. Mechanical Efficiency, η =m
IP
IP × 3600 × 100
7. Indicated thermal efficiency, η =i t h
FC H ×CV
• CV = Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg
BP × 3600 × 100
8. Break thermal efficiency, η =bt h
FC H ×CV

Procedure
1. The fuel level in the tank is checked.

2. Lubricating oil level is checked.

3. The engine is started at no load condition and the time taken for 10 ml fuel consumption is noted.

4. A load of 2 kg s is applied on the engine, the spring balance reading w1 and w2, time taken for 10 cc of
fuel consumption are noted down.

5. The above procedure is repeated at different loads like 4kgs, 6kgs, —– 15 kgs.

6. Frictional Power is obtained from the WILAN’S LINE graph.

7. The other parameters like SFC, IP, FP ηm, ηi th , ηbth , are calculated.

8. Graphs are plotted as given below.

Graphs
1. BP Vs FCH

2. BP VS SFC

3. BP VS ηm

4. BP VS ηi th

5. BP VS ηbth

Figure 12: 4 stroke single cylinder diesel engine with break drum

35
Observation table

Sample calculation (Set no:...........)

π× D × N × (W1 +W2) × 9.81
1. Break Power, BP = = ........................... =.................kW
60000
• W1 +W2 =............kg
• D = 0.3 m
• N = 1500 rpm

2. Fuel consumption per hour, FCH 10 ×3600 ×ρ f 10−6

= × = .......................... =................kg/hr
t
• t =...............s
• ρ f =..............kg/m3
FC H
3. Specific fuel consumption, SFC = = ............................... =....................kg/kW-hr
BP
4. Frictional Power, FP =..........................kW

5. Indicated power, IP = FP + BP kW = .............................. =.............................kW

BP
6. Mechanical Efficiency, η =m = ................................... =....................%
IP
IP × 3600 × 100
7. Indicated thermal efficiency, η =i t h = ................................... =..........................%
FC H ×CV
• CV = 44631.96 kJ/kg
BP × 3600 × 100
8. Break thermal efficiency, η bth = = ...................................... =................................%
FC H ×CV

36
37
Result
Load test is conducted on 4 stroke 4 cylinder vertical diesel engine and following graphs are plotted.

1. BP Vs FCH

2. BP VS SFC

3. BP VS ηm

4. BP VS ηi th

5. BP VS ηbth

Click here for video session

Inference

38
 Load Test on Four Stroke Single Cylinder Horizontal Diesel
Engine

Aim
To conduct load test on single cylinder, horizontal, water–cooled diesel engine and hence to determine
frictional power and draw the performance characteristic curves.

Introduction
The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the
fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to the mechanical compression
(adi- abatic compression); thus, the diesel engine is a so-called compression-ignition engine (CI engine).
This contrasts with engines using spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine
(gasoline engine) or a gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas).

Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder
to such a high degree that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites
spontaneously. With the fuel being injected into the air just before combustion, the dispersion of the fuel
is uneven; this is called a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture. The torque a diesel engine produces is
controlled by manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ); instead of throttling the intake air, the diesel engine
relies on altering the amount of fuel that is injected, and the air-fuel ratio is usually high.

The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or
external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which enables
heat dissipa- tion by the excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non-direct-
injection gasoline engines since unburned fuel is not present during valve overlap and therefore no fuel
goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and
other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can reach effective efficiencies of
up to 55%.

Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles. They were originally used as
a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s, they have been used in sub-
marines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants
followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use
of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US has increased.

Principle
π× D × N × (W1 +W2) × 9.81
1. Break Power, BP = kW
60000
• W1&W2 = Dynamo meter reading in kg
• D = Diameter of drum in m
• N = Engine RPM

10 × 3600 ×ρ f ×
2. Fuel consumption per hour, FCH 10−6
=
t
• t = Time for 10 cc fuel consumption
• ρ f = Density of fuel in kg/m3
FC H
3. Specific fuel consumption, SFC =
BP
39
 4. Frictional Power, FP : Plot the graph between F.C Vs BP for different sets of readings Extend the line
of graph backside till it cuts the X-axis The power on negative scale at which FC is zero, is the friction
power. The plot is known as willian’s Line.

5. Indicated power, IP = FP + BP kW
BP
6. Mechanical Efficiency, η =m
IP
IP × 3600 × 100
7. Indicated thermal efficiency, η =i t h
FC H ×CV
• CV = Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg
BP × 3600 × 100
8. Break thermal efficiency, η =bt h
FC H ×CV

Procedure
1. The fuel level in the tank is checked.

2. Lubricating oil level is checked.

3. The engine is started at no load condition and the time taken for 10 ml fuel consumption is noted.

4. A load of 2 kg s is applied on the engine, the spring balance reading w1 and w2 , time taken for 10
cc of fuel consumption are noted down.

5. The above procedure is repeated at different loads like 4kgs, 6kgs, —– 15 kgs.

6. Frictional Power is obtained from the WILAN’S LINE graph.

7. The other parameters like SFC, IP, FP ηm, ηi th , ηbth , are calculated.

8. Graphs are plotted as given below.

Graphs
1. BP Vs FCH

2. BP VS SFC

3. BP VS ηm

4. BP VS ηi th

5. BP VS ηbth

Figure 13: 4 stroke single cylinder diesel engine with break drum

40
Observation table

Sample calculation (Set no:...........)

π× D × N × (W1 +W2) × 9.81
1. Break Power, BP = = ........................... =.................kW
60000
• W1 −W2 =............kg
• D = 0.3 m
• N = 1500 rpm

2. Fuel consumption per hour, FCH 10 ×3600 ×ρ f 10−6

= × = .......................... =................kg/hr
t
• t =...............s
• ρ f =..............kg/m3
FC H
3. Specific fuel consumption, SFC = = ............................... =....................kg/kW-hr
BP
4. Frictional Power, FP =..........................kW

5. Indicated power, IP = FP + BP kW = .............................. =.............................kW

BP
6. Mechanical Efficiency, η =m = ................................... =....................%
IP
IP × 3600 × 100
7. Indicated thermal efficiency, η =i t h = ................................... =..........................%
FC H ×CV
• CV = 44631.96 kJ/kg
BP × 3600 × 100
8. Break thermal efficiency, η bth = = ...................................... =................................%
FC H ×CV

41
42
Result
Load test is conducted on 4 stroke 4 cylinder horizontal diesel engine and following graphs are plotted.

1. BP Vs FCH

2. BP VS SFC

3. BP VS ηm

4. BP VS ηi th

5. BP VS ηbth

Click here for video session

Inference

43
 Energy Balance Test of Diesel Engine

Aim
To conduct an energy balance test on 4 stroke diesel engine

Introduction
A machine, which uses heat energy obtained from combustion of fuel and converts it into mechanical
en- ergy, is known as a Heat Engine. They are classified as External and Internal Combustion Engine. In
an External Combustion Engine, combustion takes place outside the cylinder and the heat generated
from the combustion of the fuel is transferred to the working fluid which is then expanded to develop
the power. An Internal Combustion Engine is one where combustion of the fuel takes place inside the
cylinder and converts heat energy into mechanical energy. IC engines may be classified based on the
working cycle, thermodynamic cycle, speed, fuel, cooling, method of ignition, mounting of engine
cylinder and applica- tion.

Diesel Engine is an internal combustion engine, which uses heavy oil or diesel oil as a fuel and operates
on two or four stroke. In a 4-stroke Diesel engine, the working cycle takes place in two revolutions of
the crankshaft or 4 strokes of the piston. In this engine, pure air is sucked to the engine and the fuel is
in- jected with the combustion taking place at the end of the compression stroke. The power developed
and the performance of the engine depends on the condition of operation. So it is necessary to test an
engine for different conditions based on the requirement.

The equipment setup consists of

1. KIRLOSKAR Diesel Engine (Crank started) of 5hp (3.7kW) capacity and is Water cooled.

2. The Engine is coupled to a same capacity DC alternator with resistance heaters to dissipate the energy.

3. Thermocouples are provided at appropriate positions and are read by a digital temperature
indicator with channel selector to select the position.

4. Rota meters of range 15LPM & 10LPM are used for direct measurement of water flow rate to the
engine and calorimeter respectively.

5. Engine Speed and the load applied at various conditions is determined by a Digital RPM Indicator
and spring balance reading.

6. A separate air box with orifice assembly is provided for regularizing and measuring the flow rate of
air. The pressure difference at the orifice is measured by means of Manometer.

7. A volumetric flask with a fuel distributor is provided for measurement and directing the fuel to the
engine respectively.

Principle

1. Fuel consumption, TFC = Vf × 3600 ×ρ f ×

10−6 kg/hr
t f

• Vf = Volume of fuel consumed (10 cc)

• ρ f = Density of fuel = 830 kg/m3
• tf = Time taken for consuming Vf volume of fuel in seconds
π× D × N × (W1 +W2) × 9.81
2. Output power or Break Power, BP = kW
44
60000

45
 • W1&W2 = Dynamo meter reading in kg
• D = Diameter of drum in m
• N = Engine RPM

Heat balance sheet calculations

Credit side
1. Heat input, Hi = T FC ×C v kJ/hr

• TFC = Fuel consumption

• Cv = Calorific value of fuel = 44631.96 kJ/kg

Debit side
1. Heat converted into useful work, Hb = BP × 3600 kJ/hr

2. Heat carried away by engine cooling water, Hw = mw ×C pw × (T2 −T 1 ) × 3600 kJ/hr

• mw = Mass flow rate of cooling water kg/s

• Cpw = Specific heat of cooling water

3. Heat carried away by exhaust gas, Hg = mg ×C g × (T3 −T 4 ) kJ/hr

• mg - Mass flow rate of exhaust gas = (ma + mf )

√
• ma - Mass flow rate of air = ρ air ×C d × 2 × g ×h a × 3600 kg/hr
h × ρw
• ha - Manometer readings of air column = w
ρa
• hw - Manometric difference of water column.
• a - Area of orifice
• mf = Mass flow rate of fuel = kg/hr
• Cpg = Specific heat of exhaust gas

4. Unaccountable losses, Hu = (Hi )-(Hb + Hw + Hg ) kJ/hr

Percentage of losses
Hb
1. Percentage of brake power loss = × 100 %
Hi
Hw
2. Percentage of heat loss through cooling water = × 100 %
Hi
Hg
3. Percentage heat loss through exhaust gas = × 100 %
Hi
Hu
4. Percentage of unaccounted heat loss = × 100 %
Hi

Procedure
1. Fill the fuel tank with diesel

2. Open cooling water supply, fuel supply and start the experiment

3. Set the decompression valve in vertical position, insert the crank lever into the crank shaft slot and
crank the engine to start

46
 4. Switch on the consoles

5. Using load switch, apply an electrical load of 0.5 kW and note down the voltmeter and ammeter
read- ings

6. Note engine speed using tachometer

7. Measure difference in manometer heads

8. Close the fuel fuel supply knob and use a stop watch to check the time taken for 10 cc fuel
consump- tion

9. Measure Temperatures at various points using temperature indicator and channel selector

10. Note down the time taken for flow of water from water meter

11. Repeat the experiment for different electrical loads

Graphs
Brake power v/s Percentage of loss

Observation table

Sample calculation (set no...............)

1. Fuel consumption, TFC = Vf × 3600 ×ρ f × 10 = ........................................... =.........................kg/hr

−6

tf
• Vf = Volume of fuel consumed (10 cc)
• ρ f = Density of fuel = 830 kg/m3

47
 • tf =......................s
π× D × N × (W1 +W2) × 9.81
2. Break Power, BP = = ............................................... =.................................kW
60000
• W1 =............................kg
• W2 =............................kg
• D =............................m
• N =............................rpm

Heat balance sheet calculations

Credit side
1. Heat input, Hi = T FC ×C v = .......................................... =........................kJ/hr

• FC = Fuel consumption
• Cv = Calorific value of fuel = 44631.96 kJ/kg

Debit side
1. Heat converted into useful work, Hb = BP × 3600 = ................................. =........................kJ/hr

2. Heat carried away by engine cooling water, Hw = mw ×C p w × (T2 − T1) × 3600 =.............................=
................ kJ/hr
Vw ×ρ × 3600
• mw = = ..................................................... =..........kg/hr
tw
• tw =.................................s
• Cpw = 4.186 kJ/kg

3. Heat carried away by exhaust gas, Hg = mg ×C g × (T3 − T4) = ........................................ = ..................

kJ/hr

• mg = Mass flow rate of exhaust gas = (ma + mf ) = ............................. =....................kg/hr

√
• ma = Mass flow rate of air = ρ air ×C d × 2 × g ×h a × 3600 = .............................. =................kg/hr
h × ρw
• ha = w =.............................m of air
ρa
• hw =.............................m of water
• a - Area of orifice = 3.14 ×10−4 m2
• mf = .................................... =...................kg/hr
• Cpg = 1.005 kJ/kg

4. Unaccountable losses, Hu = (Hi )-(Hb + Hw + Hg ) = ......................................... =......................kJ/hr

Percentage of losses
Hb
1. Percentage of brake power loss = × 100 = .......................................... =..............................%
Hi
Hw
2. Percentage of heat loss through cooling water = × 100 = ................................ =..............................%
Hi
Hg
3. Percentage heat loss through exhaust gas = × 100 = ................................... =..............................%
Hi
Hu
4. Percentage of unaccounted heat loss = × 100 = .......................................... =..............................%
Hi

48
49
Result
Heat balance test is conducted in a 4 stroke single cylinder diesel engine and corresponding graphs are
plot- ted

Click here for video session

Inference

50
 Testing of Fuels and Lubricants - Determination of flash and fire
points of petroleum products - Determination of kinematic and
absolute viscosity of lubricating oils - Determination of calorific
values.

Aim
To determine the Testing of Fuels and Lubricants - Determination of flash and fire points of petroleum products -
Determination of kinematic and absolute viscosity of lubricating oils - Determination of calorific values.

Introduction
This method determines the closed cup flash and fire points of petroleum products and mixtures to
ascer- tain whether they give off inflammable vapours below a certain temperature.

Flash point

It is the lowest temperatures of the oil, at which, application of test flame causes the vapour above the
sample to ignite with a distinct flash inside the cup.

Fire point

It is the lowest temperature of the oil, at which, application of test flame causes burning for a period of
about five seconds.

The apparatus consists of a brass cup and cover fitted with shutter mechanism, test flame arrangement,
hand stirrer, thermometer socket. The brass cup is heated by water bath (with energy regulator), fitted
with a funnel and overflow pipe.

Figure 14: Abel’s apparatus

Procedure
1. Clean the oil cup and fill the up to the mark with the sample oil.

2. Insert the thermometer into the oil cup through the provision to note down the oil temperature.

3. Using the Energy regulator, control the power supply given to the heater and rate of heating

4. The oil is heated slowly when temperature of oil rises; it is checked for the flash point for every
one- degree rise in temperature.

5. After determining the flash point, the heating shall be further continued. The temperature at which
time of flame application that causes burning for a period at least 5 seconds shall be recorded as
51
 the fire point.

6. Repeat the experiment 2 or 3 times with fresh sample of the same oil

7. Take the average value of flash and fire points.

52
Observation table

Sample calculation
1. Flash point of the given sample =...................0C

Click here for video session

2. Fire point of the given sample =...................0C

53
Introduction
The viscosity of given oil is determined as the time of flow in redwood seconds. The viscosity of a fluid indi-
cates the resistance offered to shear under laminar condition. Dynamic viscosity of a fluid is the
tangential force on unit area of either of two parallel planes at unit distance apart when the space
between the plates is filled with the fluid and one of the plate’s moves relative to the other with unit
velocity in its own plane.
du
τ = µ×
dy
2
The unit of dynamic viscosity is dyne-sec/cm . Kinematic viscosity of a fluid is equal to the ratio of the
dy- namic viscosity and density of the fluid. The unit of kinematic viscosity is cm2/sec.

Redwood viscometer consists of a water bath and oil bath, both provided with two thermometers inside
them. There is a ball valve, which is located at center of oil bath to flow of oil through the orifice. A
heater with regulator is fixed for heating purpose.

Figure 15: Redwood viscometer

Principle

B
1. Kinematic viscosity, ν = A × t − t cm2/s

• t = Time for collecting 50 cc oil in s

• A = 0.0272 cm2/s2
• B = 11.2 cm2

2. Absolute viscosity, µ = ν×ρ dyne-s/cm2

• ρ = Density of oil in gm/cc

54
Procedure
1. Clean the oil cup with a suitable solvent thoroughly and dry it using soft tissue paper.

2. Keep the ball valve in its position so as to keep the orifice closed.

3. The water is taken into the water bath and the oil whose viscosity is to be determined is taken into
the oil cup up to the mark.

4. Before switch on the electric supply, at room temperature note down the time taken in
Redwood seconds for a collection of 50 c.c. of oil with a stopwatch.

5. Heat the bath and continuously stir it taking care to see that heating of the bath is done in a careful
and controlled manner.

6. When the desired temperature is reached, place the cleaned 50 c.c. flask below the orifice in position.

7. Remove the ball valve and simultaneously start a stopwatch.

8. Note the time of collection of oil up to the 50 c.c. Mark.

9. During the collection of oil don’t stir the bath.

10. Repeat the process at various temperatures.

Graphs
1. Redwood seconds vs. temperature

2. Kinematic Viscosity vs. temperature

3. Absolute Viscosity vs. temperature

Observation table

Sample calculation (set no...............)

B
1. Kinematic viscosity, ν = A × t − t = .................................................. =.............................cm2/s

• t =..............s
• A = 0.0272 cm2/s2
• B = 11.2 cm2

2. Absolute viscosity, µ = ν×ρ = ................................................. = .................. dyne-s/cm2

• ρ =.........................gm/cc
55
56
Result
Variation of Redwood seconds, absolute viscosity and Kinematic viscosity with temperature, were observed
and found to be decreasing with temperature.

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57
Introduction
Calorific value (CV) is a measure of heating power and is dependent upon the composition of the gas.
The CV refers to the amount of energy released when a known volume of gas is completely combusted
under specified conditions. The CV of gas, which is dry, gross and measured at standard conditions of
tempera- ture (150C) and pressure (1 bar), is usually quoted in mega joules per cubic metre (MJ/m3).
Knowledge of the CV of natural gas is an essential part of our day-to-day activities, as this information
is used to determine the amount of energy we transport. CV information is provided daily to gas
shippers and suppliers, which is then used to bill gas consumers. We also use this data to determine
transportation charges for gas shippers and suppliers.

Junker’s Gas Calorimeter works on the Junker’s principle of burning of a known volume of gas and
imparting the heat with maximum efficiency to steadily flowing water and finding out of the rise in
temperature of a measured volume of water. The formula, Calorific Value of Gas × Volume of Gas =
Volume of water × Rise in Temperature, is then used to determine the Calorific Value of the Gas
(assuming that heat capacity of water is unity).

Principle
Calorific value of given gaseous fuel,

Vw ×ρ w × C pw
C .V = Vg ×ρ g
2 −T 1 ) × 1000 k −cal /m3
(T

• Vg - Volume of gas in liters consume during test period in m3

• Vw - Volume of water in liters passed during test period in m3

• T2 - Outlet water temperature in 0C

• T1 - Inlet water temperature in 0C

• ρw - Density of water in kg/m3

58
 • ρg - Density of gas in kg/m3

• Cpw - Specific heat of water k cal/kg K

Procedure
1. Install the equipment on a flat rigid platform near an uninterrupted continuous water source
and a drain pipe.

2. Connect the gas source to the pressure regulator, gas flow meter and the burner respectively in series.

3. Insert the thermometer / temperature sensors, into their respective places to measure water inlet
and outlet temperatures and a thermometer to measure the flue gas temperature at the flue gas
outlet.

4. Start the water flow through the calorimeter at a study constant flow rate and allow it to drain
through over flow.

5. Start the gas flow slowly and light the burner out side the calorimeter

6. Regulate the flow of gas at a steady rate to any designed flow (Volume)

7. Insert the burner into the calorimeter and allow the out let water temperature to attain a steady state

8. Swing the out let to a 1000 ml jar and start. The stop watch simultaneously, record the initial gas
flow meter reading at the same time

9. Note down the time taken to fill 1000ml and at the same time the final gas flow reading recorded
by the gas flow meter

10. Tabulate all the reading and calculate the calorific valve of the gas under test

11. Repeat the experiment by varying the water flow rate or gas flow for different conditions.

12. After the experiment is over stop the gas flow, water flow, and drain the water from the
calorimeter, keep the equipment clean and dry.

Observation table

Sample calculation (Set no:...........)

Calorific value of given gaseous fuel,

C.V Vw ×ρ w × C pw 3
=V Vg ×ρ g 2 −T 1 ) × 1000 = ................................................... =................................k −cal /m
(T

• Vg =...............................m3

• Vw =..............................m3

59
• T2 =............................. 0C

60
 • T1 =............................. 0C

• ρw = 1000 kg/m3

• ρg = 0.522 kg/m3

• Cpw = 1 k cal/kg K

Result
Determination of flash and fire points of petroleum products - Determination of kinematic and absolute viscosity of
lubricating oils - Determination of calorific values.Calorific value of the given gaseous fuel is completed successfully.

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Inference

61
 Study of Fuel Injection Valve and Pump

Aim
Detailed study on fuel injector and fuel pump

Introduction
The fuel injection system of a diesel engine can be called as the heart of the engine as the engine perfor-
mance directly depends upon the proper functioning of this system, which must supply, meter, inject
and atomize the fuel. Injector systems are manufactured with great accuracy, hence they are costly.

Diesel engine fuel system

Fuels with either of gravity or fuel feed pump is provided, which supplies fuel through the filter to
injection pump which pumps the fuel to inject or which are provided in the cylinder heads. The injection
system can be classified as,
1. Air injection system

2. Solid injection system

Air blast injection system

Air-blast injection is a historical direct injection system for Diesel engines. Unlike modern designs, air-
blast injected Diesel engines do not have an injection pump. A simple low-pressure fuel-feed-pump is
used instead to supply the injection nozzle with fuel. At injection, a blast of compressed air presses the
fuel into the combustion chamber, hence the name air-blast injection. The compressed air comes from
compressed- air tanks which feed the injection nozzle. A large crankshaft-driven compressor is used to re-
fill these tanks; the size of the compressor and the low rotational frequency of the engine’s crankshaft
means that air-blast injected Diesel engines are huge in size and mass, this, combined with the problem
that air-blast injection does not allow for quick load alteration makes it only suitable for stationary
applications and watercraft. Before the invention of precombustion chamber injection, air-blast injection
was the only way a properly working internal air fuel mixture system could be built, required for a
Diesel engine. During the 1920s, air- blast injection was rendered obsolete by superior injection system
designs that allowed much smaller but more powerful engines. Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent on air-
blast injection in November 1893
• Advantages :

– In this system, mixing of air and fuel is perfect; hence it gives rise to higher mean effective pres-
sure.
– High viscosity fuels can be used, which are less expensive.

• Disadvantages :

– It requires bulky multistage compressor. This system is not used anymore.

Solid injection system

In this system the liquid fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber without the aid of
compressed air. Hence, it is also called airless mechanical injection or solid injection system. It can be
classified into four types;
1. Individual pump and nozzle system : In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and
one injector. A separate metering and compression pump is provided for each cylinder. The pump
may be placed close to the cylinder. The high pressure pump plunger is actuated by a cam, and
pro- duces the fuel pressure necessary to open the injector valve at the correct time. The amount of

62
fuel injected depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.

63
 2. Unit injector system : In this system a pump and the injector nozzle are combined in one
housing. Each cylinder is provided with one of these unit injectors. Fuel is brought up to the
injector by a low pressure pump, where at the proper time, a rocker arm actuates the plunger and
thus injects the fuel into the cylinder. The amount of fuel injected is regulated by the effective
stroke of the plunger.

3. Common rail system : In the common rail system, a HP pump supplies fuel, to a fue l header. High
pressure in the header forces the fuel to each of the nozzles located in the cylinders, at proper time.
A mechanically operated (by means of a push rod and rocker arm) valve allows the fuel to enter
the proper cylinder through the nozzle. The pressure in the fuel header must be so high it must
enable to penetrate and disperse the fuel in the combustion chamber. The amount of fuel entering
the cylinder is regulated by varying the length of the push rod stroke.

4. Distributor system : In this system the pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters and times it.
The fuel pump after metering the required amount of fuel is supplied to a rotating distributor at the
correct time for supply to each cylinder. The number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump is
equal to the number of cylinders. Since there is one metering element in each pump, a uniform
distribution is automatically ensured. Not only that, the cost of the fuel-injection system also
reduces.

Components of fuel injection system

All the above systems comprise mainly of the following components.

1. Fuel tank.

2. Fuel feed pump to supply fuel from the main fuel tank to the injection system

3. Injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel for injection.

4. Overflow valve to direct the fuel overflow to the fuel tank through overflow line.

5. Injector to take the fuel from the pump and distribute it in the combustion chamber by atomizing it
into fine droplets.

6. Fuel filters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump and injectors thereby
min- imizing the wear and tear of the components.

Figure 16: Fuel injection system

Fuel injection pump

There is rack which is connected to the governor mechanism on the accelerator through various

64
linkages. It meshes with quadrant of the gear and motion of the rack rotates the quadrant gear to which
hollow cylinder portion with slot at the bottom is attached. The slot engaged with the bottom of the
plunger. thus plunger

65
will also rotate as a result of the rotation of the gear. There is a barrel in which fuel enters at the inlet
and overflows from fuel overflow passage. There is a Valve seat which is a non return valve and is kept
in position by spring. When the pressure in the barrel exceeds a predetermined; the valve opens against
the compression of the spring and pressure rises above the spring opposition of valve due to fluid in the
delivery pipe. Thus the pressure developed in the barrel depends upon the stiffness of the spring and the
fluid pressure above the valve. Due to this high pressure inside the injectore, the NRV valve opens and
the fuel supplied to the fuel injectors.

Figure 17: Fuel injection pump

Fuel injector

Bottom portion of the injector is the injector cup consist of a nozzle outlet for injecting fuel at high
velocity. Nozzle valve which is a spring-loaded plunger normally keeping the spray holes closed. Fuel inlet
connected to the fuel supply pipe from the fuel injection pump, which leads the high pressure fuel to the
nozzle cavity through the grooves inside the injector. Drain groove is provided for the excess oil from
the nozzle cavity. The connection being established through an inner grove of the valve when lifted.

Figure 18: Fuel injector

66
 Figure 19: Fuel injector

The upward and downward motion of the Injector plunger is controlled by a cam connected to crank
shaft. In the closed position of the plunger, the fine nozzle spray holes are closed to prevent compressed
air from cylinder entering the nozzle. When high pressure fuel is supplied to the nozzle cavity from the
FIP, it fills the entire inside grooves including the metering orifice to the injector cup. In the upward
motion of the plunger, pressurized fuel directs to the injector cup through metering orifice. As the
metering cup fills with the fuel, the plunger comes down and eject the fuel in to the combustion
chamber. During the downward motion, the plunger blocks the metering orifice and drain groove opens.
Excess fuel flows back to fuel tank through this drain groove.

Result
Study of fuel injector and fuel pump is done and Studied all parts and functions

67
 Study of Various Types of Filters and Incinerator

Aim
Detailed study on fuel filters and incinerators used in IC engines.

Fuel filters
A fuel filter is a filter in a fuel line that screens out dirt and rust particles from the fuel, and is normally
made into cartridges containing a filter paper. They are found in most internal combustion engines.

Fuel filters serve a vital function in today’s modern, tight-tolerance engine fuel systems. Unfiltered fuel
may contain several kinds of contamination, for example paint chips and dirt that has been knocked into
the tank while filling, or rust caused by moisture in a steel tank. If these substances are not removed
before the fuel enters the system, they will cause rapid wear and failure of the fuel pump and injectors,
due to the abrasive action of the particles on the high-precision components used in modern injection
systems. Fuel filters also improve performance, as the fewer contaminants present in the fuel, the more
efficiently it can be burnt.

Fuel filters need to be maintained at regular intervals. This is usually a case of simply disconnecting the
filter from the fuel line and replacing it with a new one, although some specially designed filters can be
cleaned and reused many times. If a filter is not replaced regularly it may become clogged with contam-
inants and cause a restriction in the fuel flow, causing an appreciable drop in engine performance as the
engine struggles to draw enough fuel to continue running normally.

Some filters, especially found on diesel engines, are of a bowl-like design which collect water in the bottom
(as water is more dense than diesel). The water can then be drained off by opening a valve in the bottom
of the bowl and letting it run out, until the bowl contains only diesel. Many diesel fuel filters contain a
water sensor to signal to the engine control unit or directly to the driver if the water reaches the warning
level. It is especially undesirable for water in fuel to be drawn into a diesel engine fuel system, as the
system relies on the diesel for lubrication of the moving parts, and if water gets into a moving part
which requires constant lubrication (for example an injector valve), it will quickly cause overheating
and unnecessary wear. This type of filter may also include a sensor, which will alert the operator when
the filter needs to be drained. In proximity to the diesel fuel filter there might be a fuel heater to avoid the
forming of paraffin wax (in case of low temperatures) inside the filtrating element which can stop the fuel
flow to the engine.

Figure 20: A fuel filter on a Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine.

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 Fuel systems can contain one or more stages of filtration. In many cases, a course screen is also
located at the fuel intake located in the fuel tank. Two stage filter system typically uses a primary filter on
the inlet side of the fuel transfer pump and a secondary filter on the outlet side. The primary filter is
required to remove larger particles. The secondary filter is required to withstand higher pressures and
remove smaller particles that can damage the engine components. One-stage systems remove larger and
smaller particles in a single filter.

Filters can be a box-type or replacement element design, as shown in Figure 23. The box-type filter is
that which can be completely replaced as needed and does not require cleaning. Filters with a
replaceable el- ement have to be thoroughly cleaned when replacing elements and care must be taken to
avoid any dirt residue that could migrate to the intricate parts of the fuel injection system. Filters can be
constructed of metal or plastic.

Figure 21: Two Types of Fuel Filters (a) Box type; (b) Element type

Common materials for modern fuel filter elements are synthetic fibres and/or cellulose. Micro glass
fibres can also be used but because of the risk of migration of small glass fibre pieces broken off from
the main element into critical fuel system components, their use in some applications is avoided. In the
past, pleated paper, packed cotton thread, wood chips, a mixture of packed cotton thread and wood
fibres and wound cotton have also been used. The degree of filtration required depends on the specific
application. In general, when two filters are used in series, the primary filter retains particles down to
about 10 - 30 µm, while the secondary filter is capable of retaining particles greater than 2-10 µm. As
fuel systems evolve, clearances and stresses on high pressure components increase and the need for
clean fuel becomes event more critical. Both the capability of fuel filters to keep up with demands for
cleaner fuel as well as methods quantifying acceptable fuel contamination levels have needed to evolve.

In addition to keeping solid particles out of the fuel supply and injection equipment, water in fuel must
also be prevented from entering critical fuel injection system components. Free water can damage fuel
lu- bricated components in the fuel injection system. Water can also freeze in cold temperature
conditions and ice may block small fuel injection system passages thus cutting off the fuel supply to the
rest of the fuel in- jection system. Water can be removed from the fuel using two common approaches.
The incoming fuel can be subject to centrifugal forces that separates the denser water from the fuel.
Much better removal efficien- cies can be achieved with a filter media that separates water. Figure 22
shows a filter using a combination of media-type and centrifugal approaches.

69
 Figure 22: Fuel filter using a combination of media-type and centrifugal approaches

Different water separation media operate under different principles. Hydrophobic barrier media,
such as silicone treated cellulose, rejects water and causes it to bead up on the upstream surface. As the
beads become larger, they run down the face of the element into a cup under the force of gravity.
Hydrophilic depth coalescing media, such as glass micro-fibre, has a high affinity for water. The water
in the fuel as- sociates with the glass fibres and over time as more water enters from the upstream side,
massive droplets are formed. The water moves through the filter with the fuel and on the downstream
side, falls out of the fuel flow into a collection cup. Increased use of surface active fuel additives and
fuel components such as biodiesel have rendered conventional separating media less effective and filter
manufacturers have needed to develop new approaches such as composite media and ultra-high surface
area coalescing media. Meth- ods of quantifying fuel/water separation performance have also been
affected.

Fuel filters can also contain additional features such as fuel heaters, thermal diverter valves, de-aerators,
water-in-fuel sensors, filter change indicators. A fuel preheater helps minimize the accumulation of wax
crystals that can form in the fuel as it cools to low temperatures. Common heating methods use electric
heaters, engine coolant or recirculated fuel.

Figure 23: Fuel filter assembly of all post 2020 audi diesel A2’s

70
Incinerators
Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained
in waste materials. Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as
"ther- mal treatment". Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas and heat. The
ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste and may take the form of solid lumps or
partic- ulates carried by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate
pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere. In some cases, the heat that is generated by
incineration can be used to generate electric power.

Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy technologies such as gasification,
py- rolysis and anaerobic digestion. While incineration and gasification technologies are similar in
principle, the energy produced from incineration is high-temperature heat whereas combustible gas is
often the main energy product from gasification. Incineration and gasification may also be implemented
without energy and materials recovery.

Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan, Singapore and the Netherlands,
where land is a scarce resource. Denmark and Sweden have been leaders by using the energy generated
from incin- eration for more than a century, in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting
district heating schemes. In 2005, waste incineration produced 4.8% of the electricity consumption and
13.7% of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark. A number of other European countries rely
heavily on incinera- tion for handling municipal waste, in particular Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Germany, and France.

Types
Burn pile

The burn pile is one of the simplest and earliest forms of waste disposal, essentially consisting of a
mound of combustible materials piled on the open ground and set on fire. A typical small burn pile in a
garden. Burn piles can and have spread uncontrolled fires, for example, if the wind blows burning
material off the pile into surrounding combustible grasses or onto buildings. As interior structures of the
pile are consumed, the pile can shift and collapse, spreading the burn area. Even in a situation of no
wind, small lightweight ignited embers can lift off the pile via convection, and waft through the air into
grasses or onto buildings, igniting them. Burn piles often do not result in full combustion of waste and
therefore produce particulate pollution.

Burn barrel

The burn barrel is a somewhat more controlled form of private waste incineration, containing the burn-
ing material inside a metal barrel, with a metal grating over the exhaust. The barrel prevents the spread
of burning material in windy conditions, and as the combustibles are reduced they can only settle down
into the barrel. The exhaust grating helps to prevent the spread of burning embers. Typically steel 55-
US-gallon (210 L) drums are used as burn barrels, with air vent holes cut or drilled around the base for
air intake. Over time, the very high heat of incineration causes the metal to oxidize and rust, and
eventually the barrel itself is consumed by the heat and must be replaced.

The private burning of dry cellulosic/paper products is generally clean-burning, producing no visible
smoke, but plastics in the household waste can cause private burning to create a public nuisance,
generating acrid odors and fumes that make eyes burn and water. Most urban communities ban burn
barrels and certain rural communities may have prohibitions on open burning, especially those home to
many residents not familiar with this common rural practice.

As of 2006 in the United States, private rural household or farm waste incineration of small quantities
was typically permitted so long as it is not a nuisance to others, does not pose a risk of fire such as in
dry con- ditions, and the fire does not produce dense, noxious smoke. A handful of states, such as New
71
York, Min-

72
nesota, and Wisconsin, have laws or regulations either banning or strictly regulating open burning due to
health and nuisance effects. People intending to burn waste may be required to contact a state agency in
advance to check current fire risk and conditions, and to alert officials of the controlled fire that will
occur.

Moving grate

The typical incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving grate incinerator. The moving grate
enables the movement of waste through the combustion chamber to be optimized to allow a more
efficient and complete combustion. A single moving grate boiler can handle up to 35 metric tons (39
short tons) of waste per hour, and can operate 8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for
inspection and main- tenance of about one month’s duration. Moving grate incinerators are sometimes
referred to as Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators (MSWIs). The waste is introduced by a waste crane
through the "throat" at one end of the grate, from where it moves down over the descending grate to the
ash pit in the other end. Here the ash is removed through a water lock. Municipal solid waste in the
furnace of a moving grate incinerator capable of handling 15 metric tons (17 short tons) of waste per
hour. The holes in the grate supplying the primary combustion air are visible. Part of the combustion air
(primary combustion air) is supplied through the grate from below. This air flow also has the purpose of
cooling the grate itself. Cooling is important for the mechanical strength of the grate, and many moving
grates are also water-cooled internally.

Secondary combustion air is supplied into the boiler at high speed through nozzles over the grate. It
facili- tates complete combustion of the flue gases by introducing turbulence for better mixing and by
ensuring a surplus of oxygen. In multiple/stepped hearth incinerators, the secondary combustion air is
introduced in a separate chamber downstream the primary combustion chamber. According to the
European Waste In- cineration Directive, incineration plants must be designed to ensure that the flue
gases reach a temperature of at least 850 0C for 2 seconds in order to ensure proper breakdown of toxic
organic substances. In order to comply with this at all times, it is required to install backup auxiliary
burners (often fueled by oil), which are fired into the boiler in case the heating value of the waste
becomes too low to reach this temperature alone.

The flue gases are then cooled in the superheaters, where the heat is transferred to steam, heating the
steam to typically 400 0C at a pressure of 40 bars) for the electricity generation in the turbine. At this point,
the flue gas has a temperature of around 200 0C), and is passed to the flue gas cleaning system.

Rotary kiln

The rotary-kiln incinerator is used by municipalities and by large industrial plants. This design of
inciner- ator has two chambers: a primary chamber and secondary chamber. The primary chamber in a
rotary kiln incinerator consists of an inclined refractory lined cylindrical tube. The inner refractory lining
serves as sac- rificial layer to protect the kiln structure. This refractory layer needs to be replaced from time
to time. Move- ment of the cylinder on its axis facilitates movement of waste. In the primary chamber,
there is conversion of solid fraction to gases, through volatilization, destructive distillation and partial
combustion reactions. The secondary chamber is necessary to complete gas phase combustion reactions.
The clinkers spill out at the end of the cylinder. A tall flue-gas stack, fan, or steam jet supplies the
needed draft. Ash drops through the grate, but many particles are carried along with the hot gases. The
particles and any combustible gases may be combusted in an "afterburner".

Fluidized bed

A strong airflow is forced through a sandbed. The air seeps through the sand until a point is reached
where the sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing and churning occurs, thus a fluidized
bed is created and fuel and waste can now be introduced. The sand with the pre-treated waste and/or
fuel is kept suspended on pumped air currents and takes on a fluid-like character. The bed is thereby
violently mixed and agitated keeping small inert particles and air in a fluid-like state. This allows all of

73
the mass of waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace.

74
Specialized incinerators

Furniture factory sawdust incinerators need much attention as these have to handle resin powder and many
flammable substances. Controlled combustion, burn back prevention systems are essential as dust when suspended
resembles the fire catch phenomenon of any liquid petroleum gas.

Figure 24: Working of waste incinerator used in industries

Result
Study of fuel filters and incinerator is done and Studied all parts and functions.

75
 Determination of the characteristic Curves of Screw Pumps

Aim

To conduct an experiment at various heads of a given single-stage Screw pump and to find
its efficiency and curves.

APPARATUS:

Single-stage screw pump, collecting tank.

THEORY:

The rotary screw or progressive cavity pump is a positive displacement pump designed to
handle solid particles in suspension such as abrasive slurries, water base paints, dirty oils, etc.
The operating principle can be understood in reference to Figure 3. The rotor has an eccentric
axial pitch while the elastic stator has an axial pitch one half that of the rotor. The rotor and
stator form a constant sealing line creating a series of sealed cavities. When the shaft rotates,
these sealed cavities progress axially down the stator to the discharge end. Meanwhile the
opened cavities at the suction end pull in new material. Both the gear pump and the rotary
screw pump suffer from pump leakage at high-back pressures due to imperfect sealing at the
sealing interfaces.

The screw pump Test Rig is designed to study the performance of the Single-stage screw
pump. In this equipment one can study the relationship between.
1. Discharge Vs Head
2. Discharge Vs Input power
3. Discharge Vs Efficiency

The apparatus is designed to study the performance of a single stage Screw Pump.The
readings to be taken on the single stage screw pump are (1) Total Head (2) Discharge
(3) Power input and (4) Efficiency. Provision has been made to measure all these and hence
the complete characteristics of the single stage Screw pump in question can be studied.

DESCRIPTION

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The Test Rig mainly consists of (1) single Screw pump set (2) Panel Board, (3) Pressure and vacuum
gauges to measure the head (4) Measuring Tank to measure the discharge
(5) Energy meter to measure the input to the motor (6) Sump tank and (7) RPM Indicator.

A.C. MOTOR:
The three phase 440V electric motor suitable for operation is provided.

GAUGES:
Suitable range of pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the total head on the
pumpwith reasonable accuracy.

MS SUMP:
Is provided to store sufficient water for independent circulation through the unit for
experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit.

MS MEASURING TANK:
It is provided to measure the discharge of the pump. The tank is complete with
piezometer and mm scales arrangement.

PIPING SYSTEM:
Suitable piping system with pipes, bends and valves are provided. The gate valve is
provided in the delivery side to control the head on the pump. While starting the motor
always keep the valve in close position.

PANEL BOARD:
The Panel Board houses all the necessary electrical items, like switch for the above
pump set and an energy meter to read the power input and it is fitted with the unit on a
strong iron base with sufficient height and with provisions for foundation also it consist
the RPM indicator to showthe speed of pump.

77
 INPUT POWER MEASUREMENT:
A Kilowatt-hour meter is provided to measure the power input to the motor. The energy
meter constant (The Number of Revolutions per minute of the energy meter Disc) is stamped
on the meter from this the input power can be easily calculated

APPARATUS SPECIFICATION:

a. Motor : 2 HP, 440V, amp. 1440 RPM.

b. Speed: : with Rpm Indicator with Rpm sensor
c. Energy meter : To measure power consumption of motor.
d. Sump tank : 60.96×40.64×30.48 cm3
e. Measuring tank : 25.4×30.48×38.10 cm3
f. Pressure gauge : 0 to 14 kg/cm2
g. Vacuum gauge : 0 to 760 mm of hg

PROCEDURE:

1. Before start the apparatus fill the sump tank by clean water and ensure that all the switch in
the control panel at off position.
2. Now Prime the Pump by given point.
3. Now open the delivery valve fully and switch ON the main switch.
4. Energy meter show the power supply and rpm indicator show the reading.
5. Slowly close the gate valve (not fully) to create some pressure.
6. Note down the pressure gauge and vacuum gauge reading by adjusting the delivery
valve to require head say ... meters.
7. Note down the time required for the rise of 10cm (i.e. 0.1m) water in the collecting tank
by using stop watch.
8. Note down the time taken for ‘10’ blinks of energy meter and calculate the Input Power
Repeat the steps from 5 to 8 for various heads by regulating the delivery valve.

PRECAUTION:

1. Priming is must before starting the pump.

2. Pump should never be run empty.
3. Use clean water in the sump tank

78
FORMULAE:

CALCULATION:

TABULAR COLUMN:

79
RESULT:

1. Input power = k.w

2. Output Power = k.w
3. %η of pump
= And graph is
plotted
1. Discharge Vs Head;
2. Discharge Vs Input power &
3. Discharge Vs Efficiency

80
 Model Graph:

HEAD (H) Efficiency, η

Input Power

Discharge(Q)

INFERENCE:

To conduct the performance test on Screw pump and draw the following characteristic curves.

4. Efficiency v/s Discharge

5. Head v/s Discharge

6. Input power v/s Discharge

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 Overhauling of Gate Valve, Globe Valve

Aim
To Overhaul Gate and Globe Valve and Study Parts associated with it

Introduction
A globe valve is a type of valve used for regulating flow in a pipeline, consisting of a movable plug or disc
element and a stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body. Globe valves are named for their spherical
body shape with the two halves of the body being separated by an internal baffle. This has an opening that
forms a seat onto which a movable plug can be screwed in to close (or shut) the valve. The plug is also called
a disc. In globe valves, the plug is connected to a stem which is operated by screw action using a hand
wheel in manual valves. Typically, automated globe valves use smooth stems rather than threaded and are
opened and closed by an actuator assembly.
A gate valve, also known as a sluice valve, is a valve that opens by lifting a barrier (gate) out of the path of
the fluid. Gate valves require very little space along the pipe axis and hardly restrict the flow of fluid when the
gate is fully opened. The gate faces can be parallel but are most commonly wedge-shaped (in order to be able
to apply pressure on the sealing surface). Gate valves are used to shut off the flow of liquids rather than for
flow regulation, which is frequently done with a globe valve. When fully open, the typical gate valve has no
obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very low flow resistance.[1] The size of the open flow path generally
varies in a nonlinear manner as the gate is moved. This means that the flow rate does not change evenly with
stem travel. Depending on the construction, a partially open gate can vibrate from the fluid flow.
Gate valves are mostly used with larger pipe diameters, since they are less complex to construct than other
types of valves in large sizes.

Components and Construction of Globe Valve

Figure 25: Globe Valve Components

Globe valve comprises of round shape taper or regulating type disc. The disc is attached to the spindle by self-
aligned swiveling joint. Vertical movement of disc along with spindle is governed by rotation of hand wheel,
directly fitted on spindle. Spindle is engaged in the yoke nut on the bonnet top by suitable threading.
Clockwise rotation of hand wheel leads to closing of the disc. Globe valves are normally used for controlling
the flow where certain pressure drop is permitted. These valves can be used for on-off service also.

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 Components and Construction of Gate Valve

Figure 26: Gate Valve Components

Gate Valve comprises of taper wedge, situated in between two-body seat rings, having included angle of 8 to
10 range. Guide ribs provided in the body, for smooth vertical movement secures wedge. Spindle is engaged
to the wedge, ‘T’ head self-aligned joint. Spindle is engaged in the yoke sleeve by suitable threading. Rotation
of hand wheel in clockwise direction causes the yoke sleeve to rotate and spindle moves in the downward
direction along with the wedge to close the valve. Gate valves are used for on-off service where full flow with
minimum pressure drop is desired in full open condition. Gate valves are not recommended for throttling
service. These valves are to be used either fully closed or fully open position.

Overhauling Procedure for Globe Valve

1. Loosen the eyebolts/nuts; remove the body bonnet joint stud/nuts.

2. Lift the bonnet assembly from body.
3. Remove tack weld locking of spindle nut to disc and take out the disc from spindle assembly.
4. Remove the hand wheel from spindle and take out spindle from bonnet assembly by rotating anti-clockwise.
5. Clean the spindle-threaded portion and polish or grind unthreaded portion. Take a light cut on taper back
seat portion, if damage is more.
6. Remove old gland packing from bonnet stuffing box. Lap the back seat portion of bonnet bush. Check the
condition of seat surface of body seat ring and disc.
7. Minor scratches should be removed by lapping with emery paste with the help of suitable fixtures.
8. Deep scratches should be removed by machining and lapping. Removal of threaded seat rings is similar to
that of gate valve.
9. Assemble the disc/spindle assembly as before and assemble the valve and replace the old gasket. Add new
gland packing in the stuffing box of exact size having opened ends 180 with each other.
10. Apply proper lubrication to spindle threading and operate the valve 2/3 times.

Overhauling Procedure for Gate Valve

1. Loosen the body/bonnet joint stud/nuts and remove from body, loosen the eye bolt nuts, rotate the hand
wheel in clockwise direction. Wedge will come down to closed position.
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 2. Further rotate the hand wheel in same direction, bonnet assembly will rise in upward direction. Continue the
same till spindle comes out of threaded portion of yoke sleeve.
3. Lift the bonnet assembly to separate it from body. Hold the spindle portion above body with left hand and
pull it upward by hammering gently on topside of body surface beyond gasket area.
4. The spindle along with wedge will come out of body. Observe the condition of seat portion and interior
portion of body.
5. Clean body interior portion and seat surface thoroughly with suitable cleaning liquid check up for any
scratches on seat ring surfaces.
6. Minor scratches should be removed by lapping with emery paste with the help of body seat lapping fixture.
7. If the scratches are deep which cannot be removed by lapping, further machining may be required. Threaded
seat rings are machined with ‘Right Hand’ threading and can be removed from body with the help of lugs
provided. Where seat rings are seal welded to the body, complete body should be loaded on machine for
further rectification.
8. Similarly minor scratches on wedge surface should be removed by lapping with emery paste. Deep scratches
should be removed by machining and lapping. In case wedge surface is heavily damaged the entire seat
surface should be machined and machining and lapping should follow one layer of hard facing weld
deposition as per body size.
9. Remove old gland packing from bonnet stuffing box. Clean the bonnet surface from inside; lap the degree
surface of back seat bush with the help of suitable fixture or by spindle itself. Clean threaded portion of the
spindle. Polish the non-threaded portion of spindle on lathe machine or grind if possible.
10. Clean threaded portion of yoke sleeve and apply grease with the help of grease gun through grease nipple
provided on the bonnet top. Change the body bonnet joint gasket and assemble the valve.
11. Put new gland packing of required size and quality into the stuffing box with open end 180 with respect to
each other. Tighten eyebolt nut equally on both sides. Lubricate the spindle-threading portion and operate
the valve 2/3 times.

Precautions to be taken

 Whenever gland packing is required to be replaced under full working pressure, ensure that back-seating
arrangement is present and is functioning properly.
 While opening and closing of the valve please check direction of turn for open and close (operation in
opposite direction may damage the yoke sleeve).
 When body bonnet joints are unbolted do not forget to put new gasket while refitting.

Some Other type of Globe and Gate Valve

 Pneumatically Operated Valves

 Electrically Operated Valves

Result
Overhauling of Globe and Gate valve is done and studied its parts and functions of each.

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