Computers and Chemical Engineering 188 (2024) 108784

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers and Chemical Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compchemeng

Applications of augmented reality (AR) in chemical engineering education:

Virtual laboratory work demonstration to digital twin development
Zelin Zhou * , Farshad Oveissi , Timothy Langrish
School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW 2006, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With advances in information technologies, virtual technologies have become a viable option for chemical en­
Augmented reality gineering educators. Although traditional teaching methods remain effective, they have many limitations when
Chemical engineering presenting complex phenomena. Virtual technologies like Augmented Reality (AR) have shown great potential as
Spray dryer
an addition to traditional teaching methods. This study explored the practicality and potential applications of AR
Education
Digital twin
technologies in chemical engineering education. In this work, traditional 2D representations of CFD simulation
results were replaced by AR experiences to visualise the flow pattern and assist the understanding of the working
mechanism behind different devices. Other than CFD result integration, animations were also included in AR
experiences for personalised training and inclusive laboratory work experience. AR-assisted training has shown
good potential in reducing financial loss and equipment downtime due to improper handling. Besides delivering
teaching content, the development process of a digital twin with an AR interface was used to demonstrate how
virtual technologies can be involved in digitalisation in Industry 4.0. Beyond the technical contents, important
design philosophies were also taught as part of the courses.

1. Introduction technologies in education sectors have shown that using virtual envi­
ronment technologies improves students’ learning experiences (Cevik­
More effective and inclusive teaching methodologies have always bas et al., 2023; Garzón et al., 2019; Garzón and Acevedo, 2019;
been a focus for educators worldwide, and chemical engineers are no Marougkas et al., 2023; Ozdemir et al., 2018; Santos et al., Jan-March
exception. In recent years, integrating advanced digital technologies, 2014). In the setting of chemical engineering education, traditional
such as virtual and augmented environments, has emerged as a viable teaching approaches (lecture and laboratory) approaches are effective,
option for educators (Chen et al., 2024; Kumar et al., 2021; Quintero while not being able to reflect the actual size and complexity of chemical
et al., 2019; Radianti et al., 2020). There has been a long history of the process plants (Norton et al., 2008). Plant visits are sometimes available,
application of virtual environments for training and education, while the but their availability is often limited due to cost and transportation
application of virtual environments in education has not been so widely (Kumar et al., 2021). Virtual environments can be used as a replacement
adopted until recent years due to technical challenges (Akbulut et al., or supplement to those traditional teaching approaches and deliver the
2018; Kumar et al., 2021). The main advantage of using virtual envi­ teaching content in a more immersive and interactive way. Moreover,
ronments for education is their accessibility. Unlike traditional teaching many chemical processes have inherent risks linked to the chemicals
resources bound to a specific physical location and sometimes only used or the process. Virtual environments allow the reproduction of
available in a handful of leading institutions, virtual environments can those processes while students are exposed to those potentially haz­
overcome these constraints. Virtual environments can be reproduced ardous processes in a safe and controlled environment (Gani et al., 2020;
anywhere by anyone with compatible devices (Kumar et al., 2021). With Richmond, 2016; Udugama et al., 2023).
technological advancements, mobile devices like customer-priced Many early applications of virtual environments in education were in
head-mounted displays (HMD) have made virtual environments more the form of Virtual laboratories with 2-D interfaces. As a natural
accessible (Jensen and Konradsen, 2018; Udugama et al., 2023). extension to these approaches, the more immersive virtual technologies
Previous studies on the applications of virtual environment such as Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) have been

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Zhou).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compchemeng.2024.108784
Received 17 April 2024; Received in revised form 14 June 2024; Accepted 29 June 2024
Available online 30 June 2024
0098-1354/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Z. Zhou et al. Computers and Chemical Engineering 188 (2024) 108784

considered in chemical engineering and other engineering disciplines metal construction of the equipment, flow visualisation of the rig using
(Abdul Rahim et al., 2012; Ouyang et al., 2018; Pirola et al., 2020). In a smoke flow injection is not practical for illustrating the flow patterns. 2)
survey conducted by Udugama et al. (2023), educators in chemical en­ The equipment is located in an open space between two buildings, and
gineering have considered the upfront capital cost to be a fairly noise from the fan makes interaction between the demonstrator and
important non-technical factor when choosing digital tools for deliv­ students challenging. 3) It is impossible to see the internal structure of
ering content. For the reasons above, AR technologies have recently different flow meters, and the openings on the Pitot tube are small and
become another tool for chemical engineering education (Low et al., barely visible. The representation of the internal structure for different
2022; Solmaz et al., 2021). Compared with the more immersive VR flow meters was heavily reliant on 2D schematic diagrams; thus,
experiences, the advantage of AR experiences is that dedicated viewing explaining the working principle of the different flow meters becomes
devices like HMD are not mandatory, and they can be viewed on mobile difficult and less intuitive. The augmented reality experiences for the air
phones and tablets (Carberry et al., 2023). The need for dedicated flow equipment and the Pitot tube were developed to resolve those
hardware has limited its accessibility and significantly increased the issues.
upfront capital costs. The importance of being able to access remotely
and without specific hardware has been increased when choosing new 2.1.1. Three-dimensional (3D) model development of the air flow
teaching media during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Other than equipment
dedicated viewing devices, the significant computer processing re­ The first step in developing an AR experience is to develop a
quirements for VR experiences also limit the accessibility of VR expe­ computer-aided drawing (CAD) 3D model of the equipment, which is
riences. Additionally, VR experiences may cause motion sickness to used as part of the experience and for simulations. In this study, Auto­
specific people, which may limit its applications in education sectors desk AutoCAD was used to develop 3D models of the airflow rig and
where inclusiveness is important (Lanzo et al., 2020; Weech et al., Pitot tube, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. To reduce the complexity of the
2020). Like other virtual technologies, AR experiences share similar overall model, parts that do not significantly impact the AR experience
limitations, including the lack of physical feedback, distraction from have been deleted. Those parts include, but are not limited to, flanges,
traditional learning activities, and a steeper learning curve. These lim­ bolts, gaskets and the fan. The valve used for controlling the gas flow
itations can be mitigated by better classroom management (e.g., active rate at the end of the equipment has also been removed from the model
supervision) and by combining AR technologies with hands-on as it does not contribute to understanding the working principles of the
activities. different flow rate measurement devices.
Previous studies have explored the feasibility and effectiveness of
applying AR technologies as supplementary tools in STEM education, 2.1.2. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulation of the airflow rig
ranging from overlaying simulation information of equipment to To visualise the airflow pattern within the equipment, CFD simula­
enhancing training (Li et al., 2017). In most use cases, students have tions were performed using a CFD package (Ansys Fluent, 2024) at flow
been treated as the end users of AR technologies, while the potential of rates applicable to the air flow equipment. The simulation results are
involving students in the development process of AR experiences has shown in Fig. 4. Despite being a crude simulation of the air flow pattern
been less investigated. Teaching AR technologies may better prepare within the equipment, it is still sufficient for demonstrating the working
students for the digitalisation trend in industry. In this study, the po­ principle of the devices. In particular, the CFD simulation highlights the
tential applications of different AR experiences in chemical engineering recirculation zones behind the orifice plate flow meter. The developed
education, including AR-assisted laboratory work demonstrations and CFD simulation results were then converted into a 3D model using a
teaching students the development of digital twins with AR interfaces, developed workflow and integrated as part of the AR experience.
will be explored.
2.1.3. Development of the AR experience for the air flow equipment
2. Augmented reality (AR) assisted laboratory work In this study, Vuforia Studio was used to develop the AR experience.
The AR experience needs to be anchored in the real world in a certain
2.1. Augmented reality (AR) experience for an airflow rig way, called the "target". Many anchoring options are available, including
aligning the model with the actual equipment or a QR code on the
This first application of the Augmented Reality (AR) experience was equipment and spatial targets. Considering the size of the equipment,
used as a supplementary tool for an air flow experiment as part of an aligning the model with the equipment can be difficult, and for the
introductory course to fluid dynamics. This course is a second-year convenience of the users, a spatial target was chosen for this AR expe­
mandatory course for chemical engineering students. The airflow rience. The spatial target uses a small flat plane as the anchoring point.
experiment aims to demonstrate the working principles of different flow The advantage of the spatial target is that it allows the user to view the
rate measurement devices, including the Pitot tube, orifice plate flow experience on any flat surface. Different parts of the airflow experiment
meter and venture tube flow meters (Fig. 1). The airflow equipment have been colour-coded and labelled for a better visual presentation of
consists of three parts: a rectangular section made from transparent different parts of the equipment. The opacity of the outer surface of the
acrylic with a moveable section for flow rate measurement using a Pitot model has also been reduced to show the internal structure of the
tube, followed by a venturi tube and orifice plate flowmeters made from equipment, which would not be visible to the student otherwise. An
stainless steel. Ports are present at the upstream, throat, and down­ overview of the Augmented Reality (AR) experience is shown in Fig. 5,
stream locations of those flowmeters for measuring the pressure differ­ while Fig. 6 shows the implemented AR experience alongside the real
ences. At the end of the equipment, there is a valve for flow rate equipment.
adjustments. By default, the CFD simulation result is not visible, which can be
The challenges with the previous arrangement are: 1) Due to the toggled on and off using the designated button as part of the 2-D overlay

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of airflow equipment.

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Fig. 2. 3D model of a Pitot tube.

Fig. 3. 3D model of the air flow equipment.

of the AR experience. The colour of the CFD streamlines in Fig. 6 dem­ potentially resolved by introducing AR experiences: 1) As shown in
onstrates how the gas velocity changes within the airflow rig, as pre­ Fig. 7, most components of the spray dryer are made from tempered
dicted by the CFD simulation.In addition to the button controlling the glass, which may pose a risk to student safety during the installation
on/off status of the CFD simulation overlay, pop-ups with descriptions of process if not handled properly. However, in all classes over the previous
different parts of the equipment were also added. Pop-ups containing five years before implementing the AR system, no student injuries
descriptions can be triggered by tapping the corresponding part of the occurred other than broken glassware, and the main impact was finan­
model. cial 2) There is a limited number of devices available, so students need to
attend the laboratory in groups, and it is not always possible for every
student to have a hands-on experience with the spray dryer, and 3)
2.2. Augmented reality (AR) experience for a laboratory-scale spray Similar to the airflow rig, studying the flow pattern within the drying
dryer chambers of the spray dryer is also an essential part of the experiment.

This second application of the augmented reality experience as a 2.2.1. Developing the AR experience for the spray dryer
supplementary tool for an experiment was used as part of an advanced- Overall, the process of developing an AR experience for the spray
level chemical engineering course on food processing. The course is a dryer is the same as that for the air flow equipment, which includes
fourth-year elective course for chemical engineering students. In this developing the 3D model of the device and CFD simulation based on the
course, students use a laboratory-scale spray dryer (Buchi B290 mini developed model for visualisation of the flow patterns. The developed
spray dryer) to spray dry different materials. The Buchi B290 mini spray 3D model and CFD results are shown in Fig. 8. The integrated CFD model
dryer is a widely-used spray drying system in many areas. In this course, assisted with explaining counter-intuitive experimental observations,
students use the spray dryer to study how different spray drying con­ such as the deposition of particles at the top plate of the spray dryer,
ditions may affect the quality and recovery rate of the spray-dried which was caused by the recirculation zone at the beginning of the
products. drying chamber due to the sudden expansion of the air flow. It also helps
Again, there are a few challenges in the existing setup that can be

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Fig. 4. CFD simulation results for the air flow equipment.

experience can be anchored by aligning the 3D model provided with the

actual equipment. This type of anchoring option works best where the
geometry of the equipment is complex enough to be distinguished from
surrounding environments. Unlike the air flow rig, the Buchi B290 mini
spray dryer has complex geometries that can easily be recognised, which
enables the use of a “model target” for anchoring the AR experience. In a
different version of the mini spray dryer AR experience, the peripheral of
the spray dryer (Fig. 10) was used as the anchoring point of the AR
experience for a more immersive experience. Unlike the AR experiences
anchored using a spatial target, which can be viewed anywhere, AR
experiences with a model target can only be viewed where the actual
equipment is located (i.e., the laboratory). Despite the inconvenience,
AR experiences with model targets are the preferred option when used in
the laboratory as they can provide more context for the equipment and
are closer to a hands-on experience.

3. Teaching the development of digital twin with an augmented

reality (AR) interface

With the ever-evolving digital technologies and industry trends,

embracing engineering students with emerging technologies in the in­
Fig. 5. Overview of the AR experience. dustry is beneficial. Digital twins are frequently widely adopted as part
of the digitalisation process in Industry 4.0. AR technology has already
with the understanding of the working principle of the cyclone collector been widely adopted in many industry sectors for training or visualising
by presenting the flow pattern more intuitively compared with 2D complex processes, and it can also be used as the user interface (UI) of
images. the digital twins and provide a better representation of the data and the
In addition to the static presentation of the 3D model and CFD process. The AR experience development software has evolved to be
simulation results, an animation demonstrating how the spray dryer was user-friendly enough for it to be used among advanced-level chemical
assembled was also developed. The installation animation allows for the engineering students. Thus, it was introduced as part of an advanced-
whole installation process to be shown at once or step by step. As shown level chemical engineering elective course. This course includes the
in Fig. 9, the pop-up menu allows the student to select any stage of the following modules: (i) Introduction to Industry 4.0, (ii) Advanced
installation process. While the animation is showing, the pop-up menu Modelling via Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), and (iii) Developing a
automatically hides itself and reappears when the current animation is Digital Twin with an AR interface (Oveissi and Ghadi, 2021). An over­
completed. view of the third module of this course is shown in Fig. 11.
As mentioned previously, besides the spatial target, the AR

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Fig. 6. Implementation of the AR experience in the real world.

3.1. Teaching the development of the AR interface covered in lectures and tutorials via re-building the "Smartphone" AR
experience. The 3D model of the smartphone was given to the student as
The concept of digital twins and their examples in chemical pro­ the main objective of this course is to develop a digital twin with an AR
cessing industries were first introduced to the students at the beginning user interface, and engineering drawings have already been covered in
of the module. In the scope of this course, a Digital Twin is referred to as other courses. The Vuforia GUI was first introduced to the students
a digital representation of physical devices (e.g. bioreactor) which can during the lectures, followed by a step-wise demonstration of the AR
be used to predict the behaviour of the device in the real world. Students experience development process (Fig. 13). In the tutorials, students were
were then encouraged to identify other potential applications of such asked to reproduce the "Smartphone" demo as a practice based on the
technology. As a practical learning exercise, an AR experience of a contents covered during the lectures.
smartphone was developed to demonstrate what is achievable by the AR Besides the technical part of developing AR experiences, the course
experience and to create a bridge for students who have not been also covered design philosophy promoting responsible and sustainable
exposed to AR experience. design practices. A design following a good philosophy can contribute to
As shown in Fig. 12, the "smartphone" AR demo demonstrated more effective communication and concept delivery, which can also be
several achievable functions, including pop-ups containing information, beneficial outside the development of AR experiences. One of the ex­
interactive buttons and components, and simple animations. amples is the use of colour codes. Colour codes have been widely used in
As with the previous examples, Vuforia Studio by PTC has been many sectors for ease of use and rapid identification, and AR experiences
chosen as the software for developing AR experiences in this course. The are no exception. While using colour codes, the choice of colours is
choice of software is mainly based on its accessibility and usability. The important. The colours used in the AR experience need to be differen­
basic operations of the Vuforia for developing AR experience are tiable and colour-blind friendly. Considering the use case of the AR

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Fig. 7. Buchi B290 mini spray dryer.

experiences, the colour chosen must have high contrast compared with 3.2. Assessing the study outcomes
the surroundings in the intended use environment. Such concepts have
been taught in the lectures and have been assessed as a part of the Assessing the study outcomes is an essential part of the teaching. At
assignment (Fig. 14). the end of the course, the learning outcome for AR was accessed based
on an assignment that involved building digital twins with an AR
interface for a bio-reactor. The ability of students to develop simulation

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Fig. 8. 3D model (left) and CFD simulation result (right) of the spray dryer.

models and CAD drawings was already accessed earlier in the course or • Provided rational discussion on the choice of colour and if they have
in other courses. The focus of the assignment was to access students’ taken colour-blind friendliness into account.
knowledge of developing AR experience and implementing the design • Each conclusion is explained clearly and rationally, supported by
philosophy. In the assignment, a 3D model of a bioreactor and its user appropriate references.
manual were provided to the students, and they were asked to perform
the following tasks: 4. Results and discussion
For the AR experience:
The aim of this work is to explore potential applications of AR
1. Inspect and import the 3D model of a bioreactor into Vuforia. technologies in chemical engineering education and assess their per­
2. Select the appropriate type of anchoring point for the 3D model. formance from both the educators’ and students’ points of view. The
3. Identify, label and colour code important parts of the bioreactor feasibility and performance of AR technologies in chemical engineering
based on the information from the paper-based user manual. will be discussed from different aspects.
4. Create a greeting message containing basic instructions for using the
AR experience. 4.1. Practicality of developing AR experiences for chemical engineering
5. Create interactable pop-ups that cover the work health and safety education
(WHS) information and function of the different parts of the bio-
reactor. As discussed in the study of Udugama et al. (2023), the development
6. Create an animation of blinking a specific bio-reactor component for of AR experiences requires people with specific skill sets, including 3D
rapid identification, which can be triggered via a dedicated button. model development, coding, and UI/UX design. An overview of the
whole AR experience development process and relevant costs are sum­
For the report: marised in Fig. 15.
Most parts of the AR experience development process rely on well-
1. Justify the choice of the colours used for colour coding different established software and workflow, except for the software for devel­
components of the bio-reactor. oping the AR experiences. As mentioned previously, all AR experiences
2. Compare and discuss the advantages and drawbacks of AR-based in this project were developed using Vuforia, one of the most popular
instruction and traditional paper-based instruction. AR/VR experience development kits, as found in the study by Quintero
et al. (2019). Vuforia is a well-developed kit for AR experience devel­
The assignments were then assessed based on the following criteria: opment, and most basic functions can be employed via the graphical
user interface (GUI). However, advanced functions required for
• The overall presentation and design of the AR experience. improving user experience are still heavily reliant on coding, increasing
the learning cost for developers. Additionally, the "black-box" design of

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Fig. 9. Screenshot of the first step of the installation animation.

the development kit also makes it particularly difficult to resolve when internet connectivity, especially when used outdoors. Other than CFD
encountering unexpected errors. During the development process of AR simulation, process simulation based on mathematical models may also
experiences for teaching, developers have discovered a few unforeseen be integrated into the AR experiences. By incorporating process simu­
issues that were not immediately resolved, and students have also re­ lation models, predicting the potential impact of different inputs into the
ported encountering issues when developing AR experiences using the system is plausible (Solmaz et al., 2021). In this study, process simula­
development kit, but these issues have been resolved after consultation tion models were not integrated into the AR experiences, considering the
with the software vendor. complexity of the integration processes.

4.2. Practicality of integrating simulation in AR experiences 4.3. Advantages of using AR experience in an experimental setting

One of the key advantages of developing teaching content using AR In practice, Augmented Reality (AR)-assisted experiments have
technologies is that phenomena not visible in the real world can be shown advantages over conventional methods (i.e., physical experi­
visualised in the virtual world. This study integrated CFD simulation ments only), particularly in safety, cost, and accessibility. As discussed
results into AR experiences to visualise the flow patterns within the previously, the main advantage of AR technology is that it allows stu­
airflow rig and spray dryer. Steady-state CFD simulation results were dents to perform training and experiments in a risk-free virtual envi­
integrated as 3D models in the current AR experiences, while transient ronment. By conducting experiments in virtual environments, costs
CFD simulations were not included due to computational power limi­ related to materials and maintenance of physical experiments are
tations. It is also worth noting that the current workflow for integrating significantly reduced. However, AR experiences alone do not provide
CFD simulation results also increased the file size of the AR experiences. the physical feedback essential for developing practical skills. In this
The large file (approximately 200 MB) size may cause issues with limited study, AR technologies are used as a supplementary tool to enhance

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Fig. 10. Spray dryer with a model target as the anchoring point. The model target is highlighted in blue for demonstration purposes, and it is transparent in the
actual AR experience.

traditional laboratory work. This blended approach combines the be made of transparent materials, which is usually associated with lower
strengths of both methodologies for better educational outcomes. A mechanical strength and higher cost. Integrating CFD simulation results
general comparison between conventional and AR experiences is sum­ into the AR experiences is a more immersive way of presenting the flow
marised in Table 1, and the specific improvements compared to previous pattern within the equipment compared with a traditional 2D presen­
settings related to the cases discussed in this study are also provided. tation of the flow pattern. For example, in the airflow rig experience,
The first two user cases have demonstrated how an AR experience there is a flow recirculation zone near the throat of the orifice plate due
with a CFD simulation may assist with laboratory work demonstrations. to the sudden contraction, which is an important characteristic of the
The main advantage of using CFD simulations for flow visualisations orifice plate flow meter. The AR experience allowed students and
relative to smoke flow visualisations is that the device does not have to demonstrators to view the flow pattern near the recirculation zone from

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Fig. 11. Overall structure of the course module.

Fig. 12. Different functions in the AR demo for smartphones.

various angles in a 3D virtual space, which is a more immersive expe­ experience beforehand. Compared with traditional paper-based in­
rience and may help students better understand the phenomenon. A structions, training via AR experience has shown improvements in sys­
similar recirculation zone can also be found at the upper part of the main tem usability and a small reduction in the number of errors (Kolla et al.,
drying chamber of the spray dryer due to the sudden flow expansion at 2021). It is worth mentioning that there have been no reports of broken
the inlet. In addition, the CFD simulation also assisted in explaining the glassware due to improper operation since the introduction of the AR
working principle of the cyclone collector at the end of the main drying experiences compared with 1–2 reports each year, which leads to
chamber. financial loss and equipment downtime (averaging $2000 per year).
In the AR experience for the spray dryer, animation was used to Additionally, animation in AR experiences can also be an alternative
demonstrate the installation process. As mentioned previously, the main teaching method where teaching in person is not possible, given the
components of the spray dryer are made from tempered glass, where the experience of the lockdowns associated with the COVID pandemic. It is
components are brittle and may be broken during installation. This sit­ also a more immersive way of learning for students who may not have an
uation may pose a threat to the safety of the students and the demon­ opportunity to do hands-on experiments.
strator. The potential risk related to the improper installation of the
device can be reduced by learning the installation process in the AR

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Fig. 13. Slide from the lecture showing the basic operation of Vuforia.

philosophies and better understand the working principles behind the

equipment. Students expressed their views of the AR projects through
anecdotal conversations. The hands-on nature of the activities was
viewed by students as engaging yet applied in the real world. However,
students share the same opinion regarding the usability of the AR
development kit: the current version of the development kit is functional
but still requires improvement on usability and reducing the learning
cost for it to be able to be applied to a wide range of users. In an earlier
study by Caño de las Heras et al. (2022), where students were involved
in the process of developing virtual laboratories, they found that tech­
nical issues have negatively impacted the student’s learning experience.
The usability and stability of the development software need to be
considered when involving students in the development processes of AR
experiences.

5. Conclusions

In this study, the potential for different applications of Augmented

Reality (AR) in chemical engineering education has been explored.
Fig. 14. Slide from the lecture discussing the use of colour coding in user Integrating CFD flow visualisation and AR experience has shown great
experience design. potential in visualising complex phenomena. This approach can also be
applied to other processes that are complicated or hazardous to replicate
4.4. Teaching the development of AR experiences in the real world. AR experiences have also demonstrated its potential in
training students to use high-value equipment, reducing the risk of
To better prepare students for the industry’s digitalisation trend, damaging it due to mishandling. Last but not least, other than being used
cutting-edge digital tools such as development kits for AR experiences as a supplementary tool for teaching, the development process of the AR
and digital twins were taught as a part of an advanced elective course. experience can also be a part of teaching. From developing AR experi­
During the course, students were taught to use the Vuforia development ences, students have a chance to be exposed to cutting-edge digital­
kit for the AR experience development. Students can utilise the technical isation tools, utilise the technical knowledge they gain from previous
knowledge gained from previous studies and combine them to develop studies, and transform them into practical solutions.
practical skills. In addition, students also learn important design

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Fig. 15. Overview of the AR experience development process and relevant cost.

Declaration of competing interest

Table 1
Comparison between the conventional method and AR experiences for labora­
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
tory training.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Aspect Conventional methodologies AR experiences
the work reported in this paper.
Safety Potential safety risks Potential safety risks associated
associated with dangerous with dangerous chemicals or Data availability
chemicals or processes processes only if being used in
conjugation with physical rigs.
The safety education of the Dangerous processes can be Data will be made available on request.
learners is limited to simulated and reproduced
theoretical scenarios and Risk visually in a virtual
hazard matrices. environment enhancing
Acknowledgements
HAZOP education.
Cost Fixed costs: no significant tech Fixed costs: Apart from the
investment, the cost is limited educational rig, the initial cost This research (ZZ) was supported by an Australian Government
to the educational rig for the development of the AR Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship . This work was sup­
experience could be high based ported by a Faculty of Engineering Educational Innovation Grant EEI­
on its fidelity
G22_Langrish . The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
Variable costs: Continuous Variable costs: little to no
material purchases and material or maintenance is A/Prof. John Kavanagh, Prof. David Fletcher and LEAP Australia to the
equipment maintenance are required once developed AR experiences developed as part of this project.
required
Accessibility The physical presence of the Experiments can be performed
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