Roman Empire

Roman Empire
27 BC – AD 395 (unified)[a]
AD 395 – 476/480 (Western)
AD 395–1453 (Eastern)

Imperial aquila

Roman Empire in AD 117 at its

greatest territorial extent, at the time of
Trajan's death
Vassal states[3][b]

Roman territorial evolution from the rise

of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the
Western Roman Empire
Capital Rome (27 BC –
AD 476)[c]
 Constantinople
(330–1453)[d]

Common languages Latin and Greek

Regional
languages

Religion Imperial cult-

driven
polytheism
(until AD 380)
Nicene
Christianity
(officially from
AD 380)

Demonym(s) Roman

Government Autocracy
• Emperor (List)
Historical era Classical era to
Late Middle Ages
(Timeline)

Area
25 BC[16] 2,750,000 km2
(1,060,000 sq mi)
AD 117[16][17] 5,000,000 km2
(1,900,000 sq mi)
AD 390[16] 3,400,000 km2
(1,300,000 sq mi)

Population
• 25 BC[18] 56,800,000
Currency Sestertius,[e]
aureus, solidus,
nomisma

Preceded by Succeeded by
Roman Western
Republic Roman
Empire
Eastern
Roman
Empire

The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The
Romans conquered most of this during the Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's
assumption of effective sole rule in 27 BC. The western empire collapsed in 476 AD, but the eastern
empire lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
By 100 BC, Rome had expanded its rule to most of the Mediterranean and beyond. However, it was
severely destabilized by civil wars and political conflicts, which culminated in the victory of Octavian
over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the subsequent conquest of the
Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. In 27 BC, the Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching military power
(imperium) and the new title of Augustus, marking his accession as the first Roman emperor. The vast
Roman territories were organized into senatorial provinces, governed by proconsuls who were appointed
by lot annually, and imperial provinces, which belonged to the emperor but were governed by legates.[19]

The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the
Pax Romana (lit. 'Roman Peace'). Rome reached its greatest territorial extent under Trajan (r. 98–117 AD),
but a period of increasing trouble and decline began under Commodus (r. 180–192). In the 3rd century,
the Empire underwent a 50-year crisis that threatened its existence due to civil war, plagues and barbarian
invasions. The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke from the state away and a series of short-lived
emperors led the Empire, which was later reunified under Aurelian (r. 270–275). The civil wars ended
with the victory of Diocletian (r. 284–305), who set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and
Latin West. Constantine the Great (r. 306–337), the first Christian emperor, moved the imperial seat from
Rome to Byzantium in 330, and renamed it Constantinople. The Migration Period, involving large
invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila, led to the decline of the Western Roman
Empire. With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in
476 by Odoacer, the Western Empire finally collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another
millennium with Constantinople as its sole capital, until the city's fall in 1453.[f]

Due to the Empire's extent and endurance, its institutions and culture had a lasting influence on the
development of language, religion, art, architecture, literature, philosophy, law, and forms of government
across its territories. Latin evolved into the Romance languages while Medieval Greek became the
language of the East. The Empire's adoption of Christianity resulted in the formation of medieval
Christendom. Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance. Rome's
architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque, Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture,
influencing Islamic architecture. The rediscovery of classical science and technology (which formed the
basis for Islamic science) in medieval Europe contributed to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific
Revolution. Many modern legal systems, such as the Napoleonic Code, descend from Roman law.
Rome's republican institutions have influenced the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, the
early United States, and modern democratic republics.

History

Transition from Republic to Empire

Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC,
though not outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Thus, it was an "empire" (a great
power) long before it had an emperor.[21] The Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a
network of self-ruled towns (with varying degrees of independence from the Senate) and provinces
administered by military commanders. It was governed by annually elected magistrates (Roman consuls
above all) in conjunction with the Senate.[22] The 1st century BC was a time of political and military
upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors.[23][24][25] The consuls' military power rested in the
Roman legal concept of imperium, meaning "command" (typically
in a military sense).[26] Occasionally, successful consuls or
generals were given the honorary title imperator (commander);
this is the origin of the word emperor, since this title was always
bestowed to the early emperors.[27][g]

Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies, and

civil wars from the late second century BC (see Crisis of the
Roman Republic) while greatly extending its power beyond Italy.
In 44 BC Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being
assassinated by a faction that opposed his concentration of power.
Animated overview of the Roman
This faction was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of
territorial history from the Republic
Philippi in 42 BC by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son until the fall of its last remnant (the
Octavian. Antony and Octavian divided the Roman world between Byzantine Empire) in 1453
them, but this did not last long. Octavian's forces defeated those of
Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In
27 BC the Senate gave him the title Augustus ("venerated") and made him
princeps ("foremost") with proconsular imperium, thus beginning the
Principate, the first epoch of Roman imperial history. Although the
republic stood in name, Augustus had all meaningful authority.[29] During
his 40-year rule, a new constitutional order emerged so that, upon his
death, Tiberius would succeed him as the new de facto monarch.[30]

As Roman provinces were being established throughout the

Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it domina
provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces"),[31][32][33] and – especially in
relation to the first centuries of imperial stability – rectrix mundi
("governor of the world")[34][35] and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of
all lands").[36][37]
Augustus of Prima Porta

Pax Romana
The so-called "Five Good Emperors" of 96–180 AD

Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus

(r. 96–98) (r. 98–117) (r. 117–138) (r. 138–161) Aurelius
(r. 161–180)

The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman
Peace"). The cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity
that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent and put down
"mercilessly and swiftly".[38] The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession
was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for
four more emperors—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-
torn Year of the Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian became the founder
of the brief Flavian dynasty, followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good
Emperors": Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.[39]

Transition from classical to late antiquity

In the view of contemporary Greek historian Cassius
Dio, the accession of Commodus in 180 marked the
descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and
iron",[40] a comment which has led some historians,
notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as
the beginning of the Empire's decline.[41][42]

In 212, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman

citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of
the empire. The Severan dynasty was tumultuous; an
emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or
The Barbarian invasions consisted of the
execution and, following its collapse, the Empire was
movement of (mainly) ancient Germanic peoples
engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a period into Roman territory. Historically, this event
of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and marked the transition between classical antiquity
plague.[43] In defining historical epochs, this crisis and the Middle Ages.
sometimes marks the transition from Classical to Late
Antiquity. Aurelian (r. 270–275) stabilised the empire
militarily and Diocletian reorganised and restored much of it in 285.[44] Diocletian's reign brought the
empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity, the "Great Persecution".[45]

Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate tetrarch.[46] Confident that he
fixed the disorder plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, but the Tetrarchy collapsed
shortly after. Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great, who became the first emperor to
convert to Christianity, and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire.
During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east–
west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. Julian, who under the influence of his
adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted
the succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died
in 395 after making Christianity the state religion.[47]

Fall in the West and survival in the East

The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th
century. The Romans fought off all invaders, most famously
Attila,[48] but the empire had assimilated so many Germanic
peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to
The Roman Empire by 476, noting
dismember itself.[49] Most chronologies place the end of the western and eastern divisions
Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was
forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer.[50][51][52]
Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring Zeno sole
emperor and placing himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate.
In reality, Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone.[50][51][53] The
Eastern Roman Empire, called the Byzantine Empire by later
historians, continued until the reign of Constantine XI
Palaiologos, the last Roman emperor. He died in battle in
1453 against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the
siege of Constantinople. Mehmed II adopted the title of
caesar in an attempt to claim a connection to the former
Empire.[54][55] His claim was soon recognized by the The administrative divisions of the
Patriarchate of Constantinople, but not by most European Roman Empire in 395 AD
monarchs.

Geography and demography

The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe,
North Africa, and the Middle East.[56] The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end"[57])
expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Virgil's Aeneid, limitless empire
is said to be granted to the Romans by Jupiter.[58] This claim of universal dominion was renewed when
the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century.[h] In addition to annexing large regions, the
Romans directly altered their geography, for example cutting down entire forests.[60]

Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic, though parts of northern Europe were
conquered in the 1st century, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened. Under
Augustus, a "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome,
coinciding with the creation of the most comprehensive political geography that survives from antiquity,
the Geography of Strabo.[61] When Augustus died, the account of his achievements (Res Gestae)
prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of the Empire.[62] Geography alongside meticulous
written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration.[63]

The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan

(r. 98–117),[64] encompassing 5 million km2.[16][17] The traditional
population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants[65] accounted for
between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total
population[66] and made it the most populous unified political
entity in the West until the mid-19th century.[67] Recent
demographic studies have argued for a population peak from
70 million to more than 100 million.[68] Each of the three largest
A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's
cities in the Empire – Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch – was Wall in northern England,
almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the overlooking Crag Lough
17th century.[69]

As the historian Christopher Kelly described it:

 Then the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in drizzle-soaked northern England to the sun-
baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine–Danube river system, which
snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea, to the
rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt. The
empire completely circled the Mediterranean ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum
—'our sea'.[65]

Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather

than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the
frontiers (limites) patrolled.[64] The most heavily fortified borders
were the most unstable.[24] Hadrian's Wall, which separated the
Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present
barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this
effort.[71]

Roman cities in the Imperial

Languages period[70]

Latin and Greek were the main languages of the Empire,[i] but the
Empire was deliberately multilingual.[76] Andrew Wallace-Hadrill says "The main desire of the Roman
government was to make itself understood".[77] At the start of the Empire, knowledge of Greek was
useful to pass as educated nobility and knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military,
government, or law.[78] Bilingual inscriptions indicate the everyday interpenetration of the two
languages.[79]

Latin and Greek's mutual linguistic and cultural influence is a complex topic.[80] Latin words
incorporated into Greek were very common by the early imperial era, especially for military,
administration, and trade and commerce matters.[81] Greek grammar, literature, poetry and philosophy
shaped Latin language and culture.[82][83]

There was never a legal requirement for Latin in the

Empire, but it represented a certain status.[85] High
standards of Latin, Latinitas, started with the advent
of Latin literature.[86] Due to the flexible language
policy of the Empire, a natural competition of
language emerged that spurred Latinitas, to defend
Latin against the stronger cultural influence of
Greek.[87] Over time Latin usage was used to project
power and a higher social class.[88][89] Most of the
A 5th-century papyrus showing a parallel Latin-
emperors were bilingual but had a preference for
Greek text of a speech by Cicero[84]
Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a
"rule" that first started during the Punic Wars.[90]
Different emperors up until Justinian would attempt to require the use of Latin in various sections of the
administration but there is no evidence that a linguistic imperialism existed during the early Empire.[91]
After all freeborn inhabitants were universally enfranchised in 212, many Roman citizens would have
lacked a knowledge of Latin.[92] The wide use of Koine Greek was what enabled the spread of
Christianity and reflects its role as the lingua franca of the Mediterranean during the time of the
Empire.[93] Following Diocletian's reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a decline in the knowledge
of Greek in the west.[94] Spoken Latin later fragmented into the incipient romance languages in the 7th
century CE following the collapse of the Empire's west.[95]

The dominance of Latin and Greek among the literate elite obscure the continuity of other spoken
languages within the Empire.[96] Latin, referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin, gradually replaced
Celtic and Italic languages.[97][98] References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local
languages, particularly in Egypt with Coptic, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman
jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the
correct understanding of laws and oaths.[99] In Africa, Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions
into the 2nd century.[96] In Syria, Palmyrene soldiers used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions, an
exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military.[100] The last reference to Gaulish was
between 560 and 575.[101][102] The emergent Gallo-Romance languages would then be shaped by
Gaulish.[103] Proto-Basque or Aquitanian evolved with Latin loan words to modern Basque.[104] The
Thracian language, as were several now-extinct languages in Anatolia, are attested in Imperial-era
inscriptions.[93][96]

"Gate of Domitian and Trajan" at the northern entrance of the Temple of Hathor, and Roman emperor
Domitian as Pharaoh of Egypt on the same gate, together with Egyptian hieroglyphs.[105]

The Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "astonishing

cohesive capacity" to create shared identity while encompassing
diverse peoples.[106] Public monuments and communal spaces
open to all—such as forums, amphitheatres, racetracks and baths
—helped foster a sense of "Romanness".[107]

Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies.[108]

The civil war preceding Augustus caused upheaval,[109] but did
not effect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power.
From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely
added to the social pyramid.[110] Personal relationships— A multigenerational banquet
patronage, friendship (amicitia), family, marriage—continued to depicted on a wall painting from
influence politics.[111] By the time of Nero, however, it was not Pompeii (1st century AD)

unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn

citizen, or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator.[112]
The blurring of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility,[113] both upward
and downward, to a greater extent than all other well-documented ancient societies.[114] Women,
freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available
to them.[115] Social life, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited, was further
fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities (collegia and sodalitates):
professional and trade guilds, veterans' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs,[116]
performing troupes,[117] and burial societies.[118]

Legal status
According to the jurist Gaius, the essential distinction in the Roman "law of persons" was that all humans
were either free (liberi) or slaves (servi).[119] The legal status of free persons was further defined by their
citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the ius Latinum, "Latin right"), but were entitled to
legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by non-citizens. Free people not considered citizens, but
living within the Roman world, were peregrini, non-Romans.[120] In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana
extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. This legal egalitarianism required a far-
reaching revision of existing laws that distinguished between citizens and non-citizens.[121]

Women in Roman law

Left: Fresco of an auburn maiden reading a text, Pompeian Fourth Style (60–79 AD), Pompeii, Italy
Right: Bronze statuette (1st century AD) of a young woman reading, based on a Hellenistic original

Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the
military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus
civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens").[j] A Roman woman kept her own family
name (nomen) for life. Children most often took the father's name, with some exceptions.[124] Women
could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business.[125] Inscriptions throughout the Empire
honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could hold considerable
fortunes.[126]

The archaic manus marriage in which the woman was subject to her husband's authority was largely
abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into
the marriage. Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her
husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated.[127] This arrangement was a
factor in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed compared to many other cultures up to the
modern period:[128] although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct
scrutiny in daily life,[129] and her husband had no legal power over her.[130] Although it was a point of
pride to be a "one-man woman" (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to
divorce, nor to speedy remarriage after being widowed or divorced.[131] Girls had equal inheritance rights
with boys if their father died without leaving a will.[132] A mother's right to own and dispose of property,
including setting the terms of her will, gave her enormous influence over her sons into adulthood.[133]

As part of the Augustan programme to restore

traditional morality and social order, moral legislation
attempted to regulate conduct as a means of
promoting "family values". Adultery was
criminalized, [134] and defined broadly as an illicit sex
act (stuprum) between a male citizen and a married
woman, or between a married woman and any man
other than her husband. That is, a double standard was
in place: a married woman could have sex only with
her husband, but a married man did not commit
adultery if he had sex with a prostitute or person of
marginalized status.[135] Childbearing was Dressing of a priestess or bride, Roman fresco
encouraged: a woman who had given birth to three from Herculaneum, Italy (30–40 AD)
children was granted symbolic honours and greater
legal freedom (the ius trium liberorum).[136]

Slaves and the law

At the time of Augustus, as many as 35% of the people in Roman Italy were slaves,[137] making Rome
one of five historical "slave societies" in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and
played a major role in the economy.[k][137] Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional
Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility.[138] In urban settings, slaves might be
professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants; the majority of slaves provided trained
or unskilled labour. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on the exploitation of
slaves. Outside Italy, slaves were on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population, sparse in Roman
Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and
industries affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces.[139] Although slavery has often been
regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until
gradually ceasing in the 6th and 7th centuries with the disintegration of the complex Imperial
economy.[140]

Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate".[141] Slaves were considered property and had no
legal personhood. They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on
citizens, sexual exploitation, torture, and summary execution. A slave could not as a matter of law be
raped; a slave's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian
Law.[142] Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium, but their unions were
sometimes recognized.[143] Technically, a slave could not own property,[144] but a slave who conducted
business might be given access to an individual fund (peculium) that he could use, depending on the
degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave.[145] Within a household or workplace, a
hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave acting as the master of others.[146] Talented slaves might
accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be
manumitted for services rendered. Manumission had become
frequent enough that in 2 BC a law (Lex Fufia Caninia) limited
the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will.[147]

Following the Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under

Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for
controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of
work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves.[148] Over time
slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file Slave holding writing tablets for his
master (relief from a 4th-century
complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a
sarcophagus)
clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for
prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves.[149]
The burgeoning trade in eunuchs in the late 1st century prompted legislation that prohibited the castration
of a slave against his will "for lust or gain".[150]

Roman slavery was not based on race.[151] Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians,[152] with a
minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) estimated at 5% of the total in the capital at
its peak, where their number was largest. Foreign slaves had higher mortality and lower birth rates than
natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions.[153] The average recorded age at death
for the slaves of the city of Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[154]

During the period of republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a
main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies
Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated
slaves. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by pirates. Infant abandonment and self-
enslavement among the poor were other sources.[155] Vernae, by contrast, were "homegrown" slaves born
to female slaves within the household, estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner
who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of
the family household and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family.[156]

Freedmen
Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens; any future children of a
freedman were born free, with full rights of citizenship. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to
a Roman citizen enjoyed active political freedom (libertas), including the right to vote.[157] His former
master became his patron (patronus): the two continued to have customary and legal obligations to each
other.[158][159] A freedman was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but
could play a priestly role. He could not marry a woman from a senatorial family, nor achieve legitimate
senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government
bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law.[159] The rise of successful
freedmen—through political influence or wealth—is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The
prosperity of a high-achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire.

Census rank
The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) is translated variously and
inexactly into English as "class, order, rank". One purpose of the
Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual
belonged.[160] Two of the highest ordines in Rome were the
senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, cities or colonies were
led by decurions, also known as curiales.[161]

"Senator" was not itself an

elected office in ancient
Rome; an individual gained
admission to the Senate
after he had been elected to
and served at least one term
Cinerary urn for the freedman
as an executive magistrate.
Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and
A senator also had to meet two women, probably his wife and
a minimum property daughter
requirement of 1 million
sestertii.[162] Not all men
who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat,
which required legal domicile at Rome. Emperors often filled
vacancies in the 600-member body by appointment.[163] A
Fragment of a sarcophagus
senator's son belonged to the ordo senatorius, but he had to
depicting Gordian III and senators qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate. A senator
(3rd century) could be removed for violating moral standards.[164]

In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from Italy, with
some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek-speaking provinces of the
East began to be added under Vespasian.[165] The first senator from the easternmost province,
Cappadocia, was admitted under Marcus Aurelius.[l] By the Severan dynasty (193–235), Italians made up
less than half the Senate.[167] During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and
inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland (patria).[164]

Senators were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum, the political career
track, but equestrians often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian
order was based on property; in Rome's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their
ability to serve as mounted warriors, but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire.[m] A
census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified a man as an
equestrian.[169] The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a
thousand equestrians were registered at Cádiz and Padua alone.[n][171] Equestrians rose through a military
career track (tres militiae) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial
administration.[172]

The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the
early Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later European nobility, a Roman
family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands.[173]
Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also responsibilities. In antiquity,
a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services (munera). Maintaining
one's rank required massive personal expenditures.[174] Decurions were so vital for the functioning of
cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to
the Senate were encouraged to return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life.[175]

In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem") that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was
refined further with titles such as vir illustris ("illustrious man").[176] The appellation clarissimus (Greek
lamprotatos) was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including
women.[177] "Grades" of equestrian status proliferated.[178]

Unequal justice
As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law
faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led
to an informal division of Roman society into those who had
acquired greater honours (honestiores) and humbler folk
(humiliores). In general, honestiores were the members of the
three higher "orders", along with certain military officers.[179] The
granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased
the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their Condemned man attacked by a
superiority affirmed, particularly within the justice system.[180] leopard in the arena (3rd-century
Sentencing depended on the judgment of the presiding official as mosaic from Tunisia)
to the relative "worth" (dignitas) of the defendant: an honestior
could pay a fine for a crime for which an humilior might receive a
scourging.[181]

Execution, which was an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic,[182] could be quick
and relatively painless for honestiores, while humiliores might suffer the kinds of torturous death
previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts.[183] In the early
Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores, especially if they
declined to fulfil religious responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created the
conditions of martyrdom.[184]

Government and military

The three major elements of the Imperial state were the central government, the military, and the
provincial government.[185] The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or
people was brought under treaty, the mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens, agricultural
fields, and religious sites.[186] The Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to rule through force
alone. Cooperation with local elites was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract
revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions.[187]
Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their
own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional
cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and
relative independence incentivized compliance.[188] Roman
government was thus limited, but efficient in its use of available
resources.[189]

Central government Forum of Gerasa (Jerash in present-

day Jordan), with columns marking
The Imperial cult of ancient Rome a covered walkway (stoa) for vendor
identified emperors and some stalls, and a semicircular space for
members of their families with public speaking
divinely sanctioned authority
(auctoritas). The rite of apotheosis
(also called consecratio) signified the deceased emperor's deification.[190]
The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of powers
from several republican offices.[191] The emperor made himself the central
religious authority as pontifex maximus, and centralized the right to declare
war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders.[192] While these
functions were clearly defined during the Principate, the emperor's powers
over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in
the Dominate.[193]

The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy- and decision-making,

Antoninus Pius but in the early Principate, he was expected to be accessible and deal
(r. 138–161) wearing a personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed
toga (Hermitage Museum) around him only gradually.[194] The Julio-Claudian emperors relied on an
informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians,
but trusted slaves and freedmen.[195] After Nero, the influence of the latter
was regarded with suspicion, and the emperor's council (consilium) became subject to official
appointment for greater transparency.[196] Though the Senate took a lead in policy discussions until the
end of the Antonine dynasty, equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium.[197] The
women of the emperor's family often intervened directly in his decisions.[198]

Access to the emperor might be gained at the daily reception (salutatio), a development of the traditional
homage a client paid to his patron; public banquets hosted at the palace; and religious ceremonies. The
common people who lacked this access could manifest their approval or displeasure as a group at
games.[199] By the 4th century, the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general
rulings, no longer responding to individual petitions.[200] Although the Senate could do little short of
assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor, it retained its symbolic political
centrality.[201] The Senate legitimated the emperor's rule, and the emperor employed senators as legates
(legati): generals, diplomats, and administrators.[202]

The practical source of an emperor's power and authority was the military. The legionaries were paid by
the Imperial treasury, and swore an annual oath of loyalty to the emperor.[203] Most emperors chose a
successor, usually a close family member or adopted heir. The new emperor had to seek a swift
acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope
to survive without the allegiance of the Praetorian Guard and the legions. To secure their loyalty, several
emperors paid the donativum, a monetary reward. In theory, the Senate was entitled to choose the new
emperor, but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians.[204]

Military
After the Punic Wars, the Roman army comprised professional soldiers
who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves. The
transition to a professional military began during the late Republic and
was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism, under
which an army of conscript citizens defended the homeland against a
specific threat. The Romans expanded their war machine by "organizing
the communities that they conquered in Italy into a system that generated
huge reservoirs of manpower for their army".[205] By Imperial times,
military service was a full-time career.[206] The pervasiveness of military
garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of
Romanization.[207]
Winged Victory, ancient
The primary mission of the military of the early empire was to preserve
Roman fresco of the
the Pax Romana.[208] The three major divisions of the military were: Neronian era from Pompeii

the garrison at Rome, comprising the

Praetorian Guard, the cohortes urbanae and
the vigiles, who functioned as police and
firefighters;
the provincial army, comprising the Roman
legions and the auxiliaries provided by the
provinces (auxilia);
the navy.
Through his military reforms, which included
consolidating or disbanding units of questionable
loyalty, Augustus regularized the legion. A legion was
organized into ten cohorts, each of which comprised
six centuries, with a century further made up of ten
squads (contubernia); the exact size of the Imperial
The Roman Empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–
legion, which was likely determined by logistics, has
138) showing the location of the Roman legions
been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280.[209] deployed in 125 AD
After Germanic tribes wiped out three legions in the
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, the number of
legions was increased from 25 to around 30.[210] The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century,
and under 400,000 in the 2nd, "significantly smaller" than the collective armed forces of the conquered
territories. No more than 2% of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army.[211]
Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard: nine cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the public peace, which
were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians served only sixteen years.[212]

The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort
strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with
Roman citizenship, also extended to their sons. According to Tacitus[213] there were roughly as many
auxiliaries as there were legionaries—thus,
around 125,000 men, implying approximately
250 auxiliary regiments.[214] The Roman
cavalry of the earliest Empire were primarily
from Celtic, Hispanic or Germanic areas.
Several aspects of training and equipment
derived from the Celts.[215]

The Roman navy not only aided in the supply

and transport of the legions but also in the Relief panel from Trajan's Column in Rome, showing the
protection of the frontiers along the rivers building of a fort and the reception of a Dacian embassy
Rhine and Danube. Another duty was
protecting maritime trade against pirates. It
patrolled the Mediterranean, parts of the North Atlantic coasts, and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the army
was considered the senior and more prestigious branch.[216]

Provincial government
An annexed territory became a Roman province in three steps: making a register of cities, taking a
census, and surveying the land.[217] Further government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real
estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings.[218] In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the central
government sent out around 160 officials annually to govern outside Italy.[22] Among these officials were
the Roman governors: magistrates elected at Rome who in the name of the Roman people governed
senatorial provinces; or governors, usually of equestrian rank, who held their imperium on behalf of the
emperor in imperial provinces, most notably Roman Egypt.[219] A governor had to make himself
accessible to the people he governed, but he could delegate various duties.[220] His staff, however, was
minimal: his official attendants (apparitores), including lictors, heralds, messengers, scribes, and
bodyguards; legates, both civil and military, usually of equestrian rank; and friends who accompanied
him unofficially.[220]

Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances.[22] Separating fiscal responsibility
from justice and administration was a reform of the Imperial era, to avoid provincial governors and tax
farmers exploiting local populations for personal gain.[221] Equestrian procurators, whose authority was
originally "extra-judicial and extra-constitutional", managed both state-owned property and the personal
property of the emperor (res privata).[220] Because Roman government officials were few, a provincial
who needed help with a legal dispute or criminal case might seek out any Roman perceived to have some
official capacity.[222]

Law
Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but
there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces. Most parts of
the Eastern Empire already had well-established law codes and juridical procedures.[109] Generally, it was
Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ("regional tradition" or "law of the land") and to regard local
laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability.[109][223] The compatibility of Roman and local
 Roman portraiture frescos from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting two different men wearing laurel wreaths,
one holding the rotulus (blondish figure, left), the other a volumen (brunet figure, right), both made of papyrus

law was thought to reflect an underlying ius gentium, the "law of nations" or international law regarded as
common and customary.[224] If provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, Roman courts heard
appeals, and the emperor held final decision-making authority.[109][223][o]

In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and private property rights
may have been a novelty of the Roman era, particularly among Celts. Roman law facilitated the
acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite.[109] The extension of universal citizenship to all free
inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law, replacing local law
codes that had applied to non-citizens. Diocletian's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the
Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years, the Codex Gregorianus and the
Codex Hermogenianus, to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards.[225]

The pervasiveness of Roman law throughout Western Europe enormously influenced the Western legal
tradition, reflected by continued use of Latin legal terminology in modern law.

Taxation
Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5% of its gross
product.[226] The typical tax rate for individuals ranged from 2 to
5%.[227] The tax code was "bewildering" in its complicated system
of direct and indirect taxes, some paid in cash and some in kind.
Taxes might be specific to a province, or kinds of properties such
as fisheries; they might be temporary.[228] Tax collection was
justified by the need to maintain the military,[229] and taxpayers
sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of
The Temple of Saturn, a religious booty.[230] In-kind taxes were accepted from less-monetized areas,
monument that housed the treasury particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army
in ancient Rome camps.[231]

The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who

paid a poll tax and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity.[227] Tax
obligations were determined by the census: each head of household provided a headcount of his
household, as well as an accounting of his property.[232] A major source of indirect-tax revenue was the
portoria, customs and tolls on trade, including among provinces.[227] Towards the end of his reign,
Augustus instituted a 4% tax on the sale of slaves,[233] which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the
dealers, who responded by raising their prices.[234] An owner who manumitted a slave paid a "freedom
tax", calculated at 5% of value.[p] An inheritance tax of 5% was assessed when Roman citizens above a
certain net worth left property to anyone outside their immediate family. Revenues from the estate tax and
from an auction tax went towards the veterans' pension fund (aerarium militare).[227]

Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues
of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of
the "super-rich", but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the
factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.[66]

Economy
The Empire is best thought of as a network of regional economies,
based on a form of "political capitalism" in which the state
regulated commerce to assure its own revenues.[235] Economic
growth, though not comparable to modern economies, was greater
than that of most other societies prior to industrialization.[236]
Territorial conquests permitted a large-scale reorganization of land
use that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization,
particularly in north Africa.[237] Some cities were known for
particular industries. The scale of urban building indicates a A green Roman glass cup
significant construction industry.[237] Papyri preserve complex unearthed from an Eastern Han
dynasty (25–220 AD) tomb in
accounting methods that suggest elements of economic
Guangxi, China
rationalism,[237] and the Empire was highly monetized.[238]
Although the means of communication and transport were limited
in antiquity, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly, and trade routes connected
regional economies.[239] The supply contracts for the army drew on local suppliers near the base
(castrum), throughout the province, and across provincial borders.[240] Economic historians vary in their
calculations of the gross domestic product during the Principate.[241] In the sample years of 14, 100, and
150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS. The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated
as 40[242] to 66%[243] higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and
the concentration of elite income.

Economic dynamism resulted in social mobility. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite
society, wealth requirements for rank indicate a strong tendency towards plutocracy. Prestige could be
obtained through investing one's wealth in grand estates or townhouses, luxury items, public
entertainments, funerary monuments, and religious dedications. Guilds (collegia) and corporations
(corpora) provided support for individuals to succeed through networking.[179] "There can be little doubt
that the lower classes of ... provincial towns of the Roman Empire enjoyed a high standard of living not
equaled again in Western Europe until the 19th century".[244] Households in the top 1.5% of income
distribution captured about 20% of income. The "vast majority" produced more than half of the total
income, but lived near subsistence.[245]

Currency and banking

The early Empire was monetized to a near-universal extent, using
money as a way to express prices and debts.[247] The sestertius
(English "sesterces", symbolized as HS) was the basic unit of
reckoning value into the 4th century,[248] though the silver
denarius, worth four sesterces, was also used beginning in the
Severan dynasty.[249] The smallest coin commonly circulated was Sestertius issued under Hadrian
the bronze as, one-tenth denarius.[250] Bullion and ingots seem circa AD 134–138
not to have counted as pecunia ("money") and were used only on
the frontiers. Romans in the first and second centuries counted
coins, rather than weighing them—an indication that the coin was
valued on its face. This tendency towards fiat money led to the
debasement of Roman coinage in the later Empire.[251] The
standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade
and market integration.[247] The high amount of metal coinage in
circulation increased the money supply for trading or saving.[252] Solidus issued under Constantine II,
Rome had no central bank, and regulation of the banking system and on the reverse Victoria, one of
was minimal. Banks of classical antiquity typically kept less in the last deities to appear on Roman
reserves than the full total of customers' deposits. A typical bank coins, gradually transforming into an
had fairly limited capital, and often only one principal. Seneca angel under Christian rule[246]

assumes that anyone involved in Roman commerce needs access

to credit.[251] A professional deposit banker received and held
deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties. The senatorial elite were involved
heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers.[253] The holder of a debt could use it as a
means of payment by transferring it to another party, without cash changing hands. Although it has
sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked documentary transactions, the system of banks
throughout the Empire permitted the exchange of large sums without physically transferring coins, in part
because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash. Only one serious credit shortage is known to have
occurred in the early Empire, in 33 AD;[254] generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by
borrowers.[251] The central government itself did not borrow money, and without public debt had to fund
deficits from cash reserves.[255]

Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under
the pressures of meeting military payrolls.[248] Sudden inflation under Commodus damaged the credit
market.[251] In the mid-200s, the supply of specie contracted sharply.[248] Conditions during the Crisis of
the Third Century—such as reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the
physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies—greatly diminished the money
supply and the banking sector.[248][251] Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or fiduciary
currency, general economic anxieties came to a head under Aurelian, and bankers lost confidence in
coins. Despite Diocletian's introduction of the gold solidus and monetary reforms, the credit market of the
Empire never recovered its former robustness.[251]

Mining and metallurgy

The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula
(silver, copper, lead, iron and gold);[4] Gaul (gold, silver, iron);[4]
Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin),[256] the Danubian provinces (gold,
iron);[257] Macedonia and Thrace (gold, silver); and Asia Minor
(gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large-scale mining—of alluvial
deposits, and by means of open-cast mining and underground
mining—took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd
century, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production.
Landscape resulting from the ruina
Hydraulic mining allowed base and precious metals to be montium mining technique at Las
extracted on a proto-industrial scale.[258] The total annual iron Médulas, Spain, one of the most
output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes. [259] Copper and lead important gold mines in the Roman
production levels were unmatched until the Industrial Empire
Revolution. [260][261][262][263] At its peak around the mid-2nd
century, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten
times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around
800 AD.[262][264] As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the
Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over prehistoric levels during the Imperial era and dropped thereafter.[265]

Transportation and communication

The Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they
called "our sea" (Mare Nostrum).[266] Roman sailing vessels
navigated the Mediterranean as well as major rivers.[69] Transport
by water was preferred where possible, as moving commodities by
land was more difficult.[267] Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate
the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.[268]

Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads,

called "viae". These roads were primarily built for military The Tabula Peutingeriana (Latin for
purposes,[269] but also served commercial ends. The in-kind taxes "The Peutinger Map") an
Itinerarium, often assumed to be
paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals,
based on the Roman cursus
or vehicles for the cursus publicus, the state mail and transport publicus
service established by Augustus.[231] Relay stations were located
along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles, and tended to
grow into villages or trading posts.[270] A mansio (plural mansiones) was a privately run service station
franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus. The distance between mansiones was
determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day.[270] Carts were usually pulled by mules, travelling
about 4 mph.[271]

Trade and commodities

Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far
away as China and India.[272] Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along
the Silk Road; Indian trade also occurred by sea from Egyptian ports. The main commodity was
grain.[273] Also traded were olive oil, foodstuffs, garum (fish sauce), slaves, ore and manufactured metal
objects, fibres and textiles, timber, pottery, glassware, marble, papyrus, spices and materia medica, ivory,
pearls, and gemstones.[274] Though most provinces could produce wine, regional varietals were desirable
and wine was a central trade good.[275]

Labour and occupations

Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in Rome and 85 in
Pompeii.[211] Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia)
are attested for a wide range of occupations, some quite
specialized.[179]

Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories:

domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household
jobs; imperial or public service; urban crafts and services;
agriculture; and mining. Convicts provided much of the labour in
the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously
brutal.[276] In practice, there was little division of labour between Workers at a cloth-processing shop,
slave and free,[109] and most workers were illiterate and without in a painting from the fullonica of
special skills.[277] The greatest number of common labourers were Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii
employed in agriculture: in Italian industrial farming (latifundia),
these may have been mostly slaves, but elsewhere slave farm
labour was probably less important.[109]

Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments
were traded and products were often named for peoples or towns, like a fashion "label".[278] Better ready-
to-wear was exported by local businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores).[279] Finished garments might be
retailed by their sales agents, by vestiarii (clothing dealers), or peddled by itinerant merchants.[279] The
fullers (fullones) and dye workers (coloratores) had their own guilds.[280] Centonarii were guild workers
who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into pieced goods.[q]
 Recreation of a deer hunt inspired by hunting scenes represented in Roman art.

Architecture and engineering

The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, vault
and dome. Some Roman structures still stand today, due in part to
sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete.[283]
Roman temples developed Etruscan and Greek forms, with some
distinctive elements. Roman roads are considered the most
advanced built until the early 19th century.

Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges, The Flavian Amphitheatre, more
built from stone (and in most cases concrete) with the arch as the commonly known as the Colosseum

basic structure. The largest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over
the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus,
which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built.[284] The Romans built many
dams and reservoirs for water collection, such as the Subiaco Dams, two of which fed the Anio Novus,
one of the largest aqueducts of Rome.[285]

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts. De

aquaeductu, a treatise by Frontinus, who served as
water commissioner, reflects the administrative
importance placed on the water supply. Masonry
channels carried water along a precise gradient, using
gravity alone. It was then collected in tanks and fed
through pipes to public fountains, baths, toilets, or The Pont du Gard aqueduct, which crosses the
industrial sites. [286] The main aqueducts in Rome were river Gardon in southern France, is on
UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites.
the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia.[287] The
complex system built to supply Constantinople had its
most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a route of more than 336 km.[288] Roman
aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerance, and to a technological standard not equalled until
modern times.[289] The Romans also used aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the
empire.[290]
Insulated glazing (or "double glazing") was used in the construction of public baths. Elite housing in
cooler climates might have hypocausts, a form of central heating. The Romans were the first culture to
assemble all essential components of the much later steam engine: the crank and connecting rod system,
Hero's aeolipile (generating steam power), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return
valves (in water pumps), and gearing (in water mills and clocks).[291]

Daily life

City and country

The city was viewed as fostering civilization by being "properly designed,
ordered, and adorned".[292] Augustus undertook a vast building
programme in Rome, supported public displays of art that expressed
imperial ideology, and reorganized the city into neighbourhoods (vici)
administered at the local level with police and firefighting services.[293] A
focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius, an
open area outside the city centre: the Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis
Augustae) was located there, as was an obelisk imported from Egypt that
formed the pointer (gnomon) of a horologium. With its public gardens, the
Campus was among the most attractive places in Rome to visit.[293] Cityscape from the Villa
Boscoreale (60s AD)
City planning and urban lifestyles was influenced by the Greeks early
on,[294] and in the Eastern Empire, Roman rule shaped the development of
cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character. Cities such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus and
Gerasa tailored city planning and architecture to imperial ideals, while expressing their individual identity
and regional preeminence.[295] In areas inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, Rome encouraged the
development of urban centres with stone temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres,
often on or near the sites of preexisting walled settlements known as oppida.[296][297][r] Urbanization in
Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic coastal cities.[270]

The network of cities (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek

terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax
Romana.[200] Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries were
encouraged to "inculcate the habits of peacetime".[299] As the
classicist Clifford Ando noted:

Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated

with imperial culture—public cult and its games and
Aquae Sulis in Bath, England:
civic banquets, competitions for artists, speakers, and
architectural features above the
level of the pillar bases are a later
athletes, as well as the funding of the great majority of
reconstruction. public buildings and public display of art—were
financed by private individuals, whose expenditures in
this regard helped to justify their economic power and
legal and provincial privileges.[300]
In the city of Rome, most people lived in multistory apartment
buildings (insulae) that were often squalid firetraps. Public
facilities—such as baths (thermae), toilets with running water
(latrinae), basins or elaborate fountains (nymphea) delivering
fresh water,[297] and large-scale entertainments such as chariot
races and gladiator combat—were aimed primarily at the common
people.[301]

The public baths served hygienic, social and cultural

Public toilets (latrinae) from Ostia
functions.[302] Bathing was the focus of daily socializing.[303]
Antica
Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered
communal bathing in three temperatures, with amenities that
might include an exercise room, sauna, exfoliation spa, ball court, or outdoor swimming pool. Baths had
hypocaust heating: the floors were suspended over hot-air channels.[304] Public baths were part of urban
culture throughout the provinces, but in the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal
bathing. Christians were advised to go to the baths only for hygiene.[305]

Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses: a

townhouse (domus) and at least one luxury home (villa) outside
the city. The domus was a privately owned single-family house,
and might be furnished with a private bath (balneum),[304] but it
was not a place to retreat from public life.[306] Although some
neighbourhoods show a higher concentration of such houses, they
were not segregated enclaves. The domus was meant to be visible
and accessible. The atrium served as a reception hall in which the
Reconstructed peristyle garden
paterfamilias (head of household) met with clients every
based on the House of the Vettii morning.[293] It was a centre of family religious rites, containing a
shrine and images of family ancestors.[307] The houses were
located on busy public roads, and ground-level spaces were often
rented out as shops (tabernae). [308] In addition to a kitchen garden—windowboxes might substitute in the
insulae—townhouses typically enclosed a peristyle garden.[309]

The villa by contrast was an escape from the city, and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances
intellectual and artistic interests (otium) with an appreciation of nature and agriculture.[310] Ideally a villa
commanded a view or vista, carefully framed by the architectural design.[311]

Augustus' programme of urban renewal, and the growth of Rome's population to as many as one million,
was accompanied by nostalgia for rural life. Poetry idealized the lives of farmers and shepherds. Interior
decorating often featured painted gardens, fountains, landscapes, vegetative ornament,[311] and animals,
rendered accurately enough to be identified by species.[312] On a more practical level, the central
government took an active interest in supporting agriculture.[313] Producing food was the priority of land
use.[314] Larger farms (latifundia) achieved an economy of scale that sustained urban life.[313] Small
farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres. Agricultural
techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding were disseminated throughout the Empire, and
new crops were introduced from one province to another.[315]
Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a
major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide
a grain dole (Cura Annonae) to citizens who registered for it[313] (about
200,000–250,000 adult males in Rome).[316] The dole cost at least 15% of
state revenues,[313] but improved living conditions among the lower
classes,[317] and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of
their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on estates.[313] The grain
dole also had symbolic value: it affirmed the emperor's position as
universal benefactor, and the right of citizens to share in "the fruits of
conquest".[313] The annona, public facilities, and spectacular Bread stall, from a
entertainments mitigated the otherwise dreary living conditions of lower- Pompeiian wall painting
class Romans, and kept social unrest in check. The satirist Juvenal,
however, saw "bread and circuses" (panem et circenses) as emblematic of
the loss of republican political liberty:[318]

The public has long since cast off its cares: the people that once bestowed commands,
consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things:
bread and circuses.[319]

Health and disease

Epidemics were common in the ancient world, and occasional pandemics in the Empire killed millions.
The Roman population was unhealthy. About 20 percent—a large percentage by ancient standards—lived
in cities, Rome being the largest. The cities were a "demographic sink": the death rate exceeded the birth
rate and constant immigration was necessary to maintain the population. Average lifespan is estimated at
the mid-twenties, and perhaps more than half of children died before reaching adulthood. Dense urban
populations and poor sanitation contributed to disease. Land and sea connections facilitated and sped the
transfer of infectious diseases across the empire's territories. The rich were not immune; only two of
emperor Marcus Aurelius's fourteen children are known to have reached adulthood.[320]

The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as Galen (2nd century).
Views on nutrition were influenced by beliefs like humoral theory.[321] A good indicator of nutrition and
disease burden is average height: the average Roman was shorter in stature than the population of pre-
Roman Italian societies and medieval Europe.[322]

Food and dining

Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, though a charcoal brazier could be used for rudimentary
cookery.[323] Prepared food was sold at pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (tabernae, cauponae,
popinae, thermopolia).[324] Carryout and restaurants were for the lower classes; fine dining appeared only
at dinner parties in wealthy homes with a chef (archimagirus) and kitchen staff,[325] or banquets hosted
by social clubs (collegia).[326]

Most Romans consumed at least 70% of their daily calories in the form of cereals and legumes.[327] Puls
(pottage) was considered the food of the Romans,[328] and could be elaborated to produce dishes similar
to polenta or risotto.[329] Urban populations and the military preferred bread.[327] By the reign of
Aurelian, the state had begun to distribute the annona as a daily
ration of bread baked in state factories, and added olive oil, wine,
and pork to the dole.[330]

Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper

classes,[331] for whom the evening meal (cena) had important
social functions.[332] Guests were entertained in a finely decorated
dining room (triclinium) furnished with couches. By the late
Republic, women dined, reclined, and drank wine along with
men.[333] The poet Martial describes a dinner, beginning with the
gustatio ("tasting" or "appetizer") salad. The main course was kid,
beans, greens, a chicken, and leftover ham, followed by a dessert
Still life on a 2nd-century Roman
of fruit and wine.[334] Roman "foodies" indulged in wild game, mosaic
fowl such as peacock and flamingo, large fish (mullet was
especially prized), and shellfish. Luxury ingredients were
imported from the far reaches of empire.[335] A book-length collection of Roman recipes is attributed to
Apicius, a name for several figures in antiquity that became synonymous with "gourmet".[336]

Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline.[337] Most
often, because of the importance of landowning in Roman culture, produce—cereals, legumes,
vegetables, and fruit—were considered more civilized foods than meat. The Mediterranean staples of
bread, wine, and oil were sacralized by Roman Christianity, while Germanic meat consumption became a
mark of paganism.[338] Some philosophers and Christians resisted the demands of the body and the
pleasures of food, and adopted fasting as an ideal.[339] Food became simpler in general as urban life in
the West diminished and trade routes were disrupted;[340] the Church formally discouraged gluttony,[341]
and hunting and pastoralism were seen as simple and virtuous.[340]

Spectacles
When Juvenal complained that the Roman people had exchanged
their political liberty for "bread and circuses", he was referring to
the state-provided grain dole and the circenses, events held in the
entertainment venue called a circus. The largest such venue in
Rome was the Circus Maximus, the setting of horse races, chariot
races, the equestrian Troy Game, staged beast hunts (venationes),
athletic contests, gladiator combat, and historical re-enactments.
From earliest times, several religious festivals had featured games
(ludi), primarily horse and chariot races (ludi circenses).[342] The
races retained religious significance in connection with
A victor in his four-horse chariot agriculture, initiation, and the cycle of birth and death.[s]

Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days

of the year; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius, this had expanded to 135.[344] Circus games were preceded
by an elaborate parade (pompa circensis) that ended at the venue.[345] Competitive events were held also
in smaller venues such as the amphitheatre, which became the characteristic Roman spectacle venue, and
stadium. Greek-style athletics included footraces, boxing, wrestling, and the pancratium.[346] Aquatic
displays, such as the mock sea battle (naumachia) and a form of "water ballet", were presented in
engineered pools.[347] State-supported theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on temple steps or in
grand stone theatres, or in the smaller enclosed theatre called an odeon.[348]

Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world.[349] The Flavian Amphitheatre,
better known as the Colosseum, became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome.[350] Many Roman
amphitheatres, circuses and theatres built in cities outside Italy are visible as ruins today.[350] The local
ruling elite were responsible for sponsoring spectacles and arena events, which both enhanced their status
and drained their resources.[183] The physical arrangement of the amphitheatre represented the order of
Roman society: the emperor in his opulent box; senators and equestrians in reserved advantageous seats;
women seated at a remove from the action; slaves given the worst places, and everybody else in-
between.[351] The crowd could call for an outcome by booing or cheering, but the emperor had the final
say. Spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest, and emperors sometimes had to
deploy force to put down crowd unrest, most notoriously at the Nika riots in 532.[352]

The chariot teams were known by the colours they wore. Fan
loyalty was fierce and at times erupted into sports riots.[354]
Racing was perilous, but charioteers were among the most
celebrated and well-compensated athletes.[355] Circuses were
designed to ensure that no team had an unfair advantage and to
minimize collisions (naufragia),[356] which were nonetheless
frequent and satisfying to the crowd.[357] The races retained a
magical aura through their early association with chthonic rituals:
circus images were considered protective or lucky, curse tablets
have been found buried at the site of racetracks, and charioteers
were often suspected of sorcery.[358] Chariot racing continued into
the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, but the decline
of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise.[349]

The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with funeral

games and sacrifices. Some of the earliest styles of gladiator
The Zliten mosaic, from a dining
fighting had ethnic designations such as "Thracian" or
room in present-day Libya, depicts a
"Gallic".[359] The staged combats were considered munera, series of arena scenes: from top,
"services, offerings, benefactions", initially distinct from the musicians; gladiators; beast fighters;
festival games (ludi).[360] To mark the opening of the Colosseum, and convicts condemned to the
Titus presented 100 days of arena events, with 3,000 gladiators beasts[353]
competing on a single day.[361] Roman fascination with gladiators
is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics, wall
paintings, lamps, and in graffiti.[362] Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts,
or free volunteers.[363] Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these
highly skilled fighters, whose training was costly and time-consuming.[364] By contrast, noxii were
convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of
survival; physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice.[183] These
executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths, and amphitheatres were
equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects.[183][365]
Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the "theatre of life and death"[366] difficult to
understand.[367] Pliny the Younger rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people, "to inspire
them to face honourable wounds and despise death, by exhibiting love of glory and desire for
victory".[368] Some Romans such as Seneca were critical of the brutal spectacles, but found virtue in the
courage and dignity of the defeated fighter[369]—an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the
Christians martyred in the arena. Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a
dressed-up form of human sacrifice.[370] Even martyr literature, however, offers "detailed, indeed
luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering",[371] and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable
from fiction.[372]

Recreation
The singular ludus, "play, game, sport, training", had a wide range
of meanings such as "word play", "theatrical performance", "board
game", "primary school", and even "gladiator training school" (as
in Ludus Magnus).[373] Activities for children and young people in
the Empire included hoop rolling and knucklebones (astragali or
"jacks"). Girls had dolls made of wood, terracotta, and especially
bone and ivory.[374] Ball games include trigon and harpastum.[375]
People of all ages played board games, including latrunculi
("Raiders") and XII scripta ("Twelve Marks").[376] A game So-called "Bikini Girls" mosaic from
referred to as alea (dice) or tabula (the board) may have been the Villa del Casale, Roman Sicily,
4th century
similar to backgammon.[377] Dicing as a form of gambling was
disapproved of, but was a popular pastime during the festival of
the Saturnalia.[378]

After adolescence, most physical training for males was of a military nature. The Campus Martius
originally was an exercise field where young men learned horsemanship and warfare. Hunting was also
considered an appropriate pastime. According to Plutarch, conservative Romans disapproved of Greek-
style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake, and condemned Nero's efforts to encourage
Greek-style athletic games.[379] Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers, and a rare few as female
gladiators. The "Bikini Girls" mosaic shows young women engaging in routines comparable to rhythmic
gymnastics.[t][381] Women were encouraged to maintain health through activities such as playing ball,
swimming, walking, or reading aloud (as a breathing exercise).[382]

Clothing
In a status-conscious society like that of the Romans, clothing and personal adornment indicated the
etiquette of interacting with the wearer.[383] Wearing the correct clothing reflected a society in good
order.[384] There is little direct evidence of how Romans dressed in daily life, since portraiture may show
the subject in clothing with symbolic value, and surviving textiles are rare.[385][386]

The toga was the distinctive national garment of the male citizen, but it was heavy and impractical, worn
mainly for conducting political or court business and religious rites.[387][385] It was a "vast expanse" of
semi-circular white wool that could not be put on and draped correctly without assistance.[387] The
 drapery became more intricate and structured over time.[388] The toga
praetexta, with a purple or purplish-red stripe representing inviolability,
was worn by children who had not come of age, curule magistrates, and
state priests. Only the emperor could wear an all-purple toga (toga
picta).[389]

Ordinary clothing was dark or colourful. The basic garment for all
Romans, regardless of gender or wealth, was the simple sleeved tunic,
with length differing by wearer.[390] The tunics of poor people and
labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural, dull shades; finer
tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen. A man of the senatorial or
equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes (clavi) woven
vertically: the wider the stripe, the higher the wearer's status.[390] Other
garments could be layered over the tunic. Common male attire also
included cloaks and in some regions trousers.[391] In the 2nd century,
emperors and elite men are often portrayed wearing the pallium, an
originally Greek mantle; women are also portrayed in the pallium.
Togate statue in the Museo
Tertullian considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for
Archeologico Nazionale Christians, in contrast to the toga, and for educated people.[384][385][392]
d'Abruzzo
Roman clothing styles changed over time.[393] In the Dominate, clothing
worn by both soldiers and bureaucrats became highly decorated with
geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures.[394]
Courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the
waning of urban life, affected fashion: heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as
soldiers, and the toga was abandoned,[395] replaced by the pallium as a garment embodying social
unity.[396]

Arts
Greek art had a profound influence on Roman art.[397] Public art—including sculpture, monuments such
as victory columns or triumphal arches, and the iconography on coins—is often analysed for historical or
ideological significance.[398] In the private sphere, artistic objects were made for religious dedications,
funerary commemoration, domestic use, and commerce.[399] The wealthy advertised their appreciation of
culture through artwork and decorative arts in their homes.[400] Despite the value placed on art, even
famous artists were of low social status, partly as they worked with their hands.[401]

Portraiture
Portraiture, which survives mainly in sculpture, was the most copious form of imperial art. Portraits
during the Augustan period utilize classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and
idealism.[402] Republican portraits were characterized by verism, but as early as the 2nd century BC,
Greek heroic nudity was adopted for conquering generals.[403] Imperial portrait sculptures may model a
mature head atop a youthful nude or semi-nude body with perfect musculature.[404] Clothed in the toga or
military regalia, the body communicates rank or role, not individual characteristics.[405]
Portraiture in
painting is
represented
primarily by the
Fayum mummy
portraits, which
evoke Egyptian and
Roman traditions of
commemorating the
Two portraits c. 130 AD: the empress Vibia Sabina (left); and the Antinous Mondragone
dead with realistic
painting. Marble
portrait sculpture were painted, but traces have rarely survived.[406]

Sculpture and sarcophagi

Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly, though
often in damaged or fragmentary condition, including
freestanding statuary in marble, bronze and terracotta, and
reliefs from public buildings and monuments. Niches in
amphitheatres were originally filled with statues,[407][408] as
were formal gardens.[409] Temples housed cult images of
deities, often by famed sculptors.[410]

Elaborately carved marble and limestone sarcophagi are

On the Ludovisi sarcophagus
characteristic of the 2nd to 4th centuries.[411] Sarcophagus
relief has been called the "richest single source of Roman
iconography", [412] depicting mythological scenes[413] or Jewish/Christian imagery[414] as well as the
deceased's life.

Painting
Initial Roman painting drew from Etruscan and Greek models and
techniques. Examples of Roman paintings can be found in palaces,
catacombs and villas. Much of what is known of Roman painting
is from the interior decoration of private homes, particularly as
preserved by the eruption of Vesuvius. In addition to decorative
borders and panels with geometric or vegetative motifs, wall
painting depicts scenes from mythology and theatre, landscapes
and gardens, spectacles, everyday life, and erotic art.
The Wedding of Zephyrus and
Chloris (54–68 AD, Pompeian
Mosaic Fourth Style) within painted
architectural panels from the Casa
Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts,
del Naviglio
and are found on floors and other architectural features. The most
common is the tessellated mosaic, formed from uniform pieces
(tesserae) of materials such as stone and glass.[416] Opus sectile is a related technique in which flat stone,
usually coloured marble, is cut precisely into shapes from which
geometric or figurative patterns are formed. This more difficult
technique became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th
century (e.g. the Basilica of Junius Bassus).[417]

Figurative mosaics share many themes with painting, and in some

cases use almost identical compositions. Geometric patterns and
mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire. In North
Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, homeowners often
chose scenes of life on their estates, hunting, agriculture, and local
wildlife.[415] Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics
The Triumph of Neptune floor
come also from present-day Turkey (particularly the (Antioch
mosaic from Africa Proconsularis
mosaics[418]), Italy, southern France, Spain, and Portugal.
(present-day Tunisia)[415]

Decorative arts
Decorative arts for luxury consumers included fine pottery, silver and bronze vessels and implements, and
glassware. Pottery manufacturing was economically important, as were the glass and metalworking
industries. Imports stimulated new regional centres of production. Southern Gaul became a leading
producer of the finer red-gloss pottery (terra sigillata) that was a major trade good in 1st-century
Europe.[419] Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, and
by the 3rd century, Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted for fine glass.[420]

Silver cup, from the Finely decorated Gallo- Gold earrings with
Boscoreale Treasure Roman terra sigillata gemstones, 3rd century
(early 1st century AD) bowl

Glass cage cup from

the Rhineland, 4th
century

Performing arts
In Roman tradition, borrowed from the Greeks, literary theatre
was performed by all-male troupes that used face masks with
exaggerated facial expressions to portray emotion. Female roles
were played by men in drag (travesti).[421] Roman literary theatre
tradition is represented in Latin literature by the tragedies of
Seneca, for example.

More popular than literary theatre was the genre-defying mimus

theatre, which featured scripted scenarios with free improvisation,
risqué language and sex scenes, action sequences, and political
satire, along with dance, juggling, acrobatics, tightrope walking,
striptease, and dancing bears.[422] Unlike literary theatre, mimus All-male theatrical troupe preparing
was played without masks, and encouraged stylistic realism. for a masked performance, on a
Female roles were performed by women.[423] Mimus was related mosaic from the House of the Tragic
Poet
to pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that contained no
spoken dialogue but rather a sung libretto, often mythological,
either tragic or comic.[424]

Although sometimes regarded as foreign, music and dance existed

in Rome from earliest times.[425] Music was customary at
funerals, and the tibia, a woodwind instrument, was played at
sacrifices.[426] Song (carmen) was integral to almost every social
occasion. Music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the
cosmos.[427] Various woodwinds and "brass" instruments were
played, as were stringed instruments such as the cithara, and
percussion.[426] The cornu, a long tubular metal wind instrument,
was used for military signals and on parade.[426] These
Trio of musicians playing an aulos,
instruments spread throughout the provinces and are widely
cymbala, and tympanum (mosaic
from Pompeii)
depicted in Roman art.[428] The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis)
was "one of the most significant technical and musical
achievements of antiquity", and accompanied gladiator games and
events in the amphitheatre. [426] Although certain dances were seen at times as non-Roman or unmanly,
dancing was embedded in religious rituals of archaic Rome.[429] Ecstatic dancing was a feature of the
mystery religions, particularly the cults of Cybele[430] and Isis. In the secular realm, dancing girls from
Syria and Cadiz were extremely popular.[431]

Like gladiators, entertainers were legally infames, technically free but little better than slaves. "Stars",
however, could enjoy considerable wealth and celebrity, and mingled socially and often sexually with the
elite.[432] Performers supported each other by forming guilds, and several memorials for theatre members
survive.[433] Theatre and dance were often condemned by Christian polemicists in the later
Empire.[425][434]

Literacy, books, and education

Estimates of the average literacy rate range from 5 to over
30%.[435][436][437] The Roman obsession with documents and
inscriptions indicates the value placed on the written
word.[438][439][u] Laws and edicts were posted as well as read out.
Illiterate Roman subjects could have a government scribe (scriba)
read or write their official documents for them.[436][441] The
military produced extensive written records.[442] The Babylonian
Talmud declared "if all seas were ink, all reeds were pen, all skies
parchment, and all men scribes, they would be unable to set down
the full scope of the Roman government's concerns".[443]

Numeracy was necessary for commerce.[439][444] Slaves were

numerate and literate in significant numbers; some were highly
educated.[445] Graffiti and low-quality inscriptions with Pride in literacy was displayed
misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non- through emblems of reading and
writing, as in this portrait of
elites.[446][v][98]
Terentius Neo and his wife (c. 20
AD)
The Romans had an extensive priestly archive, and inscriptions
appear throughout the Empire in connection with votives
dedicated by ordinary people, as well as "magic spells" (e.g. the Greek Magical Papyri).[447]

Books were expensive, since each copy had to be written out on a papyrus roll (volumen) by scribes.[448]
The codex—pages bound to a spine—was still a novelty in the 1st century,[449] but by the end of the 3rd
century was replacing the volumen.[450] Commercial book production was established by the late
Republic,[451] and by the 1st century certain neighbourhoods of Rome and Western provincial cities were
known for their bookshops.[452] The quality of editing varied wildly,[453] and plagiarism or forgery were
common, since there was no copyright law.[451]

Collectors amassed personal libraries,[454] and a fine library was

part of the cultivated leisure (otium) associated with the villa
lifestyle.[455] Significant collections might attract "in-house"
scholars,[456] and an individual benefactor might endow a
community with a library (as Pliny the Younger did in
Comum).[457] Imperial libraries were open to users on a limited
basis, and represented a literary canon.[458] Books considered
subversive might be publicly burned,[459] and Domitian crucified
Reconstruction of a wax writing
tablet copyists for reproducing works deemed treasonous.[460]

Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading

groups.[461]Public readings (recitationes) expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century, giving rise to
"consumer literature" for entertainment.[462] Illustrated books, including erotica, were popular, but are
poorly represented by extant fragments.[463]
Literacy began to decline during the Crisis of the Third Century.[464] The emperor Julian banned
Christians from teaching the classical curriculum,[465] but the Church Fathers and other Christians
adopted Latin and Greek literature, philosophy and science in biblical interpretation.[466] As the Western
Roman Empire declined, reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy,[467] although
it continued in the Byzantine Empire.[468]

Education
Traditional Roman education was moral and
practical. Stories were meant to instil Roman
values (mores maiorum). Parents were expected
to act as role models, and working parents passed
their skills to their children, who might also enter
apprenticeships.[470] Young children were
attended by a pedagogue, usually a Greek slave A teacher with two students, as a third arrives with his
or former slave,[471] who kept the child safe, loculus, a writing case[469]
taught self-discipline and public behaviour,
attended class and helped with tutoring.[472]

Formal education was available only to families who could pay for it; lack of state support contributed to
low literacy.[473] Primary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic might take place at home if
parents hired or bought a teacher.[474] Other children attended "public" schools organized by a
schoolmaster (ludimagister) paid by parents.[475] Vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in-home
or public schooling.[476] Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12, but
classes were not segregated by grade or age.[477] Most schools employed corporal punishment.[478] For
the socially ambitious, education in Greek as well as Latin was necessary.[479] Schools became more
numerous during the Empire, increasing educational opportunities.[479]

At the age of 14, upperclass males made their rite of passage

into adulthood, and began to learn leadership roles through
mentoring from a senior family member or family
friend.[480] Higher education was provided by grammatici
or rhetores.[481] The grammaticus or "grammarian" taught
mainly Greek and Latin literature, with history, geography,
philosophy or mathematics treated as explications of the
text.[482] With the rise of Augustus, contemporary Latin
authors such as Virgil and Livy also became part of the
curriculum.[483] The rhetor was a teacher of oratory or
public speaking. The art of speaking (ars dicendi) was
highly prized, and eloquentia ("speaking ability,
eloquence") was considered the "glue" of civilized
society.[484] Rhetoric was not so much a body of knowledge Mosaic from Pompeii depicting the
(though it required a command of the literary canon [485] ) as Academy of Plato
it was a mode of expression that distinguished those who
held social power.[486] The ancient model of rhetorical
training—"restraint, coolness under pressure, modesty, and good humour"[487]—endured into the 18th
century as a Western educational ideal.[488]
In Latin, illiteratus could mean both "unable to read and write" and "lacking in cultural awareness or
sophistication".[489] Higher education promoted career advancement.[490] Urban elites throughout the
Empire shared a literary culture imbued with Greek educational ideals (paideia).[491] Hellenistic cities
sponsored schools of higher learning to express cultural achievement.[492] Young Roman men often went
abroad to study rhetoric and philosophy, mostly to Athens. The curriculum in the East was more likely to
include music and physical training.[493] On the Hellenistic model, Vespasian endowed chairs of
grammar, Latin and Greek rhetoric, and philosophy at Rome, and gave secondary teachers special
exemptions from taxes and legal penalties.[494] In the Eastern Empire, Berytus (present-day Beirut) was
unusual in offering a Latin education, and became famous for its school of Roman law.[495] The cultural
movement known as the Second Sophistic (1st–3rd century AD) promoted the assimilation of Greek and
Roman social, educational, and esthetic values.[496]

Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be calligraphers and scribes.[497][498]
The ideal woman in Augustan love poetry was educated and well-versed in the arts.[499] Education seems
to have been standard for daughters of the senatorial and equestrian orders.[476] An educated wife was an
asset for the socially ambitious household.[497]

Literature
Literature under Augustus, along with that of the Republic, has been
viewed as the "Golden Age" of Latin literature, embodying classical
ideals.[500] The three most influential Classical Latin poets—Virgil,
Horace, and Ovid—belong to this period. Virgil's Aeneid was a national
epic in the manner of the Homeric epics of Greece. Horace perfected the
use of Greek lyric metres in Latin verse. Ovid's erotic poetry was
enormously popular, but ran afoul of Augustan morality, contributing to
his exile. Ovid's Metamorphoses wove together Greco-Roman mythology;
his versions of Greek myths became a primary source of later classical
mythology, and his work was hugely influential on medieval
literature.[501] The early Principate produced satirists such as Persius and
Juvenal.

The mid-1st through mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the
"Silver Age" of Latin literature. The three leading writers—Seneca,
Lucan, and Petronius—committed suicide after incurring Nero's Statue in Constanța,
Romania (the ancient
displeasure. Epigrammatist and social observer Martial and the epic poet
colony Tomis),
Statius, whose poetry collection Silvae influenced Renaissance
commemorating Ovid's
literature,[502] wrote during the reign of Domitian. Other authors of the exile
Silver Age included Pliny the Elder, author of the encyclopedic Natural
History; his nephew, Pliny the Younger; and the historian Tacitus.

The principal Latin prose author of the Augustan age is the historian Livy, whose account of Rome's
founding became the most familiar version in modern-era literature. The Twelve Caesars by Suetonius is
a primary source for imperial biography. Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, Josephus, and Cassius Dio. Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the
biographer Plutarch, the geographer Strabo, and the rhetorician and satirist Lucian.
From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, Christian authors were in active dialogue with the classical tradition.
Tertullian was one of the earliest prose authors with a distinctly Christian voice. After the conversion of
Constantine, Latin literature is dominated by the Christian perspective.[503] In the late 4th century, Jerome
produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate. Around that same
time, Augustine wrote The City of God against the Pagans, considered "a masterpiece of Western
culture".[504]

In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin, the literary esthetic of late antiquity has a tessellated
quality.[505] A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found
into the 5th century, with the Saturnalia of Macrobius and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of
Martianus Capella. Latin poets of late antiquity include Ausonius, Prudentius, Claudian, and Sidonius
Apollinaris.

Religion
The Romans thought of themselves as highly
religious, and attributed their success to their
collective piety (pietas) and good relations with the
gods (pax deorum). The archaic religion believed to
have come from the earliest kings of Rome was the
foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the
ancestors", central to Roman identity.[506]

Roman religion was practical and contractual, based

on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might
give". Religion depended on knowledge and the
correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not A Roman priest, his The emperor Marcus
on faith or dogma, although Latin literature head ritually covered Aurelius sacrificing at the
with a fold of his toga, Temple of Jupiter
preserves learned speculation on the nature of the
extends a patera in a
divine. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of gesture of libation
daily life.[507] Each home had a household shrine to (2nd–3rd century)
offer prayers and libations to the family's domestic
deities. Neighbourhood shrines and sacred places
such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious
observances; as many as 135 days were devoted to religious festivals and games (ludi).[508]

In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion adapted to support the new regime. Augustus
justified one-man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows now were
directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the
traditional veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual.
Upon death, an emperor could be made a state divinity (divus) by vote of the Senate. The Roman imperial
cult, influenced by Hellenistic ruler cult, became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in
the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity. Cultural precedent in the Eastern provinces
facilitated a rapid dissemination of Imperial cult, extending as far as Najran, in present-day Saudi
Arabia.[w] Rejection of the state religion became tantamount to treason.
The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honoured. As the Romans extended their
territories, their general policy was to promote stability among diverse peoples by absorbing local deities
and cults rather than eradicating them,[x] building temples that framed local theology within Roman
religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities,
including dedications made by Romans to local gods.[510] By the height of the Empire, numerous
syncretic or reinterpreted gods were cultivated, among them cults of Cybele, Isis, Epona, and of solar
gods such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never
been obligated to cultivate one god or cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue.[511]

Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice,
practiced in addition to one's family rites and public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive
oaths and secrecy, which conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic",
conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Thus, sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were
made to suppress religionists. In Gaul, the power of the druids was checked, first by forbidding Roman
citizens to belong to the order, and then by banning druidism altogether. However, Celtic traditions were
reinterpreted within the context of Imperial theology, and a new Gallo-Roman religion coalesced; its
capital at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls established precedent for Western cult as a form of Roman-
provincial identity.[512] The monotheistic rigour of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at
times to compromise and granting of special exemptions. Tertullian noted that Judaism, unlike
Christianity, was considered a religio licita, "legitimate religion". The Jewish–Roman wars resulted from
political as well as religious conflicts; the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the temple
and the dispersal of Jewish political power (see Jewish diaspora).

Christianity emerged in Roman Judaea as a Jewish religious sect in the 1st

century and gradually spread out of Jerusalem throughout the Empire and
beyond. Imperially authorized persecutions were limited and sporadic,
with martyrdoms occurring most often under the authority of local
officials.[513] Tacitus reports that after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64,
the emperor attempted to deflect blame from himself onto the
Christians.[514] A major persecution occurred under the emperor
Domitian[515] and a persecution in 177 took place at Lugdunum, the
A 3rd-century funerary stele
Gallo-Roman religious capital. A letter from Pliny the Younger, governor is among the earliest
of Bithynia, describes his persecution and executions of Christians.[516] Christian inscriptions,
The Decian persecution of 246–251 seriously threatened the Christian written in both Greek and
Church, but ultimately strengthened Christian defiance.[517] Diocletian Latin.
undertook the most severe persecution of Christians, from 303 to 311.[15]

From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers condemned the diverse religions practiced throughout
the Empire as "pagan".[518] In the early 4th century, Constantine I became the first emperor to convert to
Christianity. He supported the Church financially and made laws that favored it, but the new religion was
already successful, having moved from less than 50,000 to over a million adherents between 150 and
250.[519] Constantine and his successors banned public sacrifice while tolerating other traditional
practices. Constantine never engaged in a purge,[520] there were no "pagan martyrs" during his reign,[521]
and people who had not converted to Christianity remained in important positions at court.[520]: 302 Julian
attempted to revive traditional public sacrifice and Hellenistic religion, but met Christian resistance and
lack of popular support.[522]
Christians of the 4th century believed the conversion of Constantine
showed that Christianity had triumphed over paganism (in Heaven) and
little further action besides such rhetoric was necessary.[524] Thus, their
focus was heresy.[525][526] According to Peter Brown, "In most areas,
polytheists were not molested, and apart from a few ugly incidents of local
violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even
privileged, existence".[526]: 641–643 [527] There were anti-pagan laws, but
The Pantheon in Rome, a
they were not generally enforced; through the 6th century, centers of Roman temple originally
paganism existed in Athens, Gaza, Alexandria, and elsewhere.[528] built under Augustus, later
converted into a Catholic
According to recent Jewish scholarship, toleration of the Jews was church in the 7th
maintained under Christian emperors.[529] This did not extend to century[523]
heretics:[529] Theodosius I made multiple laws and acted against alternate
forms of Christianity,[530] and heretics were persecuted and killed by both
the government and the church throughout Late Antiquity. Non-Christians were not persecuted until the
6th century. Rome's original religious hierarchy and ritual influenced Christian forms,[531][532] and many
pre-Christian practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions.

Legacy

The Virginia State Capitol (left), completed in 1788, was modelled after the Maison Carrée (right), in Nîmes,
France, a Gallo-Roman temple built around 16 BC under Augustus.

Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successor. The Holy Roman Empire was established in
800 when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Roman emperor. The Russian Tsardom, as inheritor of
the Byzantine Empire's Orthodox Christian tradition, counted itself the Third Rome (Constantinople
having been the second), in accordance with the concept of translatio imperii.[533] The last Eastern
Roman titular, Andreas Palaiologos, sold the title of Emperor of Constantinople to Charles VIII of
France; upon Charles' death, Palaiologos reclaimed the title and on his death granted it to Ferdinand and
Isabella and their successors, who never used it. When the Ottomans, who based their state on the
Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II established his capital there and claimed to sit
on the throne of the Roman Empire.[534] He even launched an invasion of Otranto with the purpose of re-
uniting the Empire, which was aborted by his death. In the medieval West, "Roman" came to mean the
church and the Catholic Pope. The Greek form Romaioi remained attached to the Greek-speaking
Christian population of the Byzantine Empire and is still used by Greeks.[535]
The Roman Empire's control of the Italian Peninsula influenced Italian nationalism and the unification of
Italy (Risorgimento) in 1861.[536]

In the United States, the founders were educated in the classical tradition,[537] and used classical models
for landmarks in Washington, D.C..[538][539][540][541] The founders saw Athenian democracy and Roman
republicanism as models for the mixed constitution, but regarded the emperor as a figure of tyranny.[542]

See also
Ancient Rome
portal
History portal

Europe portal

Outline of ancient Rome

List of political systems in France
List of Roman dynasties
Daqin ("Great Qin"), the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire; see also Sino-
Roman relations
Imperial Italy
Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty

Notes
a. Modern scholars often date the end of the "classical" or "unified" Roman Empire in AD
395.[1] This is a modern convention, as the Empire continued to be seen as a single state
even after the supposed "split" of 395, which was in fact one of many splits since 286.[2]
b. Fig. 1. Regions east of the Euphrates were held only in the years 116–117.
c. In 286, Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into two administrative units–East
and West–an arrangement that periodically returned until the two halves were permanently
divided in 395.[4] Although the halves were independent in practice, the Romans continued
to consider the Roman Empire to be a single undivided state with two co-equal emperors
until the fall of the western half in 476/480.[4] Although emperors at times governed from
other cities (notably Mediolanum and Ravenna in the West and Nicomedia in the East),
Rome remained the de jure capital of the entire Roman Empire. In 330, Emperor
Constantine I made Constantinople a second and new capital of the empire ("Second
Rome" or "New Rome").[5][6][7][8][9][10] For a time, mostly over the course of the later
decades of the fourth century, Rome continued to hold greater symbolic status on account of
its greater antiquity as imperial capital.[11] From at least 361 onwards, senators belonging to
the new senate in Constantinople enjoyed the same status and privileges as senators of the
Roman Senate, to which the new senate was largely identical.[12] By 450, Constantinople
was much grander in size and adornment than Rome and unquestionably senior in
status.[13]
d. In 1204, the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople and established the
Latin Empire. The city remained under foreign rule until 1261, when it was captured by the
Empire of Nicaea (a Byzantine/Roman successor state). Nicaea is usually considered the
"legitimate" continuation of the Roman Empire during the "interregnum" 1204–1261 (over its
rivals in Trebizond and Thessalonica) since it managed to retake Constantinople.[14]
Whether there was an interregnum at all is debatable given that the crusaders envisioned
the Latin Empire to be the same empire as its predecessor (and not a new state).[15]
e. Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces.
f. The Ottomans sometimes called their state the "Empire of Rûm" (Ottoman Turkish: ‫دولت‬
‫علنإه روم‬, lit. 'Exalted State of Rome'). In this sense, it could be argued that a "Roman"
Empire survived until the early 20th century.[20]
g. Augustus avoided any association with the ancient kings of Rome. Augustus had replaced
his first name with Imperator, a title regularly used by Julius Caesar, thus becoming
Imperator Caesar Augustus, which further linked the title with his position. Imperator did not
acquire the meaning of "ruler" until the late 1st century.[28] Both Caesar and Augustus
evolved into formal titles, the former denoting the heir and the latter the monarch. In some
languages, Caesar became the origin of the word "emperor", such as in German (Kaiser)
and some Slavic languages (Tsar).
h. Prudentius (348–413) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry.[59] St. Augustine,
however, distinguished between the secular and eternal "Rome" in The City of God. See
also Fears, J. Rufus (1981), "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology", Aufstieg
und Niedergang der römischen Welt, vol. II, p. 136, on how Classical Roman ideology
influenced Christian Imperial doctrine, Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011), "The King of Kings:
Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome", The
Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, John Wiley & Sons
and the Greek concept of globalism (oikouménē).
i. It has been called a state of bilingualism but that's only true of the educated and so Bruno
Rochette suggests it's more appropriate as a diglossia but concedes this still does not
adequately explain it, as Greek was "high" against Latins "Super-high".[72] Latin experienced
a period of spreading from the second century BCE, and especially in the western
provinces, but not as much in the eastern provinces.[73] In the east, Greek was always the
dominant language, a left over influence from the Hellenistic period that predates the
Empire.[74][75]
j. The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina, a foreign or non-Roman
woman[122] In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status
determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier,
for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union
with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was
discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in
effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of
Augustus until it was rescinded by Septimius Severus in 197 AD.[123]
k. The others are ancient Athens, and in the modern era Brazil, the Caribbean, and the United
States
l. That senator was Tiberius Claudius Gordianus[166]
m. The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and
demonstrations (such as the Lusus Troiae) is complex, but those who participated in the
latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and
quite limited) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis. Senators could not possess
the "public horse".[168]
n. Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain (now Cádiz), and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy (now
Padua), were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was
unusual.[170]
o. This practice was established in the Republic; see for instance the case of Contrebian water
rights heard by G. Valerius Flaccus as governor of Hispania in the 90s–80s BC.
p. This was the vicesima libertatis, "the twentieth for freedom"[227]
q. The college of centonarii is an elusive topic in scholarship, since they are also widely
attested as urban firefighters.[281][282] Historian Jinyu Liu sees them as "primarily tradesmen
and/or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low- or medium-quality
woolen textiles and clothing, including felt and its products".[282]
r. Julius Caesar first applied the Latin word oppidum to this type of settlement, and even called
Avaricum (Bourges, France), a center of the Bituriges, an urbs, "city". Archaeology indicates
that oppida were centers of religion, trade (including import/export), and industrial
production, walled for the purposes of defence, but they may not have been inhabited by
concentrated populations year-round.[298]
s. Such as the Consualia and the October Horse sacrifice.[343]
t. Scholars are divided in their relative emphasis on the athletic and dance elements of these
exercises: Lee, H. (1984). "Athletics and the Bikini Girls from Piazza Armerina". Stadion. 10:
45–75. sees them as gymnasts, while Torelli thinks they are dancers at the games.[380]
u. Clifford Ando posed the question as "what good would 'posted edicts' do in a world of low
literacy?'.[440]
v. Political slogans and obscenities are widely preserved as graffiti in Pompeii: Antonio Varone,
Erotica Pompeiana: Love Inscriptions on the Walls of Pompeii ("L'Erma" di Bretschneider,
2002). Soldiers sometimes inscribed sling bullets with aggressive messages: Phang,
"Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy," p. 300.
w. The caesareum at Najaran was possibly known later as the "Kaaba of Najran"[509]
x. "This mentality," notes John T. Koch, "lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation
which made the Roman Empire possible"; entry on "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture:
A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.

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External links
BBC: What the Romans Did for Us (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ktd1m)
Roman Archaeological Sites (https://www.topworldimages.com/images_of_Roman-Archaeol
ogical-Sites.html)
Roman-Empire.net (http://roman-empire.net), learning resources and re-enactments
The Historical Theater in the Year 400 AD, in Which Both Romans and Barbarians Resided
Side by Side in the Eastern Part of the Roman Empire (http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11745)

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