World History Class 01

The class start with an interactive session and a brief objective of world history preparation(9:00
PM)

• Previous Year questions

• Capitalism
• Socialism
• American Revolution
• Essence of world history
• Theoretical aspects

The essence of history(9:15 PM)

• History of the modern world.

• History is about changes and continuity from the past.
• Eurocentric approach: The history of India is not there as it lacks changes at the village level as
per Europeans.
• Modern world history
• Colonialism, despotism
• Crisis of Europe(10:00 PM)
• Emergence of new nations in east, Asia, Africa
• Rise of USSR and USA
• Cold war
• Modern world history is dynamic and evolving
• Post Modern
• Antithetical to the definition(as it may be time specific)
• modernity
• what are aspects of Modernity
• Economical, political, social, religious, literature

The process of change(11:10 PM):

• Attitude
• Ideas
• Transformation through evolution or revolution
• Diffusion
• There is no necessity for the chronology of this same

Renaissance(11:38PM)

• There is a process.
• Indian Renaissance-Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• New attitudes are made.
• Enlightenment is associated with new ideas
• Middle class were agents of enlightenment
 • American Revolution- First experiment of Renaissance
• French Revolution-Attitudes and ideas are influenced by American ideas and enlightenment
• Napolean(transformation)
• Vienna congress (reaction)
• Europe was reassembled and a new order
• Nationalism
• Liberalism
• Socialism
• European Revolutions:
• 1820, 1830, 1848
• Unification of Germany
• Unification of Italy
• American Civil War(1861-65)
• Capitalism- Economic aspect of Liberalism
• Mercantilism
• Industrial Revolution in England
• Spread of Industrial Revolution
• West Europe, Japan, USA
• Meiji restoration and Modernisation
• Impact of Industrial Revolution
• Colonialism
• Imperialism
• Socialism-Marxism
• World War I and II
• Consequences of World War I
• Russian Revolution
• Fascism and Nazism
• Paris Peace Conference
• Causes of World War II
• Consequences of World War II
• Chinese Revolution
• USSR disintegration
• New world order
• Globalisation

The next class: Overview of topics concluded and next class topic is Seven years of global war.

World History Class 02

Revision of the previous class (9:00 AM):

 • World History is not simply a compilation of the histories of the world.
• It is rather a chronological and connected understanding of the progress of civilization.

Book List:

• Old Ncerts would be sufficient.

• If we are able to perform the selective and thematic reading of Norman Love, we can skip
Ncerts.

Overall strategy:

• We must not try to remember each and every detail of world history while we read them.
• We need to focus on understanding the concepts.
• Over-fixation with retention while reading just reflects our anxiety which is not an efficient
way of reading and does not reflect the qualities that this exam seeks.
• We must never judge our progress through the number of pages covered in time.
• Many things will get clear with multiple readings and revisions.
• We must understand the demand of the examination from a historical perspective, and how
the approach for history must be different from clerical grade and other single-day exams.
• We must not reduce history to the memorization of dates and events.
• We must be more interested in knowing the values behind the events and their role in the
larger scheme of things –both contemporary and present times.
• UPSC does not intend to use public servants as a source of knowledge.
• So the students must look at the academic course, not as an end, but means to an end which
must be to cultivate the qualities, attitude, and demeanor of civil servants.
• Memorizing data and internalizing the exam anxiety can not and must not supplement the
steps towards a positive character transformation that this exam, which is not an event but a
process, seeks

Brief syllabus:

• Industrial revolution on the backdrop of the Renaissance.

• American and French Revolutions.
• World wars.
• Colonization and Decolonization.
• Political philosophies like communism, capitalism, socialism, etc., and their forms and effect
on society.
• Changing dynamics of the state.
• Important events such as Cold War, Korean War, Vietnam War, Gulf War, Soviet disintegration,
etc.
• The conceptualization of the modern state is based on democracy, human rights, individual
sovereignty, etc.

History (9:30 AM):

• Unlike the popular conception, history is not fossilized.

 • Historical events cannot be changed, but their understandings can certainly change.
• No historical knowledge is absolute and all historical conclusions in one way or another reflect
the contemporary notions during analysis.
• Present social changes will also be reflected in the understanding and interpretation of the
past.

Renaissance (10:00 AM):

• The term “renaissance “came to be used in the 19 th century to refer to a phase of intellectual
and artistic developments in the history of Europe.
• It started in around 1300 AD in Italy and continued for almost three centuries.
• With time, the new intellectual awakening and the new approaches to artistic and literary
expressions spread to other countries of Europe, particularly Western Europe.
• At times, the age of renaissance or culture of renaissance is identified with a new spirit called
“Renaissance spirit” or attitude.
• It was characterized by the following tendencies:

Humanism:

• Humanism is accepted as the heart and soul of the renaissance.

• It is associated with keeping the man at the center of all contemplations, considerations,
debates, discussions, discourses, etc.
• This led to some sort of transition from the so-called ”God-Centric “world of the medieval
ages to the “Man-Centric” world of modernity.
• Monalisa was a cultural turning point because it was the first instance where a non-divine
human was portrayed with such finesse.
• Humanism involves a greater acceptance of human nature and natural urges.
• A greater acknowledgment was given to human strength or capacity to transform his life on
the planet and greater recognition of both his virtues and vices.
• This was a departure from the sinful conceptions of man and a move towards self-realization
and fulfillment of the aims and objectives of man.
• These aims and objectives as defined/identified by human beings themselves, and not by
religious scriptures.
• It is for this reason the renaissance is also described as the "discovery of man".
• His happiness and satisfaction became more important than the spirit of self-suppression or
self-negation.

Critical Thinking (10:42 AM):

• It all started in Italy with what is known as antiquarian interests which are interest in
antiquities.
• Initially, it was for a show of wealth and opulence by the rich.
• There developed an approach related to close examination or scrutiny of the artifacts while
determining their prices.
 • The same approach was used to check the religious texts, documents, claims, and
contentions.
• Thus we find some sort of departure from faith to reliance upon reason and observation for
ascertainment of the truth.
• This paved the way for the growth of rationalism or empirical method or scientific method of
acquiring knowledge based on observations, measurement, and analysis.
• Francis Baker is supposed to be the pioneer of positivism (empirical method of learning).

Materialism (10:56 AM):

• This was related to an increasing interest in worldly existence and pleasures.

• It generated desires and motivated efforts to fulfill them.
• These desires were not related to extra worldly considerations but were related to worldly
considerations.

Curiosity:

• This is related to a general desire to know about a man, his attributes, achievements, and
surroundings ( both social and natural).
• This led to not only the discovery of man but also the discovery of the world.
• With new knowledge about the world facilitated by geographical discoveries and scientific
inventions.

Sense of adventure (11:29 AM):

• There were different apprehensions regarding seafaring from flat earth theory to religious
regulations.
• Yet spirited individuals like Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, etc chose to tread the
path less traveled, and their achievements encouraged many others.

Manifestations of the spirit of the renaissance:

• Antiquarian interests particularly in the artifacts of ancient Greco-Roman civilization.

• Celebration of the achievements of Greco-Roman or other ancient civilizations as human
achievements.
• A sense of achievement for certain ancient civilizations that came to be regarded as classical
civilizations.
• The achievements of certain classical civilizations (Mauryan age in the Indian context) were
regarded as benchmarks to evaluate and guide the present progress.
• Emphasis on the revival of classical norms and values in every aspect of life including
literature, art, and architecture.
• Revival of the classical traditions of scholarships with the glorification of the ancient
philosophers like Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, etc who became new sources for ideological and
moral legitimacy.
• The creation of new knowledge about man, society, and nature marked the development of
new disciplines like natural sciences, natural sciences, and social sciences.
 • The new knowledge generated by human beings was seen as equally legitimate and valid as
the divine knowledge.
• Dissemination of knowledge on a large scale largely due to the use of the printing press.
• New scientific inventions and discoveries such as internal organs of the human body as
intestines, fallopian tubes(Gabriele Fallopio), blood circulation (William Harvey), the
heliocentric conception of the universe (Nicholas Copernicus), telescope (Galileo), laws of
gravity (Newton), geographical explorations and the discovery of new islands and continents,
trade routes, etc.
• The new kind of literature was man-centric and mostly in vernacular, though Latin continued
to be the language of higher scholarly pursuits.
• Some of the important works of the time are:
• The Prince by Machiavelli.
• Utopia by Thomas Moore.
• The Praise of Folly by Erasmus.
• Works of Shakespeare.
• Separation of art from religion with a greater emphasis on sensual and realistic depictions.
• This was most evident in paintings- The Fall of Man, The Last Supper, etc.
• Growth of independent art forms.
• Replacement of gothic architecture with classical architecture with an emphasis on horizontal
effects created through domes.
• Expansion of the overseas trade and the commercial revolution.
• Colonialism and imperialism.
• Religious reformation.
• Industrialization.

Why did such a movement start in Italy ?-

• Since Italy is at the Mediterranean sea, the coast was traditionally been a point for commercial
and ideological exchanges with different regions.
• Italy was also the seat of ancient Roman civilization, which gave it much cultural capital.

The topic for the next class: Enlightenment.

World History Class 03

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:01 AM)

Age of enlightenment (9:12 AM)

• Both the 18th and 19th centuries in European history are seen or identified as centuries of
enlightenment.
• During this period, we find the emergence of new ideas in different walks of life propounded
by thinkers and philosophers of the time.
• These ideas came to constitute the ideological or philosophical foundations for the transition
towards modernity.
• They initially affected the European countries, particularly the countries of western Europe
but in due course of time, we find their spread or diffusion even beyond Europe.
• Some of the general features or characteristics of the age of enlightenment are mentioned
below -
• Deism - It accepted the existence of God who was also accepted as the creator of the Universe
and the maker of the laws of the universe/nature.
• But it negated the day-to-day interferences of God in worldly affairs i.e., in shaping the course
of history or determining personal fortunes or misfortunes.
• Thus, we find a shift from prayers to human efforts.
• Naturalism - It involves greater acceptance of the natural instincts of man.
• It also involves the essence of appreciation for nature/ beauties and bounties.
• Nature came to be seen as friendly, benign and even predictable.
• It is governed by fixed laws which cannot be changed by human beings but human beings can
know them, discover them and use them for utilising the natural resources for their happiness.
• Positivism - It involves the scientific method of acquiring knowledge involving observation,
measurement and analysis.
• This method can create a universal system of knowledge benefitting humanity.
• Rationalism - consolidation of critical thinking.
• It involves not only the glorification of reason but also accepts that every individual is or every
man is rational, capable of taking rational decisions for the fulfilment of his enlightened self-
interest.
• Individualism - It involves individualism and concerns for ht welfare of the individual whose
relation with customs, traditions, and social institutions even estate came to be redefined.
• It also acknowledged the need for the fulfilment of the enlightened self-interest of the
individual for his self-realisation or actualisation.
• It also created more space for the assertion of individual aims and objectives.
• Hedonism - Involves an emphasis on human happiness, accepting the nature of the man to be
a hedonist.
• Optimism - It involves a belief in the progress of both the moral and material, progress of man
and the world.
• Romanticism - It involves the critique of reason (pure reason) which is at times also called the
critique of enlightenment.
• This stream was represented by Kant and Rousseau.
• This philosopher highlighted the inadequacies of the human capacity for observation.
• Limitations of the scientific method i.e., positivism in finding the reality and insufficiency of
the human region in understanding human behaviour and the behaviour of nature.
• These scholars or thinkers also questioned the capacity of reason to draw objective, impartial
and universal inferences.
• They accepted the importance of emotions and general principles of ethics and morality as
guiding principles of human behaviour.
Kant (11:38 AM)

• Kant is supposed to be the first thinker in western traditions who accepted that social
observation is never independent of the observer.
• Thus, he highlighted the role of socio-ideological locations in determining perception.
• Kant also highlighted the importance of moral judgements.

Rousseau (11:48 AM)

• He not only criticised the reason but also modern civilisation which he considered to be
responsible for the gross socio-economic inequalities but has also corroded or eroded the
human virtues making man a greedy and selfish creature and even an aggressive creature.
• The need for the protection of life and private property (a product of modern civilization) has
given birth to the oppressive institution of the state.
• In such circumstances, human beings cannot be happy.
• Rousseau offers solutions in the form of his famous slogan - go back to nature and the natural
state of living for eradication of private property.
• Restoration of the human qualities and for a happy existence of the man as a noble savage.

TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - THINKERS OF MODERN AGE AND AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

World History Class 04

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:03 AM)

ECONOMIC IDEAS AND THINKERS (9:30 AM)

Mercantilism

• It developed as a part of the so-called commercial revolution marking the beginning of the
modern political economy.
• It is linked with not only the capitalist transformation of the world economy but also with the
phenomenon of colonial imperialism.
• Some of the important postulates, principles, and practices associated with mercantilism
are mentioned below -
• A) The wealth of a nation is constituted by the bullion in its possession.
• B) The wealth of a nation is linked with the prestige of the nation.
• C) Since the amount of bullion is limited in nature, the gain of one nation is necessarily a loss
for all other nations.
• Please refer handouts for details.

Physiocrats (10:05 AM)

• The term is referred to a group of French economists towards the middle of the eighteenth
century.
 • They were the first to challenge the mercantilist postulates and practices.
• They advocated the doctrine of free trade (Laissez-Faire) for the first time.
• Led by the economists like Francois Quesnay and Turgot, they contended that mere exchange
cannot produce value and so the state should not impose taxes on trading activities.
• Thus they favored abolishing all types of tariffs and opposed any kind of control and
regulation of trade by the state.
• They also questioned the idea that the wealth of a nation is constituted by the bullion and
argued that the real wealth is constituted by the natural resources most importantly by the
land.
• According to the land alone creates value and is the source of all wealth, so, the state should
impose taxes only on agriculture and land. Thus, they argued in favor of the non-interference
of states in economic activities.
• Adam Smith - Is regarded as the most influential economist belonging to the classical
economist of England who is also regarded as the father of economics.
• He not only provided a new direction to the modern political economy but also provided
ideological or philosophical foundations or underpinnings for the modern capitalist
transformation and the industrial revolution.
• His ideas still remain quite influential and have acquired a new impetus and a new degree of
popularity after the disintegration of the USSR and the emergence of the modern global
economy with emphasis on the processes like Liberalization, Privatization, Globalisation, etc.
• David Ricardo - Was a classical economist of England who is known for complementing the
ideas of Adam Smith by paying adequate attention to even the demand side of the economy.
• In this context, he is known for his theories of rent, diminishing returns, marginal utility, and
comparative advantage.
• Diminishing results to scale (explained with a numerical example) - Decreasing returns to
scale is when all production variables are increased by a certain percentage resulting in a less-
than-proportional increase in output.
• Refer to handouts for details.

Political and social ideas (11:31 AM)

• Hobbes - Was a British political thinker who favored the idea of an authoritarian state in order
to keep a check on the evil tendencies of man.
• He also sub-ordinated the Church and the religion to the authority of the state.
• This idea is associated with the idea of the supremacy of the state and the laws made by it.
• In more recent times it is perceived as the idea of constitutional supremacy.
• John Locke - Propounded the concept of the natural and inalienable rights of man.
• According to him, these rights are available to the man simply because he is a man.
• Since these rights are given by the nature itself, they cannot be taken away by any other
agency be it the state or society.
• Locke included rights such as the right to life, liberty, and property in the list of natural rights.
• Montesquieu - One of the very influential French philosophers whose role is accepted even in
inspiring the French Revolution.
 • He was quite inspired by the constitutional progress being made in England at that time based
on ideas such as constitutional monarchy and parliamentary supremacy.
• He wanted reforms on similar lines even in France.
• He is also associated with the theory of separation of power of the state in order to put a check
on the arbitrary power of the state.
• He contemplated three organs of the state legislature, executive, and judiciary with a system
of mutual check and balance on one another for the prevention of the arbitrary exercise of
power by the state.
• This system can be noticed as an important part of almost all major democratic constitutional
experiments of the modern age.
• Voltaire - A French philosopher of the pre-revolutionary days whose ideas inspired the
revolution in France.
• He is particularly known for satiric observation mainly of the evils of the Church and religion.
• Rousseau - The most influential French philosopher who is regarded not only as the father of
the French Revolution but also as the father of modern democracy and republicanism.
• In his famous work “Social Contract” he demolished the medieval notions of the divine origin
of kingship by accepting the state as a human agency by propounding the theory of popular
sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people.
• Thomas Jefferson - Was an American thinker who championed the cause of liberty, freedom,
and rights.
• He is also associated with the drafting of the declaration of American Independence (1776)
and was instrumental in the incorporation of the fundamental right into the American
Constitution.
• Thomas Paine An American Champion of liberty quite popular also in Europe known for his
famous article “Common Sense” in which he espoused the cause of American Liberation.
Given the French citizenship during the revolutionary days.
• Refer to handouts for details.

TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - AMERICAN REVOLUTION

World History Class 05

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:10 AM)

Physiocrats (9:15 AM)

• Hegel - Is known for explaining the process of historical evolution on the basis of his theory of
Dialectics in the realm of ideas.
• His theory of dialectical ideologism also inspired the dialectical materialism of Karl Marx in
terms of accepting the role of dialectics as a moving force in history.

American Revolution (10:01 AM)

Difference between the Indian and American Revolution

• India did not go through demographic changes.

• In India, we have an intermediary agency - EIC.
• In India, there was a centralized system which was not possible in American colonies.
• Independent orientation of American colonies.
• Elected councils in America.

Three dimensions of the American revolution

• American revolution included the American war of independence, the emergence of a new
nation-state - the USA based on a new experiment of Federalism, and making adoption and
even amendments of the American constitution the first modern constitution of the world.
• The American revolution is important for translating the abstract attitudes and ideas of the
age of Renaissance and enlightenment into concrete realities making them even more
inspiring and legitimate.
• The American revolution created a new socio-political and economic system in the new world
based on new ideas which became a model of modernity inspiring similar changes across the
world in due course of time.

American war of Independence (10:58 AM)

• In the American war of independence, the British colonies situated on the eastern coast of
North America got united against the mother country and secured their independence.
• This is seen as the earliest instance of decolonization in world history.
• The American war of independence unlike the Indian war of Independence and took the form
of an open armed conflict between two armies and so can be seen as an elite military affair.
• The Indian national movement or Indian war of independence largely developed in the form of
non-violent mass struggle.
• In the Indian war of Independence, we also notice greater concerns for internal socio-
economic restructuring on the modern lines.
• The open-armed conflict started in 1775.
• The colonies declared their independence in the second Philadelphia congress in 1776.
• The American war of Independence started in the year 1775 and the conflicts continued till
1781 when the royal army was led by Lord Cornwallis whereas the militia of the colonists came
to be led by George Washington.
• The war resulted in the defeat of the royal army and in the Paris peace treaty of 1783 England
accepted the independence of the Colonies which decided to stay together even after their
independence.
• By 1789 the constitution of the USA had been made accepted and even amended to include
the famous bill of rights.

Reasons for the American war of Independence (11:19 AM)

• The American war of Independence was a result of a growing sense of detachment on the part
of the colonists mostly Europeans towards the mother country.
 • This sense of detachment is explained in the terms of following factors -
• A) Clashes of economic interest - According to the prevailing notions of British nationalism, the
British people wherever they lived in the world were perceived as Indivisible or inseparable
parts of the British nation.
• As such, they were supposed to serve the national interests which in the contemporary
circumstances came to be determined by mercantilist considerations.
• But, while constructing or determining the national interests of the British government
neglected the interests of the colonies.
• The mother country had subjected the colonies to many restrictions justified by the postulates
of mercantilism with an adverse impact on the economic interests of the colonists.
• Some of these restrictions are mentioned below -
• Import-export activities.
• Restrictions on import-export activities of the colonists as the colonists were forced to export
certain items such as raw cotton, fur, leather etc only to England and import certain items
such as textiles, machinery, etc only from England, this deprived the colonists of competitive
prices such goods both as sellers and buyers.
• The colonies were forced to trade in certain items only via England where heavy taxes were
imposed.
• Ban on some manufacturing activities in which England was establishing its monopolies such
as Iron and steel.
• Establishment of the monopoly of the British shipping companies on all sorts of trading
activities through a series known as the navigation acts.
• Restriction on the westward expansion - The above-mentioned restrictions became even
more intolerable for the colonists due to the spread of the idea of free trade (Lessiz- fair) which
was gaining ground in the intellectual climate of the time.
• In this context, the ideas expressed by the physiocrats of France and the ideas propounded by
classical economists like Adam Smith are particularly noticeable.
• It is, for this reason, it is said that the American war of Independence was an economic conflict
between the ideas of mercantilism and free trade and the nature of the American revolution
was mainly economic and the American constitution was an economic document.

TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

World History Class 06

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:13 AM)

Reasons for the American Revolution (9:15 AM)

Disputes related to taxation

• The British parliament considered it to be its sovereign right to impose taxes on the colonies.
 • But this right had been always disliked by the colonists who wanted to be taxed only by their
own representative institutions.
• In this context, they particularly highlighted the lack of their representation in the British
parliament and came to raise the same slogan - No taxation, without representation, which
the British parliament had coined while fighting against the arbitrariness of the British crown.
• Thus, the colonists came to rely upon the British liberal conditions or traditions for seeking
the legitimacy of their struggle against British colonial domination.
• So long as the British parliament used the taxes imposed by it mainly as symbols or tokens of
British sovereignty and did not insist upon their appropriation or realization.
• We find even the colonists quite restrained in their resistance against the Parliamentary
claims.
• But, the 7-year war changed the circumstances when it brought the British government on
the verge of bankruptcy.
• This made the British taxation policies more demanding more exacting and more repressive.
• Now the government insisted upon the appropriation of already imposed and even tried to
impose some new taxes.
• In this context, particularly noticeable is the famous stamp act of 1765 which imposed stamp
duties on all sorts of transactions for their legal validity.
• This provoked the colonists who assembled in Massachusetts (1765) and revived and raised
the same slogan - No taxation without representation against the mother country.
• Even the local government refused to implement or displayed a non-cooperative attitude and
the opposition was so strong that the British government was forced to withdraw the act
along with other taxation acts in the year 1776.
• Only the tax on tea was retained as a mark of the British sovereignty over the colonies but
even this was not tolerable.
• Some radical groups (sons of liberals) organized the famous Boston tea party (1773) in which
the Chests or tea boxes were thrown into the ocean.
• This proved to be the immediate cause of the acceleration of conflicts.
• This was seen by the British government as an open act of rebellion.
• After this event British government adopted an extremely reactionary posture and passed a
series of acts known as the intolerable acts in American history.
• The colonists assembled in a congress known as the first congress of Philadelphia in 1774
and demanded reforms.
• But, the British government proceeded with its reactionary policies forcing the colonists to
contest the royal army, and the first open conflict between the royal army and the
armies/militia of the colonies took place in 1775.
• In the second Philadelphia congress of 1776, the colonists declared their independence
through the famous declaration of American Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson.

7-year war (10:36 AM)

• This created the conditions for the American war of Independence ninth the following ways
-
 • A) It aggravated the financial crisis of the mother country which accentuated the differences
between the parties.
• B) Removal of French danger from America which made the colonists more confident about
their independent political future even without the help of the mother country.
• C) It ensured the French help for the colonists as France wanted to avenge its humiliation in
the treaty of Paris 1763.

The nature of the colonists and the colonies (10:49 AM)

• The colonists had been part of the European civilization and quite often represented the most
radical and ambitious and radical elements who had reached the new world in order to avoid
political and religious persecutions or in search of a better future.
• Thus, they were also more adventurous and ambitious.
• They were familiar with all the major philosophical, and ideological currents that were
emerging as parts of the culture of renaissance and enlightenment.
• Moreover, the colonies were also free from some traditional evils of the old world such as
Royal absolutism or monarchical conventions, feudal social structure and privileges, religious
conflicts, domination of the church, and the prevalence of its superstitious practices.
• The absence of these evils combined with the attitudes of the colonists (migrant population)
provided or created a more conducive or favorable socio-cultural context for the spread of
new ideas and the development of new ambitions (explain on the basis of ideas of
enlightenment).
• For the British reactionary policies toward the colonies at times the personal rule of the British
king is held responsible for who had acquired an upper hand in British political life.
• It is, for this reason, the Parliament could not assert its liberal credentials which in due course
of the time it came to assert in the case of other colonies like Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
and even southern Africa.
• It is for this reason it is also said that the American experiences made England a wiser
colonial master.
• Even after their success, against the mother country, the American colonies decided to stay
together as a union based on the principles of the federation.
• These principles came to be embodied in the famous American constitution, the first written
and modern constitution of the world.
• It is usually observed that the American revolution came to be mainly enshrined in the
American constitution.
• The American constitution is supposed to be a product of both ideological inspirations and
the prevailing circumstances.
• It also displays the limitations and contradictions of modernity having acquired political
rights.
• These tendencies of the American constitution are well evident from the following features
of the American constitution-
• A federation - It is mainly a product of circumstances but has the impact of ideology.
• Double constitution.
• Dual citizenship.
 • Equal representation of the states in the upper house of the legislation called the senate.
• Republicanism - ideological and circumstantial both.
• Secularism.
• Separation of powers.
• Judicial supremacy - circumstantial though not supported by provinces.
• Democracy.
• Presidential form of government.
• Rigidity.
• Bill of rights - fundamental rights.
• Limitations of the American Constitution -
• Rights were given but equality was not accepted despite revolutionary prevalence.
• No adult universal franchise and acceptance of the property, gender, and even racial
qualifications.
• Voting rights only to properties sections, women were not given voting rights and the black
people were not given equal political rights.
• Acceptance of slavery.
• The institution was accepted mainly in the case of the southern states in whose plantation
economy the slave labor was a valuable asset.
• Conclusion -
• Thus, we notice some compromises with the revolutionary promises and pronouncements
and also some departures from the ideological and philosophical positions of the age of
enlightenment for the sake of economic interests and political necessities as demanded by
the circumstances.
• It is for this reason the American constitution has been also described as an economic
document.

TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - FRENCH REVOLUTION.

World History Class 07

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:03 AM)

FRENCH REVOLUTION (9:08 AM)

• Suppose the American revolution created a new world. In that case, the French Revolution is
known for destroying the old system and its evils such as autocracy, aristocratic privileges,
religious orthodoxy, superstitious practices, domination of the Church, etc in the old world
that was Europe.
• French revolution like the American revolution proved to be quite inspiring for modern
transitions not only in Europe but also in the whole world throughout the modern age.
• The French revolutionary slogans and principles have been the guiding principle in most of
the modern constitutional experiments including the Indian constitution.
 • The French revolution also laid the foundation of modern politics and supplied modern
political terminologies for the first time we find the participation of the masses on such a large
scale in politics which even went to the extent of some experiments in direct democracy (role
of the Parisian mob).
• For the first time, we find political propaganda on such a large scale for opinion making and
mobilization through organized political activities by political clubs, pressure groups, and
even the earliest modern political parties.
• In the French revolution, we also notice the use of some modern political terms like bourgeois,
proletariat, left-right-center, etc not only reflecting class identities but also the entire
spectrum of socio-political positions or locations.
• During the French revolution, we also notice the idea of free trade was implemented at the
national level for the first time.
• We also find the earliest extensive experiments in political and administrative decentralization
based on popular participation.

Comparison between the French revolution and the American revolution (10:07 AM)

• The French revolution is usually compared with the American revolution through both
revolutions took place in the general intellectual climate of the enlightenment and
experimented with modern ideas and institutions yet the following differences can be easily
noticed.
• The American revolution represents an instance of decolonization whereas the French
revolution involved internal restructuring.
• The American revolution took the form of an open armed conflict between two armies and so
relied upon violent means.
• Even the French revolution was a violent revolution and came to involve armed conflict with
other European nations.
• But, it also involved internal violence on a large scale which went to the extent of a civil war.
• The American revolution is perceived mainly as an economic revolution but the French
revolution was mainly a socio-political upheaval.
• The American revolution started with a definite goal a declaration of independence.
• But, in the French revolution, the aims and objectives or goals developed along the course of
the revolution.
• In the American revolution, we do notice spontaneous tendencies but they appear to be on
the higher side in the French revolution.
• The American revolution had been an elite military and political affair whereas the French
revolution is particularly known for the participation of the masses.

Causes of the French revolution (11:13 AM)

• The French revolution was a quite complex interplay of different forces and factors which had
been developing not only in France but in the whole of Europe particularly in western Europe.
• At the center of this interplay, we find clashes between the old order and the new attitudes
and ideas associated with the attitudes of the Renaissance and the ideas of the
enlightenment.
 • Some of the important aspects of the revolutionary situation (causes of the revolution) are
mentioned below -
• Social inequalities - this is supposed to be the most important cause of the French revolution
making the slogan of equality the most important slogan of the French revolution which could
not be ignored even by Napoleon and his authoritarian regime.
• The French society had been a feudal society broadly divided into privileged and unprivileged
classes.
• In the first two orders, we find estates constituted by a higher clergy and the nobility.
• They represented a microscopic minority.
• In the second category, we find the third estate, constituting the vast majority of the French
population which also included the emerging middle classes and intellectuals.
• In this class the most noticeably numerically were the peasantry and urban artisans and most
of them have become unemployed for some reason.
• Economic inequality -The first two estates possessed most of the lands and also had a
monopoly on all the offices of the estate and the Church.
• They were exempted from all sorts of taxation and the entire burden of taxation was
shouldered by the third estate.
• This inequality of taxation is supposed to be the most troubling aspect of the French
inequality which not only created a financial crisis for the state but also created obstacles in
the path of its resolution which precipitated the course of the revolution.
• Political inequality - The first two estates were not only exempted from taxation but also
enjoyed the right to impose taxes and thises on the third estate.
• Moreover, in the feudal representative body of the country was known as the estate general.
• All these classes were not equally represented.
• This inequality played a role in precipitating the revolution.
• Social inequality - Inequality of taxation.
• The adamant or orthodox approach of the aristocracy.
• Weaknesses of the French political system - such as corruption, over-centralization,
incompetency of the King, royal extravagance, lack of legal and political uniformity, and on
top of all these things autocratic/despotic rulers.
• Financial crisis - due to extravagance, and overindulgence in wars including the participation
in the American war of Independence.
• We can also consider a faulty taxation system.
• American war of Independence – created conditions for the French revolution in the following
ways.
• The financial crisis aggravated.
• Practical or actual exposure to revolutionary transformations.
• Ideological inspiration.
• Role of philosophers - already covered in a detailed manner.

TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF FRENCH REVOLUTION

World History Class 08

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:26 AM)

French revolution (9:30 AM)

• The above-mentioned evils were most prevalent in the whole of Europe.

• But, the revolution took place in France due to the following reasons -
• Financial crisis - Royal incompetency and over-centralization.
• Rich intellectual traditions- in France based on clubs, coffee houses, salons, etc.
• Relatively free peasants -who had free ambitions, elsewhere the feudal bondage was still
intact.
• Unjustified privileges of the aristocracy - which had lost its roles, but still retained its
privileges and this also made them more vulnerable to popular attacks.

Events (9:50 AM)

• The French revolution started with the summoning of the estate generals by the King after
almost 2 centuries at the insistence of the French aristocracy.
• Things turned revolutionary when the third estate demanded a joint session of all three
estates and voting by individuals and not by orders.
• When these demands were not fulfilled.
• The third estate declared itself to be the national assembly and decided to make a new
constitution and thereby transforming itself into the constituent assembly.
• Soon the King showed a compromising attitude and ordered even the first two estates to join
the constituent assembly.
• The revolutionary changes in France continued for almost 10 years i.e., till 1799 when we find
the rise of Napoleon as the military dictator of France and soon also as the emperor of the
French people (1804).
• During this period, we find the revolutionary changes being shaped or initiated by different
ideological impulses of individuals and institutions which rose to prominence from time to
time during the course of the revolution.
• Apart from the constituent assembly of the national assembly some other agencies of change
were the legislative assembly, the national convention, and the directory i.e., the first republic
in France.
• Even the rise of Napoleon at times is seen as a continuation of the revolution in its European
aspects.
• Refer to handouts for details.

Napoleon (10:56 AM)

• He came to share a very complex relationship with the French Revolution and the
revolutionary ideals.
 • His rise is seen as both the end of the revolution and the extension or continuation of the
revolution.
• He is seen as the product of the revolution of a son of the revolution.
• He is also seen as an heir of the revolution or consolidator of the revolution (I am the
revolution).
• He is also perceived as a destroyer of the revolution (I destroyed the revolution).
• He is seen as a product or son of the revolution because it was the French revolution which
created favourable conditions for his rise to military and political prominence in France and to
become a national hero.
• Napoleon had a very humble origin with Italian ancestry who even wanted to utilize the
troubles of France for securing independence for his Italian island home Corsica at the
beginning of the revolution.
• It was the French revolution and the acceptance of the ideal of equality of man by the
revolution which provided him with the opportunities which he needed for his rise as the
military dictatorship that was capable.
• The French revolution and the revolutionary wars which followed provided him with
opportunities to display his military genius making him a French national hero capable of
satisfying the French need for national glory.
• The French revolution also created a situation of bloodshed violence, chaos, anarchy,
lawlessness, and a sense of disregard for all sorts of authorities.
• This situation made Napoleon a need of the hour who alone seemed capable of establishing
peace and order in society.
• Due to his impartial attitude, he was trusted by all and he was capable of providing security to
all irrespective of political and ideological affiliations of the past.

Napoleon is regarded/seen as an heir/consolidator of the revolution (11:46 AM)

• He himself made an observation that he personified the revolution.

• This perception is based on his capacity to purge the revolution of its revolutionary evils.
• He did not try to reverse the changes in terms of the gains made by the French peasantry by
confiscating the property of the feudal classes.
• Even while making peace with the church (concordant) he did not restore the properties of the
church which had been confiscated by the revolutionaries.
• In his famous law code known as the Code Napoleon, he did not acknowledge the aristocratic
privileges and accepted the principle of equality which had been the most important concern
for the French revolutionaries.
• This law code was introduced not only in France but also in many countries of Europe which
became part of his empire.
• He also accepted the idea of free trade and even started contemplating in terms of all
European entities.

Why Napoleon is considered a destroyer of the Revolution? (12:00 PM)

 • He is considered the destroyer of the revolution because he neither respected the principles of
liberty nor, the principles of nationalism when it came to his approach with the other
European nations.
• He did not respect even the liberties of the French people who were subjected to his
dictatorship and authoritarian rule which was even more rigorous than the rule of the
Bourbon monarchy of France.
• He introduced strict control and regulation of the press, educational institutions and even
artistic and cultural organizations.
• His famous constitution known as the counsellor constitution (1799) was almost single-
handedly made by him and had been accepted to a large extent by the revolutionaries.
• He also restored the centralization of the French political and administrative system which
had been abolished by the French revolution.
• He restored the system of appointments of the local officers by reversing the system of
election which had been introduced by the revolution.

TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF FRENCH REVOLUTION

World History Class 09

Vienna Convention 1915 (01:04:00 PM)

The order of discussion

• Vienna Congress.
• Liberalism.
• Nationalism.
• European Revolution.
• Unification of Italy.
• Unification of Germany.

Vienna Congress (1814-15)

• After the defeat of Napoleon.

• After the defeat of Napoleon, we find an Assembly or congress of the victorious powers such
as Austria, Russia, Prussia, England, etc. at Vienna the Capital of Austria.
• In this Congress, even France was given representation after a regime change.

The Vienna congress had the following objectives

• Establishment of peace in Europe. It had been the general desire of the people of Europe who
had grown tired of the long spell of war, bloodshed, violence, etc.
• Restoration of the prestige of the old order and repairing the damages caused by the
revolutionary ideals which had been quite contiguous.
• To put a check or to contain the spread of revolutionary ideals.
 • To restore the balance of power in Europe which was mostly perceived in terms of territorial
adjustment.
• To redraw the political map of Europe which has been seriously disrupted by the French
revolution and Napoleonic wars.
• To put a check on the power of France.
• In the Vienna Congress, the most important role was played by Metternich the chancellor of
Austria. It is for this reason the world order of the European order created by the Vienna
Congress is also known as the Metternich System/Metternich Order.
• Metternich was not only the chief architect of the new European order but also emerged as the
Chief custodian or guardian of the system and tried to preserve it with the help of the Great
European power giving their guarantees to the Vienna order.
• Thus we find a concert of the European countries legitimizing the Vienna order and
intervening even in the internal affairs of the states to prevent undesirable changes.

The Vienna Congress was guided by the following principles.

• Legitimacy.
• According to this principle, the Vienna Congress accepted the legitimacy of only the old ruling
dynasties of Europe. It did not acknowledge the legitimacy of the rulers and dynasties
installed by Napoleon.
• It did not acknowledge the legitimacy of the rulers and dynasties installed by Napoleon.
• This led to the revival of the Bourbon monarchy in France under Louis VIII.
• Similarly, the Bourbon princes were restored in the southern Italian states such as Naples and
Sicily.
• In the northern Italian states like Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and Romagna the Princes of the
Habsburg dynasty came to be restored.
• The same policy was adopted towards the German states.

Balance of Power (BoP) (2:25:00 PM)

• The Vienna Congress visualize the balance of power mostly in terms of territorial possessions.
• They reached a consensus that no fresh territorial acquisition would be made by any territory
without the consent of the Concert of Europe.
• France was deprived of all the territorial gains made after the outbreak of the revolution but
its pre-revolutionary natural boundaries were respected.
• An attempt was made to encircle France by bigger states. Thus it resulted in the merger of
Belgium and Holland. (Thus Vienna conference neglected the nationalistic aspiration.)
• To achieve this end the Vienna Congress unified Belgium and Holland even against the will of
the people.
• Austria was handed over to the Northern Italian States Venetia and Lombardy to strengthen
its position against France.
• Reward and Punishment: Under this principle, the Victors tried to punish the defeated power
(France and its allies under Napoleon).
 • Denmark was deprived of Norway which was handed over to Sweden. Finland was given to
Russia. Poland witnessed extinction and its territories was divided among Austria, Prussia,
and Russia.
• The Vienna Congress is appreciated in terms of its credential related to the establishment of
peace that lasted for around 50 years without any major breakdown.
• In this context, it is considered more successful than the Paris peace conference almost a
century later after the 1st World War which could not establish peace even for 20 years.
• The Vienna congress is criticized for fulfilling only the short-term desires of the European
people which were related to the establishment of peace and neglecting the long-term
ambitions of the European people which were related to revolutionary transformation.
• Vienna Congress even tried to Suppress the liberal and nationalist aspirations of the time thus
it acquired a reactionary character. It is, for this reason, it is said that the fall of the Vienna
order was inevitable and Metternich was swimming against the current of his time.

Liberalism and Nationalism (03:23:00 PM)

• The first half of the 19th century witnessed a more concrete expression of some new historical
forces such as liberalism and nationalism.
• These forces are seen as the revolutionary forces of the time which came to shape not only the
history of the 19th century but also the history of subsequent phases of world history.
• As these forces are still active as extremely potent historical forces shaping not only the socio-
political discourses but also the day-to-day life experiences of the people across the world.
• Initially these forces together fought against the reactionary regime of the Vienna order but in
due course of the time particularly in the second half of the 19 th With the rise of radical
nationalism we also noticed some conflicts between liberal aspirations and nationalist
sentiments.

Liberalism (03:37:00 PM)

• Liberalism is a multi-dimensional philosophy that informs almost all dimensions/aspects of

life in modern times.
• The political aspect of liberalism is associated with the modern democratic transition with
acknowledgment of the political rights of individuals and insistence upon the principles of
representation and responsibility.
• The economic aspect of liberalism is associated with modern capitalist transformation with
insistence upon the right to property and freedom of enterprise.
• The socio-cultural aspects of liberalism are associated with individualism, feminism, etc.
• Liberalism in the first half of the 19 th century manifested itself in terms of the following
aspiration.
• Constitutionalism.
• Constitutional governments.
• Constitutional Monarchies.
• Republican experiments.
• Separation of Powers.
• Popular sovereignty or sovereignty of the people.
 • Protection and promotion of civil rights.
• Representation and responsibility.
• They wanted elections.
• Internationalism.
• Role of international organizations and their intermediation.
• Self-determination.
• Use of Plebiscites, referendum, opinion polls, etc.

The topic for the next class discussion: Nationalism, Unification of Italy and Germany.

World History Class 10

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:00 AM)

Nationalism (9:12 AM)

• The modern age is the age of nation-states.

• A nation is identified with the people who perceive themselves as one but distinct from
perceived others.
• The idea of nationalism has evolved in modern times mainly on the basis of the following
grounds -
• Geographical units.
• Sense of territoriality.
• Racial identities.
• Cultural identities- region and language.
• Common historical experiences (shared past).
• Common concerns.
• Common aspirations for the future.
• Common economic interest.
• In modern times, the spirit of nationalism has manifested itself in the following ways -
• Empire building and colonial imperialism.
• The disintegration of the empire.
• The emergence of new nation-states.
• Movements for political unification.
• Separatism.
• National movements for liberation (de-colonisation).
• Demands for self-determination.
• Devices like referendums, opinion polls etc.
• Celebration of national heroes and legends and glorification of national cultural traditions.
• Construction of national myths and propaganda.
• Celebration of national festivals and respect for national symbols, flags, and anthems.
• International conflicts including WWI and WWII.
 • Economic rivalries.
• Ideological convergence.

American civil war (10:44 AM)

• The American civil war was fought between the northern states of the American union also
known as the free states and the southern states of the union also known as the slave states.
• It started in the year 1861 and lasted till 1865.
• In this civil war ultimately the northern estates espousing the cause of the Union were led to
victory by the President of the Union Abraham Lincoln who acquired fame as the protector or
preserver of the Union.
• Reasons -
• The immediate cause of the civil war was a decision on the part of the southern states to
secede from the union and founding a new union.
• But this act of secession was not accepted by the northern estates and the newly elected
President of the Union Abraham Lincoln who decided to use the military might of the union for
the preservation of the union supported by the Northern states.
• The American civil war came to involve an issue of an interpretation of the American
constitution.
• The southern states contended that their act of secession is not a violation of the American
constitution which had not contemplated the union as a sovereign entity.
• According to them, the Union was just a device in the nature of agreement or contract among
sovereign states for the fulfilment of some common objectives.
• If these objectives are not fulfilled the states (the constituent units of the Union) had the
sovereign right to move out of the agreement which cannot be seen as a violation of the
constitution or a challenge to the sovereignty of the union which does not exist.
• But this interpretation was not accepted by the northern states and Abraham Lincoln.
• They came up with another explanation of the constitutional accepting union as a sovereign
entity whose violation must be stopped at any cost.
• In fact, Abraham Lincoln made the issue of the protection of the Union the main or chief plank
of his political propaganda and tried to downplay the importance of the issue of slavery in
creating circumstances for the civil war.
• This is evident from his famous observation that my duty is to protect the Union and I will do
so.
• Despite the statement or observation made by Abraham Lincoln to the contrary the issue of
slavery had played a pivotal role in creating the circumstances for the civil war.
• The American constitution at the time of the foundation of the union had accepted the
institution of slavery in the case of southern estates in the light of their specific economic
needs related to their plantation economy.
• But, this acceptance had invited the criticism of the radicals who saw it as a departure from
the ideological positions of the American revolution and a breach of the revolutionary
promises and pronouncements.
• But, this was defended by the pragmatics in the name of serving the economic interests and
need for the formation and preservation of the union.
 • But, with time the acceptance of slavery became more and more intolerable, particularly in
the northern states which came to witness anti-slavery campaigns and the rise of anti-slavery
activists, leaders, organizations, literature, and even political parties.
• One such party was the republican party which had the abolition of slavery as one of its two
major objectives.
• The other objective was the imposition of a protective tariff.
• These agitations and demands gained popularity in the north combined with the extension of
protection by the northern estates to the fugitive slaves created a sense of apprehension on
the part of the southern states regarding their economic prospectus.
• This was particularly disturbing to them because of a sense of optimism on their part related
to their economic future as a result of increasing demands for raw materials, food grains, and
wage goods produced by them as a result of the spread of the industrial revolution.
• Thus the issue of slavery created a sense of detachment.
• The issue of slavery and some other issues like the imposition of the protective tariff became
more contentious due to what is termed as economic sectionalism of the USA.
• In the northern states, there was a predominance of an industrial economy whereas the
southern states were still dependent on plantations in the expanding west a peasant economy
was taking shape.
• The economic interest of these three sections came to diverge and motivated them to have
domination at the centre for the promotion of their interests.
• The abolition of slavery was likely to ensure the supply of cheap labour to their industries.
• But the same move was likely to deprive the southern states of their valuable economic
assets.
• Similarly, the imposition of protective tariffs was beneficial to the northern states in terms of
offering protection to their industries but the same move was likely to have inflationary
pressure for the southern and western sections.
• The controversial issues were kept alive by the westward expansion of America which was
giving birth to new states and whenever a new state emerged the issue of its inclusion into the
union came to be considered the differences between the parties also came to the surface.
• The northern states wanted the inclusion as free states in order to have domination in the
union whereas the southern states wanted their entry as slave states for the same reason.
• All the compromises in agreements between the parties proved to be short-lived or abortive.
• It is in such circumstances the victory of Abraham Lincoln a republic candidate in the
American presidential elections drove the southern states to the point of separation and they
decided to secede or part ways and this led to the civil war.
• During the course of the civil war, slavery was abolished and Abraham Lincoln became famous
not only as a preserver or protector of the Union but also as the liberator of the slaves.
• But it seems that the move was less driven by ideology and more by pragmatism.

TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CAPITALISM, INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, ETC.

World History Class 11

INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LAST CLASS (9:27 AM)

Capitalism (9:31 AM)

• Capitalism represents economic modernity to a large extent which is based on liberal

economic ideas (economic liberalism) propounded or explained by classical economists such
as Adam Smith and David Ricardo.
• After the disintegration of the USSR, we have new enthusiasm and optimism related to the
legitimacy of capitalism leading to the assertion of liberal economic ideas across the world
forming a basis for the modern global economy.
• It is difficult to define capitalism due to its dynamic nature however, as a system of
production and distribution capitalism is characterized by the following tendencies -
• A) Institution of private property and private ownership of the means of production.
• B) Rational decision-making and fulfillment of nationalized self-interest, mostly
conceptualized in form of profit.
• C) Contractual relations.
• D) Economic individualism with its insistence upon the freedom of enterprise.
• E) Non- interference of the state and non-participation of the estate in economic activities.
• F) Free and fair competition.
• G) Industrial mode of production.

Phases of Capitalism (10:19 AM)

• It was Karl Marx who for the first time identified some overlapping phases of capitalists'
transformation which are mentioned below -

Mercantilism and mercantilist phase

• It is characterized by the following developments -

• Expansion of exchange network and commercial revolution.
• Rise of joint stock companies.
• Rise of modern banking and financial institutions.
• Accumulation of primary capital.
• Entry of the merchant capital in manufacturing mainly under the famous putting out system
which involved making advance payments to the artisans by the merchants.
• To ensure regular supplies.
• The transition from a domestic mode of production i.e., artisanal/feudal to factories or
industrial mode of production.

Industrial phase (10:38 AM)

• Refer industrial revolution topic.

Finance phase (10:40 AM)

 • This phase is associated with the increased influence of banking and financial institutions.
• It is also associated with the tremendous expansion of the service sector which is nowadays
also termed a post-industrial phase.
• Apart from the above-mentioned phases, we can also mention the phase of Neo-capitalism or
neo-liberalism which is related to the modern global economy and its dynamics.

Industrial revolution (10:58 AM)

• The industrial revolution refers to the rapid transition from the domestic mode of production
to the factory or industrial mode of production.
• The phenomenon has been the most important phase or even factor of the capitalist
transformation of the modern economy.
• Some of the features of this transition are mentioned below -
• Surplus production and profit orientation.
• Large-scale use of the division of labor leads to specialization and an increase in the
productivity of the labor.
• Conversion of artisans into workers or laborers.
• Replacement of personal labor or family labor by hired labor or wage labor.
• The commodification of labor.
• Replacement of simple tools by complex machinery.
• The technological revolution is an influential and important undercurrent of the Industrial
revolution.
• The exploitation of new sources of energy such as steam, electricity, hydrocarbons, and even
nuclear energy, etc.
• The increasing role of the capitalists and their agents in taking vital decisions.
• Large-scale alienation of the labor from raw materials, tools and machinery and decision
making, family and cultural context.

Industrial revolution in the World (11:26 AM)

• The industrial revolution started in England and was first noticed in the cotton textile sectors
followed by coal-Iron, heavy machinery, modern means of transport and communication
including steam navigation and railways, etc.
• In the first half of the 19th century, we find the spread of the industrial revolution, particularly
after the peace established by the Vienna congress in different countries of western Europe
such as Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, France, and the German states.
• The industrialization of the USA gained momentum in the second half of the 19th century
particularly after the American civil war when attempts were made to eliminate economic
sectionalism.
• Among the Asian countries, Japan was the first one to industrialize itself which followed the
famous Meiji restoration.
• The industrialization of Russia though started in the 2nd half of the 19th century and acquired
momentum only after the famous Bolshevik revolution of 1917 and the foundation of the
USSR in 1922.
 • Of late we notice the rapid industrialization of the countries like South Korea and China
emerging as the new industrial hub of the world.
• In light of its long-term evolutionary nature at times some reservations are expressed
regarding the use of the term revolution to refer to the phenomenon but in the light of a larger
perspective, the developments do seem revolutionary when we take into consideration the
face of development in the pre-modern societies.
• The Industrial Revolution is supposed to be a result of European culture which had been in
making ever since the days of the Renaissance.
• When the Renaissance spirit started to transform the outlook/attitude of the people and some
other developments created favorable circumstances for the industrial revolution.
• The favorable circumstances are -
• (Explain on the basis of the mercantilist phase of capitalism).
• Enlightened ideas.
• Religious reformation and the new morality of Christianity with less emphasis on charitable
activities.
• Life of wealth and luxury.
• Liberalism and nationalism.
• Colonialism.

Industrial revolution in England (12:09 AM)

• The industrial revolution started in England and the early industrialization of England is
explained in terms of some relative advantages on the part of England.
• These advantages were -
• Geographical - away from the European mainland hence relatively less impacted by socio-
political turmoil or upheavals of Europe.
• Heavily indented coastline and so availability of natural ports and harbors.
• Availability of raw materials required in the early days of industrialization such as coal and
Iron.
• Location of the coal and Iron mines adjacent to each other saved transportation costs.
• More favorable climatic conditions for some industries particularly the cotton textile.
• Agricultural revolution - In England industrial revolution was preceded by an agricultural
revolution that did not take place elsewhere.
• This created favorable circumstances for industrialization in the following ways.
• Growth of the internal market for industrial goods due to an increase in agricultural
productivity and purchasing power.
• Supply of raw materials, foodgrains, and wage goods to feed the British industries and the
industrial population.
• Development of infrastructure as the British landlords as landlords started investing in roads,
canals, dams, etc.
• Accumulation of primary capital.
• Growth of entrepreneurship.

TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS - CONTINUATION OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

World History Class 12

World History Class 12

Industrialization Factors (Continued)

• 2). How the agricultural revolution facilitated the industrialization

• Enclosure movement and the supply of reserved labor force for industries
• The enclosure movement (parliamentary enclosures evicted a large no. of peasants from their
lands who migrated to the urban areas)
• 3). Commercial supremacy of England and early accumulation of primary capital
• 4). Vast colonial empire and the utilization of its resources including the resources of India
(Drain of Wealth).
• 5). The naval supremacy of England enabled it to dominate world commerce and establish a
vast empire and exploit the same
• 6). A relatively liberal political system based on the idea of parliamentary supremacy which
showed the ability to accommodate new hopes urges and aspirations
• 7). A progressive social outlook that accepted the importance of wealth earlier than other
countries.

Spread of Industrial revolution (13:17:00)

• In the first half of the 19th century particularly after the peace in Europe was established by
the Vienna congress we find the spread of the industrial revolution in the countries of Western
Europe (Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, German states, some of the Italian states, etc)
• The Industrialization of the countries of western Europe differs from the industrialization of
Europe in the sense that it was accomplished through conscious efforts or deliberate designs
with the role of the state.
• Whereas in England it had been a spontaneous process in which the state did not play any
deliberate role. since these countries had to face challenges of the British industrial
supremacy they had to start from the beginning, they had to start from a relatively advanced
level, which made their Enterprises more capital intensive necessitating the role of the state
in the mobilization of capital.
• These countries not only faced challenges from the British industrial supremacy but also
received some assistance in terms of Capital, Machinery, technology, and even in terms of
organizational principles which were made available to them by England though at a Higher
cost.
• In the second half of the 19th century when the industrialization of western European
countries got impetus/momentum, they started posing threats to the British industrial
supremacy even England started changing its economic policies and departed from the
Doctrine of Free Trade.
 • This context particularly mentions the challenges posed by Germany to England.
• Throughout the 19th century, we find the evolution of new tenets of the political economy
which still can be seen as the guiding principles of the modern nation-states though modified
by the needs of the global economy. some of them are mentioned below
• a). Formation of customs union==>to take advantage of both the idea of free trade for
developing internal market and protective tariffs to face external competition.
• b). Imposition of the protective tariff
• c). Establishment of banking and financial institutions by the national governments and
control of economic activities through monetary policies
• d). Mobilization of national saving ==> through banking and financial institutions.
• e). External borrowings
• f). Development of Infrastructure by the state===> Social and Physical Infrastructure, efforts
for the development of human resources.
• g). Vocational education, Technical education.
• h). Taxation policy is guided by the need for the industrialization
• i). Development of modern means of transport and communication
• j). Manipulation of the Exchange Ratio.

Industrialisation of USA (14:04:00)

• In the industrialization of the USA, special emphasis was placed upon the development of
modern means of transport and communication particularly the railways in order to eliminate
economic sectionalism, there developed a maxim that the railways will create their own
market.

Industrialization of Japan (14:08:00)

• The Industrialization of Japan was a part of a larger program of modernization of Japan that
was undertaken after the famous Meiji Restoration.
• Meiji Restoration - 1867-68 involved the restoration of the powers of the king of Japan who
had been living a Sacred and secluded life.
• Japan had been a Feudal country with its system of Divine Monarchy.
• The Japanese feudal lords had been quite conscious of their self-respect and a sense of pride
in their customs and traditions which also included the institutions like SAMURAI and
practices like HARAKIRI (the practice of suicide after the defeat ), but by the middle of the
19th century the king of japan had lost his position as the real ruler when one of the feudal
families called TOKUGAWA emerged prominent and became the de-facto ruler acting as
SHOGUN, it was in such circumstances that japan came to witness new or fresh interferences
by the western colonial powers led by the USA.
• Japan was forced by the Western colonial powers to open its ports for them, grant
uneconomic trading concessions, allow western trading settlements, and concede extra-
territorial rights.
• These rights led to the day-to-day conflicts between the western colonial powers and the
Japanese feudal lords who came to blame SHOGUN for the misfortune of Japan, they got
 united against him and overthrew him, and restored the power of the king. this event is known
as MEIJI RESTORATION, which is seen as a response to Western Colonial Interference.
• The immediate challenge was to avoid the Clutches of colonialism which could have been
done only by military means. all the nationalists agreed upon the need for militarisation but
differed in their approaches, some favored reliance upon traditions whereas some others
started favoring a policy of Westernisation.
• Militarisation was not possible without economic resources and so a decision was taken in the
favour of speedy industrialization and an extensive program of modernization on the
western lines.
• The Meiji Restoration led to political unity & administrative and legal uniformity, and the
emergence of a centralized bureaucracy that was capable of taking decisions at the center
and implementing the same in a coordinated and effective manner.
• In the industrialization of Japan, we find the use of almost all major tenets of the new political
economy which had been taking shape in the 19th century but we also noticed some unique
characteristics mentioned below.
• a). Special emphasis on the development of human resources in the overall context of the
paucity of natural resources.
• b). Focus upon skill development which was made part of the school curriculum
• c). The role of the state as an entrepreneur which established industries out of its own
resources ensured their profitability, and transferred to the private sector mostly to the feudal
lords, they are called DAIMYOS, who started emerging as Industrial magnets.
• d). Adequate attention to the consumer goods industry and their quality.

Implications of Industrial Revolution (15:13:00)

Implications

• IR facilitated the Capitalist Transition

• Manufacturing ===> industrial mode of production became dominant
• Agriculture===> machinery, Mechanised farming
• Trade ===> exchange network, world trade, global economy
• Technological revolution ==> needs the development of S&T
• New ideologies, new classes ==> liberalism, socialism
• Nature of state==> democracy
• New working activity ==> workers union, urbanization
• Conflicts===> WW I, WW II
• Negative impacts
• IR led to the exploitation of labor
• Income inequality
• Social tension
• Irrational decisions led to ecological imbalances==> climate impact, depletion of resources,
industrial disaster

Socialism (15:22:00)
 • Modern Philosophy, part of humanism, the idea of revolution in which the role of humans is
important, it contradicted the idea of liberalism
• It was adopted by different leaders as per their geography and demography such as Leninism,
Stalinism, Maoism

Impacts of Imperialism and Colonialism (15:53:00)

• Death and destruction

• Domination of civilization and destruction
• Europeanisation of the world
• Development of Euro-centric approaches
• Spread of Christianity
• Colonial system of knowledge
• Racial discrimination

World war I (15:56:00)

Impacts

• Death, Destruction, and Devastation (mental trauma- PTSD) on a large scale.

• Peace activism.
• Greater participation of women.
• Paris peace conference ===> Territorial re-organisation.
• Rise of Nazism, Fascism, the disintegration of the Weimar Republic, and the Revival of the
Japanese military.
• Treaty of Versailles.

The World History Class got Completed.

World History Class 13

[09:33 AM] Revision of the last class

[09:40 AM] Socialism

• This rise and growth of socialism as a modern concept is closely linked with the rise and
growth of modern capitalism particularly the industrial phase of capitalism seen from this
perspective socialism as a theory or doctrine or as a set of theories can be called a product of
the Industrial revolution.
• Broadly, speaking socialism came to stand for socio-economic equalities and the prevention
of the exploitation of the working classes by the capitalist or industrialist.
• The industrial revolution created immense wealth and prosperity but could not insure and
even distribution of the same creating wide differences in the income and living standards.
 • Even the emerging liberal state could not intervene to alleviate the sufferings and miseries of
the working classes exposed to harsh working conditions with long working hours, dangerous
machinery, and very poor living condition mostly in urban slums.
• Thus, Socialism tried to provide solutions to the problems created by capitalism and
industrialization and was proclaimed to be an alternative to both liberalism and capitalism.

[10:24 AM] Utopian Socialist

• The early socialist thinkers first half of the 19th century came to be known as Utopian
Socialists.
• In the later days when they invited criticism from the followers of Marks who proclaimed to
have developed scientific socialism and it is this so-called scientific socialism is called
Marxism.
• The early socialists also came to be known as Romantic Socialists.
• They are called Utopian or Romantic because they came to rely upon humanitarian
sentiments, emotional appeals made to the capitalist and the state both and feel anthropic
measures taken by both the capitalist and the states for an even distribution of wealth and for
prevention of the exploitation of the working classes.
• Some important names were Robert Owen, Saint Simon, Charles Fourier, Babeuf, etc.
• Robert Owen was a British capitalist who is known for establishing an Ideal mill known as New
Lanark Mill in which the workers were given the share of the profits.
• He is also known for establishing the New Harmony Society in North America in which
disputes and conflicts between the workers and the owners.
• Saint Saimen was a french thinker's efficient production but wanted the state to play role in
ensuring equal distribution of the wealth generated by capitalism.
• Charles Fourier criticizes capitalism itself and tries to promote the idea of social workshops.
• Babeuf who had been active during the french revolution and whose revolts against the
directory had been suppressed by the Napolian himself advocated the strategy of the control
of the state by the working classes.
• These peoples thus are criticized for ignoring the hedonist nature of the man capitalist nature
of the state and also the loss of historical evolution is known as based on dialectical
materialism.
• The Socialist idea/thought acquired a new dimension or orientation in the second half of the
19th century with the emergence of what is known as scientific socialism or Socialism.
• Karl Marx and his friend Fredric Angeles explained their ideas for the first time in the
communist manifesto published in the year 1848, later on, Marx also wrote The DAS Capital for
the further elaboration of the ideas of scientific socialism and to offer criticism of capitalism.
• Karl Marx accepted the hedonist nature of man and capitalist nature of state the centrality of
economic aspects in life and the idea of class struggle as the primary force behind historical
changes.
• Karl Marx made a prediction for the establishment of socialism as the highest stage of
development after a revolution of the proletariat classes (ex. working Class) against the
Bourgeoisie (Capitalist Classes) overthrowing the capitalist order and capitalist state leading
to the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
 • According to Marx at this stage class struggle and exploitation, would come to end leading to a
classless society free from all sorts of exploitation.
• This society would also be a stateless society.
• In this society means of production would be collectively owned by the society and the profits
would be shared by all.
• In Socialism, the idea of private ownership or private property would lose its relevancy as the
system would ensure a situation in which everyone would be contributing according to his or
her capacity and receiving to the needs.

[11:52 AM] Premises or Critics of Karl Marx

• Marx based his prediction of the establishment of socialism and desirability of socialism on
the basis of his criticism of capitalism for which he relied upon the theory of classical
economists like Adam Smith and regards do.
• It is, for this reason, most of the time most of the elements are accepted even by the capitalist,
and the differences are mostly related to the solutions and less related to the realization of the
problems.
• Marx is considered as the wasteful and inefficient system of production as it is based on greed
which never is satisfied and exploiters and suppresses the labor which is the source of all
wealth and values.
• Marx accepts the labor theory of value propounded by Adam Smith.
• But at the same time, Marx has acknowledged a peculiar quality of labor in the forms of its
capacity to produce a surplus.
• This has formed on the basis of his surplus theory of value, a modification of the labor theory
of value.
• According to Marx the peculiarity of labor is that whenever it is used it produces more than
what it requires for its bare subsistence.
• Surplus thus produced which rightfully belongs to the laborers is wrongfully appropriated by
the capitalist, making capitalism exploitative.
• Marx considered capitalism not only to be a wasteful inefficient and exploitative system but
also a system that is full of contradiction or contradictory tendencies establishing the self-
destructive and self-defeating nature of capitalism.
• This tendency makes the fall of capitalism as inevitable as it was not a sustainable system of
production and distribution.
• Some of the contradictions of capitalism highlighted by Karl Marx are mentioned below-
• 1) The exploitation of labor is the very source of wealth and prosperity the aim of capitalism.
• 2) Capitalism thrives on profit (profit maximization for which it tended to suppress wages in
order to maximize profits.
• 3) When wages have been suppressed the market (purchasing power) is adversely affected
this situation is not conducive to earning profits.
• 4) Profit depends upon the market and the market has a tendency towards saturation (David
Ricardo) with diminishing return making it difficult to earn profit by the capitalist.
• This limitation of capitalism has forced the capitalist countries to rely upon colonial
imperialism resulting in the exploitation of poorer peoples or nations of the world.
 • But the world is a limited place and imperial rivalry among nations can create a situation in
which further expansion of the market would not be possible.

[12:30 PM] Capitalism leads to colonialism

• Capital has the tendency towards what Marx is centralization.

• The capital tends to concentrate on fewer and fewer hands.
• A process that cannot proceed indefinitely.
• Capitalism is also associated with polarisation.
• It is based on cut-throat competition in which the smallest capitalist was in which the smaller
capitalist is overthrown by the bigger ones and so capitalism is not good even for the
capitalist.
• As the marxism prediction of the decline of capitalism and the establishment of socialism
came to be best not only on the limitation and contradiction of capitalism but also his
understanding of history as a series of class struggles based on his idea of dialectical
materialism.

[12:41 PM] Idea of Progress (Optimism)

• Marx made a departure from the theory of dialectic idealism by accepting decentralism as an
economic interest forming the basis for class struggles which is the main driving force of
history.
• Based on this understanding Marx interpreted history as a series of developmental stages
determined by the inherent class struggles of the previous stages.
• Some of the important stages identified by him were the stage of Primitive socialism, slave
societies, feudalism, and capitalism.
• The Class struggle inherited in capitalism will lead to socialism.
• For the establishment of socialism, Marx believed in Internationalism and made an appeal to
the workers of the whole world to be united.

The topic for the next class is Imperialism.

World History Class 14

[09:01 AM] Colonialism and Imperialism

• Pre Modern times in the sense that the conquers could become parts of the conquered
communities and the loyalties were less with the dynasty and more with the national
identities.
• Imperialism and colonialism can't be separated or segregated as both are two sides or flip of
the same coins.
• Together they present the system of domination and exploitation as the colonies by the so-
called Mother countries or Metropolitian countries.
 • In general, the term imperialism is used for the process involved in the building of empires like
wars conquest and Anexxation, political dominion military control, etc. whereas the term
colonialism can be used for the processes related to economic exploitation.
• The use of the term neo-colonialism in recent times particularly the post-colonial era has been
mainly for highlighting the exploitation of developing and underdeveloped countries of the
so-called south by the developed countries of the North in the global economic order mainly
true their domination in the international or global economic order.

[09:46 AM] Phases of Colonialism

• Question: Discuss the factors leading to colonial imperialism in the modern time in what why
colonial imperialism is different from the dynastic imperialism of the pre-modern times.
• Some of the important forces or factors contributing to the circumstances leading to
colonialism are mentioned below:
• The spirit of the renaissance reflects a sense of adventure curiosity materiliasim etc.
• Commercial revolution and the principles of mercantilism.
• the emergence of the nation-state, national identities, and nationalist rivalries including trade
rivalries.
• New scientific discoveries and inventions a particularly related to modern means of transport
in communication and military technology such as gun powder and flintlock guns and infantry
based on regular training or drilling.
• The ideas of enlightenment and a sense of cultural supremacy gave birth to the theories like a
civilizational burden or white men's burden.
• Spread of Christianity.
• The industrial revolution and the need for raw materials wage goods, food grains, etc.
• The industrial revolution also created the need for markets and avenues for surplus capital
investments.

[10:20 AM] Phases

• It was Karl Marx who identify some overlapping phases in the history of colonialism as part of
his analysis of capitalism and the relationship between capitalism and colonialism.
• He linked the major phases of colonialism with the different stages of capitalism.
• In the Indian context, it was the famous economic historian R.C Dutta who is in his famous
work The Economics History of India published at the beginning of the century identified
similar phases in the history of colonialism in India.
• Mercantilist Phase: Exploitation through trade and use of force in trading activities.
• Industrial Phase: colonies as sources of raw materials, food agrarians, wage goods, markets
for the finished product, and avenues for surplus capital investment.
• This phase is also known for the policy of unilateral free trade that Indian goods heavily it is
for this reason Industrial phase is also known as colonialism of the free trade.
• The phase of Finance Capitalism mainly through Surplus capital investment
• Neo-Colonialism, a recent phenomenon.

[10:39 AM] Consequences of the Colonialism

 • The exploitation of the colonies and their wealth and resources for the benefit of the mother
countries provided help in their early industrial transformations.
• In this context, a particularly noticeable example is a drain of wealth from India to England.
• The impoverishment of the native societies and the development of the condition of
underdevelopment and poverty trap.
• Destruction and domination of the native cultures for example the destruction of the ascetic
and Inkars cultures of the Latin of South America.
• Large scale blood shade violence destruction of property of native societies.
• In Industrialisation of the native society due to the decline of their traditional industry and the
absence of modern industry.
• A changing trade pattern of the colonies.
• Agricultural stagnation due to heavy taxation and harsh methods of collection.
• Capitalist transformation of the native societies and their partial modernity.
• Spread of Christianity.
• Europeanisation of the world not only through the spread of European ideas but also through
the spread of European population.
• Large Scale Migrations through the movements of the soldier's laborer especially by the
contractual laborer.
• Development Euro-centric perspective and colonial system of knowledge.
• [11:01 AM] Break [11:23AM]

[11:26 AM] First World War and Second World War

• Both the 1st and 2nd WW have been termed as total wars.
• Before both these wars, the war generally had been localized affairs involving few nations and
affecting few people particularly the soldiers and the ruling classes but the WW areas were
different in the sense that they were fought in almost all parts of the world, in all ecological
system direct or indirect participation of the most of the country of the world and came to
affect whole the population of the world.
• They are considered as total war not only in terms of their spread or their impact but also in
terms of total mobilization of resources of the nation both natural or human for the fulfillment
of the wartime requirements.

[11:36 AM] Causes of the First World War

• Radical Nationalism: The latter half of the 19th-century witnessed further spread of the idea
of nationalism which also started acquiring radical forms with the rise of radical nationalism
we find the scenario of an increased international competition taking even the forms of
tension and conflicts particularly due to clashes of economic interest and imperial interest.
• We also find an increasing demand for new nation-states which came to threatened some
well-established political systems.
• In this context, the most complicated situation developed in the Balkan Peninsula where the
Turkish or Automon Empire was fastly disintegrating creating a situation of political vacuum
which invited the attention of both Austria and Rasa.
• We also notice the emergence of what is known as Pan Slavism led by Serbia.
 • which has ensured his independence from the Turkish rule or the Automon rule.
• Serbia wanted a new nation-state for the slav people inhabiting a large part of both the
Automan and the Austrian Empires.
• The Serbian ambition related to Pan Salivism was not only detrimental to the Automon
empire but also detrimental to the Austrian empire which was the most cosmo political
empire of the time and so also most threaten or vulnerable for nationalistic impulses.
• Austria came to purposive the Serbian as the existential threat and in its opposition to the
Salvia, ambition came to be supported by Germany.
• Serbia's support of Rasa, tension related to the conflict between Serbia and Austria reached a
new height when despite the protest of Serbia and Rasa the newly liberated salv regions of
Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to Austria.
• Serbia wanted this area for a larger Slav state Yugoslavia.
• These conflicts and complications related to concern to national identity, demands new
nation-states, and clashes of imperial interest of the big powers have already created two
Balkan before the 1st WW which are seen as preparatory wars for total war.
• It is in this context that the assassination of Archduke Fraze ferdement and his wife by a
Serbian nationalist at Sarajeo capital proved to be an immediate cause of the War which soon
took as the form of 1st WW.
• Austria served an ultimate to Serbia, Serbia accepted all the demands of Austria except one
which could have compromised its independent status, Germany ensured Austria for its help,
Rasa mobilized its troops, Austria invited Germany invaded Belgium in accorded to France and
thus the war spread initially throughout Europe and the later on even the other parts of the
world.
• Imperial Riverlaries (New Imperialism): activities got executed towards the quarter of the 19th
century of the phenomena which has been termed as new imperialism by Lenin.
• The new imperialism was supposed to be a direct outcome of the progress of the industrial
revolution and consequent economic rivalries among the European nations.
• As part of the new imperialism, the domination of the old established imperial powers such as
England France rasa, etc. came to be challenged by the newly emerged nation of Europe
Germany and Italy, Japan, and the USA outside Europe.
• During this phase colonial activities mostly took the form of what is known as the paper
portion of Africa in the European Conferences though it remained peaceful affairs as the
participation avoided conflict yet we find an increasing atmosphere of International Tension
which at times took the form of even crisis like Morrocan crisis bringing France and Germany
on the verse of the wars.
• As part of the new imperialism, we also find colonial interferences in the far east (China,
Vietnam, etc).

The next class topic is European Conference.

World History Class 15

Conference of Europe (Continued from the last class) (09:02 AM)

• 3. The economic rivalries: In this context, particularly important is the rivalry between England
and Germany. Germany came to emerge as the most serious competitor of England in terms of
its industrialization.
• 4. Naval rivalry between England and Germany: In this context particularly important is the
rivalry related to the making of new battleships known as dreadnoughts which made the old
battleships quite irrelevant.
• 5. Traditional rivalry between Germany and France due to German occupation of some
resource-rich areas of France Alsace and Lorraine. After the German victory in the battle of
Sedan(1871-71).
• It is, for this reason, the main objective of the Bismarckian foreign policy had been to isolate
France in international politics which further created the essence of German hatred among
the French people. In this context, the foreign policy of Bismarck is also held responsible for
creating circumstances for the first world war.
• Bismarck is also known for the system of secret alliances of secret treaties which he developed
as a part of his mastery of realpolitik.
• Such secret treaties in the way Bismarck used them created an atmosphere of mutual distrust
and insecurity in international relations.
• 6. Race for the armament
• 7. Emergence of rival factions European nations that are based on the system of alliances such
as central powers like Germany, Austria, Italy, and triple entente of England, Frane, and Russia

Consequences of first world war (09:40 AM)

• Death, destruction, and devastations on an unprecedented scale.

• New Psychological disorders such as PTSD
• Economic hardships due to inflation, unemployment, disruption of supplies, and diversion of
resources wartime production.
• Changing demographic pattern due to deaths, migrations, and a more favorable gender ratio
for women
• Liberation of women due to increasing participation in public life.
• New scientific inventions and discoveries such as synthetic dye, machine guns, tanks,
airplanes, etc.
• An erosion of belief in science and scientific and technological achievements in the right of
their devastating impacts(changing perception towards science and technology).
• An erosion of faith in the rational nature of man and his capacity to make rational decisions.
• A general pessimistic approach is related to the nature of man and the idea of progress.
• New kind of literature highlighting the wartime sufferings miseries and even ironies
• A general desire for peace and the beginning of peace activists opening new dimensions of
public life.
• Emergence of new international organizations particularly for maintaining peace in the world
such as the league of nations
 • Paris peace conference 1919 and the territorial reorganization of Europe and the world.
• Increasing popularity and acknowledgment of modern ideas such as liberalism, nationalism,
self-determination, etc mainly due to wartime propaganda in order to justify the war efforts.
• A boost to the political activism and nationalistic sentiments in the colonies due to increased
suffering during wartime and heightening of expectations due to wartime proclamations.
• Economic development in colonies particularly in industrialization due to disruption of
supplies from Europe.
• Beginning of the decline of Europe and the boost to the process of decolonization.
• Emergence of new forms of imperial control such as protectorates and mandates.
• Decline of empires like the empire of Germany, the Austrian empire, Turkish and Russian
empire.
• Emergence of new nation-states such as Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, etc.
• Changing nature of governments in countries like Germany with the famous Weimer republic,
Turkey with a secular democracy, Russia with Bolsheviks regime
• Emergence of aggressive political ideas like fascism, Nazism, and the emergence of
authoritarian and totalitarian states under Hitler(Germany), Mussolini(Italy), and even Stalin
in the USSR.

Fascism and Nazism (10:32 AM)

• The term fascism came to be used in general to refer to aggressive political ideas authoritarian
and totalitarian regimes that emerged during the inter-war in the countries like Italy,
Germany, Spain, etc.
• We do not find thinkers or philosophers associated with fascism and its characteristics or
features are constructed on the basis of the observation of the conduct of the fascist regimes
and their leaders.
• It was pioneered in Italy by Mussolini but the ugliest form of fascism developed in Germany
under Hitler which came to be known as Nazism.
• Some of the important characteristics or the features of fascism and Nazism are
mentioned below:
• Radical nationalism
• Racial concept of nationalism(particularly Nazism)
• Belief in the superiority of the Aryan race and the German race capable of ruling the world and
entitled to the first claim on the resources of the world resources (Lebensraum that is living
space).
• Survival of the fittest
• Glorification of the past and discourse related to the decline of the nation.
• Economic self-sufficiency
• Aggressive foreign policy
• Elimination of dissent
• Blind Obedience and dedication to the leader
• One nation, One leader.
• Anti Semitism
Causes of the second world war (WWII) (11:22 AM)

• 1. Failure of the Paris peace conference of 1919: This is mostly perceived in terms of its
neglect of the liberal and nationalist sentiments particularly of the German people as the
newly established liberal regime in form of the Weimer Republic of Germany with its most
advanced constitution of the time was forced to accept the humiliating treaty of Versailles.
• This act of accepting the treaty discredited the German liberals in the eyes of the German
nationalists and so the new regime in due course of time could be easily overthrown by Hitler.
• The Failure of the Paris peace conference can also be seen in terms of the impractical and
forceful nature of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.
• Under the Treaty which was not a product of negotiations but a dictation by the victors,
Germany was solely blamed for the first world war with a war guilt clause.
• IT is for this reason a huge war indemnity came to be imposed on Germany though the
amount was reduced later on still it remained beyond the capacity of Germany to make
regular payments.
• Germany was thorough;y demilitarised and was not allowed to keep more than one lakh
soldiers.
• The Rhineland was completely demilitarized.
• The Ruhr region was given to France as a measure of compensation.
• Such provisions could never be accepted by the German people perceiving the treaty as a
national insult that Hitler acquired popularity mostly by criticizing the treaty and blaming the
liberals for the same.
• He promised to save Germany from such national insult by flouting the provisions of the treaty
• 2. Failure of the league of nations: Which always remained a very weak and ineffective
organization with no military power of its own with no support of the powers of the world
including America which could not become a member of the League despite conceptualizing
the whole idea
• 3. Failure of disarmament
• 4. Revival of the Japanese militarism and the occupation of Manchuria by Japan flouting
the league of nations openly for the first time
• 5. Rise of Hitler in Germany, Mussolini in Italy with their aggressive foreign policies and
radical ideas.
• 6. The Great economic depression disturbed the process of European recovery as US aid was
no longer available.
• It created a situation of hyperinflation in Germany paving the way for the rise of Hitler
• 7. Policy of appeasement by England and France towards Hitler.
• The western liberal countries wanted to use Hitler and his might against the socialist USSR.
• IT is for this reason, they tolerated some aggressive acts of Hitler such as his annexation of
Czechoslovakia, the Munich conference(traces of the cold war).
• 8. Invaiosn on Poland by Hitler which proved to be the immediate cause of the second world
war.

Consequences of the second world war (11:46 AM)

 • Decline of Europe
• Rise of two superpowers USSR and USA and creation of a bipolar world
• Beginning of the cold war between the capitalist block and Western block and the Socialist
and Eastern block
• Decolonization and the rise of the third world and movements like NAM.
• Division of Europe: Eastern under socialist influence and Western under the capitalist
influence.
• Division of Germany and Berlin on the same pattern.
• Emergence of international organizations such as UNO, World Bank, WTO(GATTS), IMF, etc.

Russian Revolution (discussed through handout)(11:56 AM)

• Permeation of Western ideal of liberalism and socialism

• Political activities with political parties of both liberal and social nature.
• Modern literature of both liberal and socialist thinkers and authors.
• Beginning of industrialization and
• Land hungry peasants after the abolition of serfdom in 1861

Note- Syllabus of World History is completed.