Text Book of Allied Chemistry Fext Book of Allied INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Chapter - 1 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY Introduction . ; John Dalton in 1809 developed his famous theory of atoms. He regarded atom as hard, dense and the smallest indivisible particle of matter. However, some experiments, conducted towards the end of the nineteenth century, as given in the following table 2 S.No.) Year Name of the Name of the scientist * discovery 1) |1895 X-rays Roentgen 2) |1896 Radioactivity . |Bacquerrel 3) |1897 Electron J.J. Thomson 4) |1898 Radium Mary Curie revealed the presence of negatively and positively charged particles and the emission of small charged particles from radioactive elements.. These observations are sufficient to state that atem is: divisible and consists of much smaller fundamental particles. Later, these fundamental particles are found to be - (i) electron, ¢ (ii) proton, p (iii) neutron, n Electron .is negatively charged particle while proton is positively charged particle. But, neutron is neutral, i-e., without any charge.2 TNSCHE Syllabus The charge of an electron and that of a Proton is equal in magnitude. Since, an atom is neutral, the number of electrons should be equal to the number of protons. All the protons and neutrons of the atom are present in the nucleus. The volume of nucleus is much smaller than that of an atom Hence, most’ of the space is an atom is vacant. Electrons are revolving in these vacant space of an atom. The mass of a proton is almost equal to that of a neutron But, the mass of an electron is’ very small ic,, it is 1835 times smaller than that of a proton or.a neutron. Hence, the mass of an atom is the sum total of number of protons and number of neutrons present in an atom. 5 Apart from these three fundamental particles, the following particles or nucleons are also present in an atom. (i) positron (ii) neutrino (iii) photon (iv) graviton (v) meson (vi) V-particle Among them, neutrino, photon and graviton do not have mass and are regarded as energy particles. Many experiments conducted on neutrino, meson and V-particle revealed that they are unstable. There are more than twenty other particles found in an atom. These are all derivatives of fundamental particles and they ‘do not reside in the nucleus of the atom: These particles are formed during the conversion of energy into mass as per Einstein equation (E = mc‘). Isotopes 4 Definition Isotopes are different kinds of atonis of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass numbers. As isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number, i.¢., the number of protons inside the nucleus (or nuclear charge) and the number of extra nuclear electrons are identical. Therefore, the difference in masses is due to different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. ‘The atomic mass of each type is nearly a whole number. In the following table, the details of different isotopes are given. :Text Book of Allied Chemistry __ Table - 1 Isotopes Name of the Isotope | Mass No. | No. No. number | protons | electrons | neutrons Protium (H) 1 1: 1 0 Deuterium (D) 2 1 1 1 Tritum (1) 3 1 1 2 Oxygen O18 | 16 8 8 8 0!” 17 8 8 9 o's 18 8 - 8 10 Lead p24 204 82 82 122 Pb206 206 82 82 124 — ~ Pp207 207 82 82 125 p28 208 82 82 126 Uranium U25 235 92 92 143 238 238 92 92 146 —__— It is customery to represent each isotope by its appropriate symbol and writing down its mass number at the right upper end and atomic number at its lower left end. 12 13 14 — Mass number co; €¢ ; ¢ 7 6 6 6 — Atomic number 35 37, 63 65. 1 7? & yxCP7 5 yoCu®? & yo Cu; HS HP & HP Isobars ” Definition Isobars are atoms of different elements having the same mass number but different atomic numbers.4 TNSCHE Syllabus For example, argon, potassium and calcium have atoms of same mass number 40. But their atomic numbers are 18, 19 and 20 respectively. As isobars have different atomic numbers, the number of protons inside their nucleus (or nuclear charge) and the number of extranuclear electrons are different. This is exemplified in the following table. Table - 2 lsobars No.| Name of the Mass No.’ No. No. element number | protons jelectrons|neutrons 1) |Argon 40 18 18 22 2) |Potassium 40 19 19 21 3) |Calcium . 40 20 20 20 Since isobars are of different elements, their physical and chemical properties are different. Other examples (i) 4,Ge”” & Se Gg HT, ght Os. gBEl 1a por IsotonesY Definition Atoms having equal number of neutrons in their nucleus but differing in mass numbers are termed as isotones. The difference in mass numbers is duc to the difference in the number of protons in the nucleus. Examples i) Isotones with 8 neutrons 15 16 NP & 40Text Book of Allied Chemistry 5 ii) Isotones with 16 neutrons 330. 31 82 Sis yh & 68 evidently are of different elements having and different physical and 14 These atoms, entirely different atomic structure chemical properties. Nuclear isomers Definition The nucleides, having same atomic number and mass number with different nuclear properties, are called nuclear isomers. The nuclear properties may include nuclear disintegration, energy, magnetic moments etc. 80m 80g 35Br & ,.Br Here, m represents meta stable state and g stands ‘for ground state. : . The high energy nucleide is the meta stable isomer. It is radioactive and emits y - rays. : Examples : Other examples : (i) Co ™ & Co 8 27 27 (i) Uranium-A_ & =Uranium-Z Table - 3 - Comparison of isobars, isotopes, isotones and isomers. No.| Name | Atomic | Mass No Examples number | number |neutrons 1) |Isotope |same differs differs |@p>5 g cp? 2) |Isobar differs |same same 40 ~ 40 ight & 4K 3) |Isotone |differs {differs _|same “cl4 15 I co & N 80 . 60 Br"; 47Co 4) |Isomer |same same same : 356 TNSCHE Syllabus M v lagic numbers . We know that atoms with an even number of nucleons in their nuclei are more abundant in nature than those with an odd number. This indicates that a nucleus made up of paired nucleons is more stable than a nucleus with an odd nucleon. From a study of the electronic configuration of elements, we find that neutral atoms containing a total of 2, 10, 18, 36; 54 and 86 extranuclear electrons (noble gases) are remarkably stable. They are so:inert that they do not undergo chemical reactions. Similarly, for nuclei, it is found that those with 2,8,20,50,82 and 126 nucleons of the same kind are very stable. These numbers are called magic numbers. These numbers appear to be the required number of nucleons to complete the energy levels (shells) in the nuclei. : Various Rays from radioactive materials ~ The nature of the radioactive rays emitted by radioactive elements was investigated by Rutherford in 1904. By passing them through a strong electric field, he separated them into three kinds - i) The rays which are deflected towards the negative plate are positively charged and are known as alpha rays or alpha particles. They consist merely of helium-nuclei. ii) The rays which are deflected towards the positive plate are called beta rays or beta particles. They consist merely of electrons. iii) The third type of rays which are not deflected at all even in the strongest electric or magnetic field are neutral and are known as gamma rays. , The various properties of these rays are summarised in the following table.Text Book of Allied Chemistry 7 Table - 4 a, B and y-rays — @ - rays B - rays Y - rays 4 units negligible Ino mass . mass 2) |Nature like helium|like electron |electromagne nuclei tic radiation 3) |Charge 2 units ofjone unit ofjneutral positive negative \ _ |charge charge 4) |Velocity in + times same '-lsame comparison : with light 5) |Penetrating —|low © {high very high power 6) |Ionisation _ of|Ionise less ionisation |do not ionise gas molecules 7) |In__ electrical|deflect deflect do not deflect and magnetic . : fields 8) |Luminescence |possible not possible not possible with ZnS plate 9) |Photographic affect do not affect |do not affect plate ? Soddy Fajan group displacement law ~~ We know that an alpha particle is a helium nucleus of mass number 4 (2p and 2n). The emission of an alpha particle from a radioactive clement causes the mass number to decrease by 4. Further, since 2 protons have been lost, the atomic number falls by 2. The daughter element therefore moves two places i.e., two groups, to the left of the periodic table.8 TNSCHE Syllabus The beta particle is an electron. It is emitted from the nucleus, But there are no electrons in the nucleus. Its origin is uncertain, It is postulated that a neutron changes into a proton and an electron, The electron is emitted as beta particle leaving behind the proton, The number of protons in the nucleus, therefore, increases by one, In other words, the: positive charge on the nucleus or atomic number increases by one unit. The new element, therefore, moves one place, i.e., one group, towards the right of the periodic table. The above changes are usually stated as — The emission of an alpha particle results in the formation of an element which has two places in the left and the expulsion of a beta particle results in the formation of an element which lies one place to the right in the periodic table, This is known as the group displacement law of Soddy and Fajan (1913). Illustration @ ggPo? isotope emits an alpha particle. From this we can predict the position of its daughter element. The daughtér element will be placed 2 groups left to the element, Po. ic., g2Pb and the mass ‘number of Pb is 235-4 = 231. . P2385 231 ie., g4Po! —>. g2Pb’ (ii) gh? | emits a beta particle. The position of the daughter element as per the law will be one group right to Pb ic., * g3Bi The mass number of its daughter element will be 231- 0 = 231, . 231 ri B 3231 ie, goPb 335i (iii) Further, ,,Bi?>! emits a beta particle. F 231 BS 231 » Le, g3Bi ——>. g4Po"Text Book of Allied Chemistry 2, . From the above illustrations, it is clear that whenever an element emits one alpha particle and two ‘beta particles in succession, the daughter element formed will be an isotope of the parent clement. : 235 7 a1 8 31 7B 231 Le., gqPo —_ gPb —>, 335! — gqPo" Other example is B -B - -a 238 238 238 u34 oJ" —> 93Np > ggPu Rog) SOLVED PROBLEMS 1) 7 Calculate the number of alpha particles and beta particles emitted in the transf..:mation. 238 2 —— » Solution owe know that, an « - particle is sHe! and a beta particle is e ' Let us assume that the number of alpha particles and beta particles emitted in the process are a and b respectively. gl? ——> Pb +a Hel + b_0° Comparing mass numbers, 238 206 + 4a 4a 238 - 206 = a = 32+4 = 8 Comparing atomic numbers, 32 92 = 82+2a-b 2a-b = 10 b= 2-10=16-l0=6 ~ The number of o - particles emitted = 8 B - particles emitted = 6.10 TINSCHE Syllabus eee awa; 4 go Th? « emits two alpha particles and six beta Particles. What are the atomic number and mass n number of the daughter element? Solution We know that an alpha particle is He! and a beta particle is! e Let the daughter element be ax? From the data, 232 b 4 0 go Zh’ —— xX +2 He’ +6 ae Comparing mass. numbers, 232 = b+8~ b = 224 Comparing atomic numbers, 90 = a+4-6 a 90+2 = 92 -. The daughter element is 9 X224 ie, 94 - EXERCISES 1) How many alpha particles and beta ‘particles are emitted during Th? goPb? transformation? ; (Ans : 6a; 48) 2) Calculate the number of alpha particles and beta particles emitted in the transformation o3Npo” — 3B” (Ans: 7a; 48) 3) Uae emits seven alpha particles and six beta particles. What is the daughter element? (Ans : ¢, {poy11 4) Radioactive element gc” cmits 5 alpha particles and 3 beta particles. Predict the daughter element. _ . . (Ans : g)Pb™") Text Book of Allied Chemistry 227 5) Calculate the number of neutrons present after an alpha i issi 238 (Ans : 142) Particle emission from ),Pu'~". Differences between Chemical reactions and Nuclear reactions. . In ordinary chemical reactions, the nuclei of the atoms taking part ina chemical reaction, remain unaffected. Only the electrons in the extra-nuclear portion of atoms take part in. the chemical process. However, during disintegration of atoms (naturally or artificially), the nuclei of atoms are affected resulting in the formation of new nuclei. Such reactions in which the nuclei of the, atoms interact with other nuclei or lighter particles or photons resulting in the formation of new nuclei and one or more lighter Particles are called nuclear reactions. Table - 5 Chemical reactions x Nuclear reactions Chemical reactions Nuclear reactions 2) These reactions involve some loss, gain or overlap of outer orbital electrons of _ the reactant atoms. These reactions _ involve emission of a,-B and y - particles from the nucleus. ‘A chemical reaction . is balanced in terms of mass only. This reaction is balanced in terms of both mass and energy. 3) The energy changes in any chemical reaction is very much less when compared ‘The energy changes are far exceed than the nergy changes in chemical with nuclear reaction. reactions.12 4) TNSCHE Syllabus ——>——— as In chemical reactions,. the energy is expressed in terms of kJ/mole. In nuclear reactions, the energy involved is expresseq in’ MeV per individual nucleus. 5) | 6) No new clement is produced since nucleus is unaffected. The nucleus does not take part in the chemical reaction. New clement/isotope may be produced during the reaction, The nucleus takes part in the nuclear reaction. 2 These reactions are usually Teversible in nature. . These reactions. are irreversible 3) |-9) Both pressure temperature affect Teactions. and these Conservation of mass: -is involved: in these reactions. These reactions. are not affected by pressure and temperature. : Conservation of mass is not applicable. Nuclear stability (i) stable nucleides of N/P ratio. Definition Based on nuclear stability, the nucleides can be classified into — (ii) unstable nucleides The stability of any nucleides can be’judged from the study The ratio between the number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom and the number of protons also present in the same nucleus is called the N/P ratio. It is believed that the stability of an isotope depends upon the number of neutrons and protons present in its nucleus. If the * number of protons (P) present in the nucleus is plotted against the number of neutrons (N) present, we find that the stable nuclei lie within the dotted area shown in the following figure which is known as zone of stability (Z.S).Text Book of Allied Chemistry 8 Iz~> 5 5 NIP ratio It has been found that nuclei whose N/P ratio lies outside the zone of stability are unstable and therefore, undergo spontaneous tadioactive disintegration. From the figure we find that — i) For nuclei with atomic number 20 or less, the N/P ratio is almost equal to 1. They are stable ii) As the nuclear charge exceeds 20, the N/P ratio is more than 1 ie., the number of neutrons are more than that of protons. This is because, with an increase in the number of protons, the force of repulsion between them becomes more. This tends to make the nucleus unstable. The forces of repulsion can be minimised to some extent if the number of neutrons increases. Thus, the ratio N/P increases upto 1.6. Above this value, the nuclei become so large that they disintegrate or become radioactive. iii) If the N/P ratio is too high i.c., above the zone of stability, the isotope would be unstable. It will emit a B-parti¢le i.¢., an clectron. In this way a neutron changes into a proton and its N/P ratio decreases and comes closer to the zone of JS stability. Types of nuclear reactions _f 1) Spallation reaction These are the reactions in which high speed projectile like helium may chip a heavy nucleus into several fragrients. f‘i TNSCHE Syllabus agCu®® + gHet + 400 MeV —> CP’ + 14 jH! + 16 gn 2) Nuclear fission reaction It is the process in which a heavy nucleus breakes up into two lighter nuclei of almost equal size with the release of an enormous amount of energy. : This was first observed by. German chemists Otto Hahn, Strassman and Meitner by bombarding U-235 with slow moving neutrons. The process is usually accompanied by emission of neutrons, The nuclear fission has been produced in heavy nuclei such as Th-232 ; U-235 ; Pu-239 by neutrons, protons, deuterons. Mechanism of fission In the fission process, the heavy nucleus absorbs a ‘neutron and forms an unstable compound nucleus. This later breaks up more or less in the middle to give fission products. A typical example: of the fission process, in the fission of uranium by neutrons, is shown below as . Enormous energy released OF (Unstable) O Fission products. (Iwo smaller Nuclei and three neutrons.) Mechanism of Nuclear Fission (23: gl + gn! ——> Ball 4 Ky 4 3 on! + 200 MeV Further, the 3 neutrons released from the fission of first uranium atom can hit three other uranium atoms. In this way, a chain reaction is sct up resulting into liberation of an enormous amount of energy. In the case of nuclear fission, the compound nucleus U-236 breaks up in several ways like —Text Book of Allied Chemistry : a 144 90 1 U~235 + gn! + U-236 gsC8 + y7Rb + 2 gn 5 | Ne + est + 2qn This fission process is self multiplying process and hence-a tremendous amount of energy is released in a very short interval of time. Atom bomb is based on nuclear fission: process. v3) Nuclear fusion reaction When lighter nuclei moving at a high speed are fused together to form a heavy nucleus, the process is called nuclear fusion. In fusion reaction, the mass of heavier nucleus formed is less than the total mass of two lighter nuclei. Thus, the source of energy in the fusion reaction is also the disappearance of mass, which gets converted into energy. ; Nuclear fusion reaction takes place at very high temperature of about 10° K. Therefore, this reaction is called thermonuclear reaction. we we 4 1 }H + —— He’ + on + 17.6 MeV The mass loss, is 0.018 amu and the corresponding energy released is 1.8.x 10° kJ/mol. Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusiori reaction. Differences between fission and fusion reactions are given in the following table.16 Table - TNSCHE Syllabus 6 Differences between fission and fusion reactions No. Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion 1) It is the process of breaking a heavier nucleus. It is the process | 2) It emits radioactive rays. of] combination of lighter nuclei, It does not emit any kind of radioactive rays. _| 3) The mass number and atomic number of new elements are lower than that of parent! nucleus. The mass number and atomic number of product is higher! than that of starting elements, 4) It gives rise to chain reaction. It does not give rise to chain Teaction. 5) It emits neutrons. It emits positrons. 6) Tt — occurs temperature. at ordinary’ Tt occurs at high temperature (10° K) yD It can be controlled. It cannot be controlled. 8) It emits. less energy than fusion reaction. It emits more energy than fission reaction. 9) Storing of energy is difficult. Energy storage is possible. 10) Atom bomb .is based on fission reaction. Hydrogen bomb is based on fusion reaction. — Radioactive series Most of the natural radioactive elements of higher atomic numbers exist in nature as a number of radioactive isotopes. All these isotopes belong to definite chains of successive decays. There are four radioactive families or scrics. They are — uranium (4n + 2) scries thorium (4n) series actinium. (4n + 3) series neptunium (4n + 1) series1 Text Book of Allied Chemistry 1 en The first two radioactive scrics have been named after a prominent member in cach decay series. The thorium series is also referred to as 4n series because the mass numbers ce its members are divisible by 4. The uranium series is known as (4n + 2) series because its mass number is divisible by 4 with a remainder 2. The actinium series is known as (4n + 3) series as its mass number is divisible by 4 with a remainder of 3. The first three series have close similarities. Their modes of decay are also similar. The ultimate product in each series is a stable isotope of lead. : The series containing members whose masses are divisible by 4 with a remainder of 1. ie., (4n + 1) series could not.be found in nature. The most ‘acceptable explanation for the absence of this series in nature was that no member of this series was sufficiently long lived. This is a man made, artificial series. The (4n+1) series differs in several respects from the naturally occurring radioactive series. They are’as follows. 1)’ The end product in the (4n+1) series is the stable isotope of bismuth, namely Bi-209 whereas the end products of other three series are stable isotopes of lead. 2) The only member of the series to be found in nature is the stable end product, Bi-209. 3) This series contains no gascous emanations as in the case of other three natural series. 4) The (4n+1) series contains isotopes of francium and astatine as direct and successive members of the decay chain. The clements appear only as: minor branched disintegration products in the natural scries. 5) Branched disintegration appears more frequently in the natural radioactive series than in the neptunium series. Various details of radioactive Series are given in the following table.TNSCHE Syttay,, 20 7 -10 10, _ 149% 10 vey “149x100 J = 2 * 1,602 x 10°3 = 931.5. MeV . 2 Lamu = 931.5 MeV /‘uass DEFECT J Definition The difference between expected mass of an atom of an element (i.c., calculated from the number ¢f protons, neutrons and electrons and their respective aécurate masses} aid the actual mass is known as the mass defect. Explanation . : Based on the physical atomic weight scale in which the mass of the O!° atom is taken as the standard, the mass of proton is 1.00728 amu the mass of neutron is 1.00867 amu the mass of electron is 0.000549 amu ~ So, we can calculate accurately the mass of an atom knowing the number of protons, neutrons and electrons present in it. For example, the helium atom contains 2 electrons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Hence, its. mass should be (2 x 0.000549) + (2 x 1.00728) + (2 x 1.00867) = 4.033 amu. But actually the mass of the helium atom is 4.0039 amu.. The difference between these two masses is, 4.033 — 4.0039 = 0.0291 ° amu, and this difference is called mass defect. V Binding energy (BE) Definition The energy released when a given number of protons and. neutrons coalesce to form a nucleus. It can also be defined as , i the energy required to disrupt 4 nucleus into its constituent Protons and neutrons,Text Book of Allied Chemist Binding cnergics increase progressively with atomic mass and are fairely constant except for the very light clements. . If we plot the binding energy per nucleon against the mass number we obtain a graph as shown in the following figure. B.E (MeV) Mass number (A) Binding Energy From the graph the following observations can be made — 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) In the mass number range between 25 and 140, the binding energy per particle is nearly constant and it. is "approximately equal to 8.5 MeV / nucleon. Nuclei with both small and large mass numbers have . smaller binding energy per particle. So, these nuclei are less stable. For nuclei with small mass numbers considerable irregularities occur. i.c., the curve raises abruptly. The value of 8.5 McV / nucleon, seems to be an average: for a wide range of nuclei: and it represents a saturation.of binding energy forces. Beginning with the lighter nuclei as the mass increases, the average binding energy per nucleon also increases because of surface arca : volume ratio decreases. This cffect may be compared with the surface tension of liquids. The binding energy per particle for nuclei wih large masses is small. This is because of the repulsion between large number of protons. Hence, they are less stable than those with average masses.22 TNSCHE Syllayus SOLVED PROBLEMS 1) Calculate the mass defect | and binding energy per nucleon for 6C* You are given i) mass of a proton 1.00840 amu ii) mass of a neutron 1.00894 amu iti) actual mass of C is 12.0038 amu ' Solution (i) Calculation of mass defect The number of protons present in ec is 6. The number of neutrons present in Cc is, p- 6=6. The calculated mass number of cr? = 6(1.00840). + 6(1.00894) = 12.10404 amu Actual mass ‘of ice = 12,00380 amu Mass defect = 0.10024 amu (ii) Calculation of binding energy We know that, ] amu = 931.5 MeV <. 0.10024 amu = 931.5 x 0.10024 MeV : "= 9337 MeV The number of nucleons present in ac? is (6p + 6n) = 12. Binding energy / nucleon = oe MeV 7.78 MeV 2 Calculate the energy released in MeV when 0.005 g of mass is annihilated.Text Book of Allied Chemistry 23 Solution Mass defect= 0.005 g = 0:005 No amu = 0.005 x 6.02 x 10? amu = 3.0115 x 107! amu lamu = 931.5 MeV 2 3.0115 x 10! amu = 931.5 3.0115 x 10! MeV = 28x 1074 MeV .| EXERCISES 1). The actual mass of ge! is 4.319 amu and its calculated mass is 4.0015 amu. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of helium atom. (Ans : 7.08 MeV) 2) The mass of a proton = 1.0078 amu The mass of a neutron = 1.0087 amu and 1 amu = 931 MeV. Using these values, calculate the binding energy per nucleon of i) agNi® with actual mass 63.948 amu - ii), ,AP7 with actual mass 26.98 amu, S (Ans : (i) 8.5 MeV (ii) 8.33 MeV) Radiocarbon dating This method was developed by Willard and Libby to determine the age of wood and animal fossils. This method is based on the fact that the radioactive isotope of carbon, scl4 is formed in the upper atmosphere. by reaction with neutrons (from cosmic rays) in the following way : 4 1 14 1 qNo + gn ——> 4 + }H The ec’ atoms thus produced are rapidly oxidised to co, which in tum is incorporated in plants as result of. photosynthesis. Animals consume ca by eating plants. On death;24 aNecre Syllabus organisms cease to take in fresh carbonation. Hence, Cc beging 7 to decay in the following way - 14 14 6 — ~N'+_e In 5700 years a fossil (plant or animal) will lose half the amount of C! present in its living state. Therefore, by knowing cither the amount of C!4 or the number of B - particles emitted per minute per gram of carbon at the initial and final stages, the age of carbon material can be determined by the following equation, 2303 tly |), Amount of Cin fiesh wood_ 0.693 . Amount of C!4 in the dead wood’ Here, t = age of the fossil (plant or animal) tyy = half life period of C!4= 5700 years Uses of radiocarbon dating i) This method has proved to be a great tool for correlating facts of historical importance. ii) It.is very uscful in understanding the evolution of life and rise and fall of civilisations. SOLVED PROBLEMS )) Wooden artifact and freshly cut tree are having 17.5 and 35.0 counts ming of carbon respectively. Calculate the age of the artifact. The t\4 of c!4 is 5, 700 ) years. Solution ; 2.303 ty ; 145 , Age of the artifact = ae loy Amount of Cin fresh wood . Amount of C™ in the old wood _ 2303x5700 |, 35.0 0.693 8 175 Yous _ 2.303 x 5700 log 2 = 0.693 yearsText Book of 25 cars = 5700 years 5700 years Age of the artifact i 2) The 6c and cu ratio in a piece of wood is 7 part that of atmosphere. Calculate the age of the wood. ty, fi c"4 is 5700 years. Solution 2.303 ty Amount of cl in atmosphere Age of th d, = lo; imma 0.693 Amountof C4 in the wood Amount of C!4 in atmosphere _ 16 Amountof C4 in the wood i : 2:303 x 5700 16 met 0.693 log y years 2.303 x 5700 x 1.2041 0.693 22800 years Age of the wood EXERCISES 1) Freshly cut 1 kg wood emits 16,000 B - rays in a minute. The old wooden statue of 1 kg emits 13200 B - ays ina minute, Calculate the age of the statue. ts of C'4 is 5700 years. (Ans : 1600 years) 2) The percentage of C4.in an old wood piece is found Ly re 15%. Calculate the age of old wood picce. t!s of C! 5,700 years. (Ans : 15600 years) Rock Dating We know that the ultimate product of disintegration of uranium - 238 is stable,. Pb-206. By the use of a mass26 TNSCHE Syllabug TC 8? RRO Spectrograph, it is possible to determine the ratio of the amount o¢ Uranium to lead in a given rock. Knowing the overall rate of disintegration of uranium to Icad, it is possible to calculate the age of the mincral / rock. Thus, the age of the rock is determineg using the equation, . 2.303 t 206 t= 44 log [ + De 0.693 where, t =" age of the rock ty = half life period of U238 = 45x10? years Pp = amount of Pb?% present in the sample (moles) Go = amount of U8 present in the sample (moles) SOLVED PROBLEMS 1). The ratio of the mass of Pb-206 to that of U-238 in a certain rock specimen is found to be.0.5. Assuming that the rock originally contained no. lead, estimate the age. Half life period of U-238 is 4.5 x10? years. Solution . The age of the rock is given by _ 2303 ty, Pb- 206) t= 0.693 log (! + U nase | Yous Here, ty = 45x 10° years Pb-206 _ 9s U~238 ‘ 2.303 x 4.5 x 10° t= 0693. log (1+0.5) years 2,303 x 4.5 x 10° 0693. log 1.5 years -\27 istry seed oe ieee SS Text Book of Allied Cher = 2303 x 4.5 x 10° x 0.176) = 0.693 ee Age of the rock = 2.63 x 10° years EXERCISES 1) A sample of uranium ore is found to contain 11.9 g of U-238 and 10.3 g of Pb-206. Calculate the age of the ore. Half life period of uranium is 4.5 x 10° years. (Ans : 4.5 x 10° years) 2) Assuming that a rock contains equal amount of Pb-206 and U-238, calculate the age of the rock. Half life-period of uranium is 4.5 x 10° years. . (Ans : 5x 10° years) Applications of radio isotopes in medicine Radio isotopes are used in the medical field to diagnose and cure -various diseases. The following table gives the details of different isotopes and their medicinal applications. Table - 8 Applications of radio isotopes in medicine Isotope Application 1) |Tritium.- we Measurement of water content of the body 2) |Carbon-11, C!! [Brain scan i 3) |Carbon-14, cl Radio immunology 4) |Sodium-24, Na” Location of blood clots S p2 5) |Phosphorus-32, Detection of eye tumours 6) |Iron-59, Fe? Cobalt-60, Co”28 TNSCHE Syllabus ——— 8) |Strontium-90, Sr? "|Bone scan 9) |lodine-131, 131 Hyperthyroidism 10) |Gold-198, Au!8 | Curing of cancer J) Mercury-197, Hg!” Kidney scan 12 239 Plutonium-239, Pu’~” |Bone scan Atom bomb Atom bomb contains. two fissionable materials, U-235 or Pu-239. A mass of trinitrotoluene (TNT) is placed in a separate pocket. When TNT is detonated, it drives one mass of U-235.into the other. Because of this, another fissionable material is obtained, Hence, an uncontrolled chain reaction takes place resulting in a very high explosion with the release.of enormous amount of energy. The explosion produced is much greater than that of the. most powerful TNT bomb. su + om —>, ‘Balt? + ak? +3 om + 200 MeV. The first atom bomb used in Hiroshima (Japan) on 6-8-1945 utilised U-235 as the main reacting substance and second bomb in Nagasaki on 9-8-1945 made use of Pu-239. The fission in both the casesis similar and uncontrolled. Enormousamountofenergy equal to that produced by 20,000 tons of TNT is produced accompanied byheat, light and radioactive radiations. Hydrogen bomb The highly destructive hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion reactions of isotopes ofhydrogen to form helium producing large amount of energy. The very high temperature required for this uncontrolled thermonuclear reaction is obtained by the detonation of an atom bomb. It consists of a small plutonium fission bomb with a container ofisotopes ofhydrogen. The fission bomb produces a very high temperature at which thermonuclear reaction starts resulting in the fusion ofhydrogen isotopesto form helium.Text Book of Allied Chemi: 7 29 i + Hs — He’ + gn! + 17.6 Mev The explosion of hydrogen bomb is much more powerful than an atom bomb. Nuclear reactor or Pile The equipment used to carry out nuclear fission reaction under controlled conditions is called a nuclear reactor or pile. The ¢. .rgy released in a nuclear reactor involving controlled fission of U-235 is used to generate steam which can run turbines and produce electricity. : The important components of a nuclear reactor are — (i) Fuel rods . (ii) Control rods (iii) Moderators (iv) Coolants (v) Pressure vessel (vi) Protective shield . (vii) Turbine Flow diagram. of a nuclear reactor is shown in the following ‘igure. Control rods Shielding Turbine Coolant Steam Moderator Fuel rod Pressure vessel Nuclear reactor We shall study them in this section,30 TNSCHE Syllabus 1) Fuel rods The fissionable materials used in the pile is enriched U-235 and is used in the form of rods or strips. Other example is Pu-239, It produces heat energy and neutrons which initiates the nuclear chain reaction. 2) Control rods These are movable rods’i.e., they can be lowered or raised. These are made of cadmium or boron. They are suspended between fuel rods. . They control the fission reaction by absorbing excess neutrons If these rods are deeply inserted inside the reactor, they will absorb more neutrons and the fission reaction becomes very slow. On the other hand, if the control rods are pushed outwards, they will absorb less neutrons and the reactions will be very fast. Example : Cd-113 and. B-10 an 113 1 N44.) Reaction : 4,Cd +o ——> — 4gCd + y - rays 10 1 11 3B + Qn —— B+ y-1ays Thus, it controls the nuclear chain reaction and avoids the damage of the reactors, 3) Moderators The substances used to slow down the neutrons are called moderators. Examples : Water, heavy water, graphite, beryllium, Slow Neutron Functions of a moderatorText Book of Allied Chemistry bes —— eee _ When the fast moving neutrons collide with moderator, they loose energy and get slow’ down. i.c., the kinetic energy of the fast neutrons (1 McV) is reduced to slow neutrons (0.25 eV) 4) Coolants These are all liquids and are circulated in the reactor core to absorb the heat produced during fission. It enters at the base of the reactor and leaves at the top. The heat carried by outgoing liquid is used to produce steam. Examples : Water, heavy water, liquid Na or K, Air (CO2). 5) Pressure vessel It encloses the core and provides the entrance and exit passage for coolant. It is able to withstand a pressure as high as 200 kg cm”. 6) Protective shield This is a thick massive concrete shield of 10 m thickness. It encloses the nuclear reactor. The environment.and operating personnels are protected from destruction in case of leakage of radiation. 7) Turbine The steam generated in the heat exchanger is used to operate a steam turbine which drives a generator to produce electricity. The following other types of reactors are also in use — a) AGR = - Advanced Gas cooled Reactor b) BWR_ - Boiling light Water.cooled Reactor c) FBR — Fast Breeder Reactor d). HTGR —- High-Temperature Gas cooled Reactor e) LWGR Nuclear reactors in India The ‘details of nuclear reactors in India are given in the following table. Light Water Gas cooled Reactor_ TNSCHE Syllabus 32 i ~ 0001 = npeuywe], wrenyurepooy!| (9 ton OL = yere{ng| eredesyey|. (¢ on OLv - ysopesd sen, worn) (F con OLY sol npeupue wepedey| (¢ zon Orr 0861 % ZL6I uewpsefey| seses deyesdeury @ | ton Ag 6961 eqyseseyey andesey| (1 | pay (MAA) ApedeD | aan 2781S + 98d *x| eipuy Ul siojoRay Jee|9NN 6 - age