Dimension

Stone
Selection
An excerpt from the Dimension Stone Design Manual,
Version 7.2 (July 2011)

Produced and Published by the

Marble Institute of America
380 East Lorain Oberlin, Ohio 44074
Telephone: 440-250-9222
Fax: 440-774-9222
www.marble-institute.com

© 2011 Marble Institute of America

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by means
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without written permission from the Marble Institute of America (MIA).
Dimension STONE a particular stone for a specific application,
there are several significant influencing
SELECTION factors. Among them are aesthetics, color,
strength, durability, design, texture, finish,
1.0 INTRODUCTION size, thickness, availability, stone testing,
stone sampling, and cost. The effects any of
1.1 Stone Selection Options. these factors may have on another can
Architects and builders throughout the ages influence the final choice. But aesthetic
have chosen stone for its permanence and considerations nearly always drive the
beauty. Where selection was once limited selection process.
mainly to what was locally available, today’s
stone marketplace is virtually worldwide. 2.0 AESTHETICS &
With the broad and growing array of options, APPEARANCE
the stone selection process has become more
complex under the weight of multiple 2.1 Factors Beyond Appearance. A
considerations. palette of colors and a variety of textures
provide ready options in the aesthetic choices
1.2 Stone Is A Product Of Nature. among dimension stones. Yet, as the
Dimension stone has its own unique qualities following pages suggest, it is advisable to
that not only distinguish it from man-made examine and apply other factors that may
materials, but also should be considered in recommend alternatives to a selection based
selecting it for a particular project. Stone is purely upon aesthetic appeal, particularly on
not manufactured; it is a product of nature. exterior applications. A stone that is most
Blocks are removed from the quarry, slabs are desirable in appearance, for example, may
cut from these blocks, and the slabs are lack needed strength or durability for a
further fabricated into the final stone to be particular application.
installed. Each block is different; each slab is
different. Skillful blending or matching of the 2.2 Exterior Cautions. The cautions
dimension stone blocks, veneer panels, tops, regarding exterior applications are of far less
etc., results in a beautiful blending of nature’s concern when considering interior
variety and man’s design. In contrast to the installations. Aesthetics can be allowed much
uniformity of materials produced by machine freer rein for stone that is not subjected to the
or assembly line, dimension stone’s naturally elements.
varied appearance has wonderful character.
“Uniformity of material,” when applied to 2.3 Variegated or veined materials,
natural stone, is a term of relative value that especially marbles, that offer interesting
needs to be understood when making a colors and patterns and that are by their
selection. nature “faulted” and not generally suitable for
exterior use are often highly valued for their
1.3 Exterior vs. Interior Installations. decorative qualities in interior installations.
The factors to be weighed in selection may
not be equally applicable to exterior and 2.4 Translucence occurs in some white
interior installations. The following discussion or very lightly colored marbles and onyxes
is therefore divided, as appropriate, between having a crystal structure that will transmit
exterior and interior uses if the factors do not light to varying degrees depending upon stone
readily apply to both. thickness and finish. Translucence can be an
aesthetically intriguing decorative attribute.
1.4 Selection Influencers. While any
number of stipulations may direct selection of

Ó 2011 Marble Institute of America Dimension Stone Selection • Page 3-1

2.5 Sample Variations. Assuming that all degree of honing depends on the stone, but
critical factors support the desired choice in a may vary from light to heavy.
given application, expectations as to final
appearance must be realistic. Unless a choice 2.9.3 Fine Rubbed: Smooth and free
is made and marked on an actual slab, from scratches; no sheen.
variation from a submitted sample is a fact and
should not come as a surprise. 2.9.3.1 Flamed or Thermal: Plane
surface with flame finish applied at high
2.6 Fleuri Cut Stones. Many dimension temperature by mechanically controlled
stones today are being cross cut or fleuri cut. means to ensure uniformity; changes the color
This is true in travertines and some granites, of the stone.
for example. Many times, the reason this is
done is to avoid a directional vein and achieve 2.9.3.2 Water-jet Flamed Finish: Gives
a more “cloudlike” effect. In any case, the a more uniform, textured finish and allows
Specifier and the Stone Supplier should know more of the natural color to show.
if this is done and investigate the test data, as
it may change from normal, conventional 2.9.3.3 Sandblasted: Coarse plane surface
means. See illustration at the close of chapter produced by blasting an abrasive, allowing a
7. fine-textured finish; may lighten the color.

2.7 Filling Might Be Required. 2.9.3.4 Bush-hammered: Coarsely text-

Another issue is where cross cut (fleuri cut) ured surface produced by hammering, and
stones are used. As in the case of travertine, a may vary according to the metallic head used,
limestone, it may require filling with cement from fine point to very coarse, and may leave
or epoxy, which may or may not hold up high, lighter-colored markings.
under heavy traffic conditions, and the fills
may come out. 2.9.3.5 Natural Cleft: A cleavage face
formed when the stone is split into any
2.8 Choosing A Finish. Choosing the thickness.
manner in which stone will be finished is an
integral part of the selection process. Finish 2.9.3.6 Picked, Hand-hewn Rock
can be anything from saw cut to high polish. Face: Using a chisel or other metallic object
A high polish will bring out the color of the that gives deeper indentations and cleavage to
stone to its fullest, because it will optimally the stone.
reflect the light. Conversely, a textured finish
will always appear lighter. A combination of 2.9.3.7 Sawn: Usually refers to slabs
finishes can add interest to a chosen stone. coming from a gang saw, with blades that are
New finishes are appearing on the market applied to the block of stone using water and
yearly, so check and investigate all finishes fine grit.
available with your Stone Supplier.
2.9.3.8 Gauged: Done by a machine,
2.9 Finishes commonly available are: usually with circular abrasives to grind the
material to a specific thickness.
2.9.1 Polished: Mirror gloss, with sharp
reflections. 2.9.3.9 Planed: Usually refers to slate,
where a metallic scraper peels a layer of
2.9.2 Honed: Dull sheen, without re- stone, making the stone flat and smoother.
flections, achieved by abrasive heads. The

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2.9.3.10 Acid Washed: Usually applied to a other sizes, up to a maximum of 24" x 24".
sawn finish to lower the degree of sawn marks The proper tile thickness for the installation
showing, yet maintain a natural textured will depend upon the stone type selected and
finish. the modular size of the tile specified.

2.9.3.11 Tumbled: Method of putting tiles 3.4 Mixing Tiles. The final look of mixed
in a mixing container with sand and rotating tiles may fall short of appearance
them, allowing the edges and corners of the expectations, especially if the stone is
tiles to chip. variegated and veined. The Installer should
mix tiles from different boxes during the
NOTE: Many new finishes are being applied installation to achieve a more even, visually
to stone as the market demand increases and pleasing result in the finished surface.
new uses for stone are being conceived. In
some productions, combinations of finishes on 3.5 Matched-vein Patterns. In contrast
the same stone are being made. Check with to modular tiles, panels cut from the slab
the Supplier to verify the finish and how it was usually will give the best results aesthetically.
made in order to specify properly. There are different ways that veined
dimension stones or other stones can be
3.0 DESIGNING WITH matched to form a pattern, and stones must
DIMENSION STONE be of types that lend themselves to specific
pattern arrangement. Patterned and matched
3.1 Design Considerations are nearly panels require that the material be selected
equal among the factors of aesthetics, strength and thus, often increases the cost of the stone.
and durability. This is particularly true of See diagrams at the close of chapter 7 for a
interior applications. The imagination of detailed description of vein patterns.
Designers is boundless, and it is the Fabricator
or Supplier who must counsel the design 3.6 Mixing Types Of Materials.
professionals as to what is feasible and what is Designs calling for a mixture of stones with
not. Stone is not a plastic material. It is rigid different physical properties, while
and breakable when handled in fabrication. aesthetically interesting, can give rise to
problems of wear and of maintenance, mainly
3.2 Yield. Before making final selection of on floor areas. Re-polishing will pose
a stone, particularly on a larger project, take problems, should that need arise. The
wastage into account to make certain there Specifier should be aware that mixing types of
will be enough material to complete the stones means there will be different abrasion
project. An often-forgotten fact is that the resistance levels as well as different densities
material from a quarry today may be different of stones that must be considered in the long-
from what was available six months ago. term maintenance of the stone and its
Further, there may be more than one quarry wearability.
of the material. The criteria of the Producer
to select stone also vary from quarry to 4.0 EXTERIOR APPLICATIONS
quarry.
4.1 Strength. A most important concern
3.3 Modular Stone Tiles. For ease and when selecting stone is strength. This is
economy, modular stone tiles offer a good particularly true in cases of exterior stone
alternative to stone panels for walls and level cladding for buildings over two stories high.
floors. Thin stone tiles, varying in thickness Strength in those situations should be the
from 1 cm to 1.5 cm, are available in modular determining factor in the final selection of the
sizes of 12" x 12", 16" x 16", 18" x 18", and stone.

Ó 2011 Marble Institute of America Dimension Stone Selection • Page 3-3

4.2 Exterior Stone Stresses. Exterior weather is a factor, absorption, porosity, and
stones must be able to withstand the stresses permeability studies should be made.
that will be imposed upon them, such as the Freeze/thaw compressive strength testing
following: should also be carried out. For walls, the type
of anchoring, and performing an anchorage
4.2.1 Gravity load, which must be borne pull-out test, are important.
by the anchorage system.
4.4 High-traffic Floor Areas. For high-
4.2.2 Windload, which exerts both positive traffic floor areas, abrasive hardness testing
and negative pressure on the panels, and is should be a requisite. The absorption or
typically higher at building corners and other porosity is important, as well as the density of
areas of discontinuity. the stone. The finish applied to the stone will
be a factor in the slip resistance specified for
4.2.3 Water vapor, which must be released the area.
to prevent condensation and efflorescence
problems. 4.5 Durability. For durability, exterior
stone should be free from structural defects
4.2.4 Freeze/thaw cycles, which can and varying characteristics of vein structure,
cause stone to crack and joints to fail. scaling planes, hairline cracks, earthly parts,
and cavities. Panel dimensions should be
4.2.5 Structural contraction, which controlled in size for optimal results.
occurs during the curing stage of the concrete.
4.6 Granites have been historically
4.2.6 Creep, or permanent structural favored for exterior use. Their composition
distortion, which takes place progressively makes them both resistant and stable, and
over the years until the structure has settled. surfaces will hold a high polish longer. As a
rule, weaker stones require greater and more
4.2.7 Elastic distortion, which is caused by costly reinforcement.
movement produced by load charges on the
structure. 4.7 In dry and temperate climates,
softer stones like limestones can also be used
4.2.8 Thermal expansion and con- successfully in thicknesses appropriate to the
traction, which affects stone and other job. However, exteriors of gray or black
structural elements limestones with a bituminous or carbon
composition should be avoided because the
4.2.9 Absorption or porosity of the stone action of atmospheric agents will rapidly cause
is a factor, as it will affect the durability and the surface to deteriorate. Other stones
life of the stone, as well as its appearance. considered inappropriate are the ophicalcites
and the breccia in general, as well as all stone
Note: The durability of the installation containing pyrites, which may produce rust
method for walls is determined by the spots when exposed to air and moisture.
substrate it is being applied to and the
anchoring method being used. Consult an 5.0 INTERIOR APPLICATIONS
engineer to evaluate all installation issues.
5.1 Selection Criteria. The fact that
4.3 Test Data. Where structural capability interior stone is sheltered from the action of
is critical, test data for compressive strength, the elements makes all types of stone, from
flexural strength, modulus of elasticity, and the hardest granite to the softest limestone,
sheer strength should be studied. Where suitable for application. Criteria for the

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selection of interior stone for both maintenance products available to preserve
commercial and residential projects tend to be the stone’s appearance. Generally, it is
similar. Selection considerations focus on recommended that a dimension stone floor
whether the application will be on vertical or receive a honed rather than a highly polished
horizontal planes. finish in commercial applications. Etching,
scratching, and traffic paths will be far less
5.2 Interior Vertical Surfaces. Nearly obvious on a honed surface, thus making for
any stone may be chosen for interior cladding easier maintenance.
of commercial buildings. Practical
considerations for highly used areas, however, 5.7 In light-volume traffic and
lead to stones that are dense, resistant, and residential areas, where problems of etching,
easily maintained. These prove to be the best scratching, and staining are minimal, it is quite
choice when aiming for a long-term acceptable to make a selection based mainly
investment. on aesthetics and choose a highly polished
floor if desired. In all cases, proper
5.3 Water Resistance. The action of maintenance must be done.
water in areas such as fountains and showers is
a factor to be reckoned with. Stones must be 5.8 Countertops. Stones for kitchen and
able to withstand frequent or continuous lavatory tops should be chosen with regard to
water projections, and in the case of showers, functionality. Foods and their handling will
the presence of hot steam. Again, the best affect long-term appearance as acids and
results are obtained with a dense, resistant grease come in contact with the surface. Not
stone, such as a granite, or a compact stone all stones are resistant to staining; therefore,
with a low absorption coefficient. The action selection should be carefully considered. In all
of water on polished marble or limestone cases and regardless of the type of stone, spills
might cause surface dulling, spalling, warpage, should be wiped up immediately and cutting
or deterioration of stone over time. knives not used directly on the surfaces.
There are also nontoxic sealers (necessary in
5.4 Interior Horizontal Surfaces. food preparation areas) that can improve the
Traffic is obviously a major consideration in performance of a stone to a great degree.
selecting floor stone, whether for heavy,
medium, or light duty. In heavy-traffic 5.9 Lavatory Tops. As a rule, lavatory
situations, floors need to withstand vehicles or tops in residential bathrooms can be chosen
carts, stiletto heels, mud and sand, salting according to taste, since the surface receives
compounds, spilled high-acidity liquids, and little abuse other than pollutants that might be
other pollutants and indignities. contained in cosmetics.

5.5 Heavy-volume traffic and abuse 5.10 MIA Statement Of Position On

require stone of maximum resistance–granite, Sealing Natural Stone Countertops.
quartzite, or highly compact marble, Most granite countertops do not need to be
depending on the degree of punishment it sealed. Before 1995 there were very few
must take. Testing for hardness as measured quality penetrating sealers on the market and
by ASTM C241 and discussed elsewhere in there were very few cases of staining. Both
this manual can help in the selection process. prior to and after the availability of
penetrating sealers, no cases of food
5.6 For medium-volume traffic, stones poisoning, radon, or food preparation issues
can be somewhat softer. Many dimension associated with treated or untreated granites
stones will perform well, if properly have been reported. If a homeowner cleans
maintained. There are good methods and their countertops after each meal, they will

Ó 2011 Marble Institute of America Dimension Stone Selection • Page 3-5

rarely, if ever, have staining or cleanability characteristics and performance. ASTM
issues with granite. All this being said, many standards are the recommended guidelines for
granite countertops receive additional benefit installation in the stone industry. See Chapter
from being sealed. That benefit is the further 2 for more information about this
reduction of moisture migration into an organization and a list of ASTM specifications
already moisture resistant surface. and standards.

Should natural stone counters be sealed? In 6.3 Original Test Data. The Specifier has
many cases it makes sense to seal marble and the right to request from the Supplier original
granite countertops with a quality sealer. The test data on the stone to be used and verify the
product should have a life expectancy of ten to age of the test and its validity. In some cases
fifteen years and be of an oliophobic (resistant historical data is sufficient on small jobs, but
to water and oil based stains) nature. Once on larger jobs historical test data should only
properly sealed, the stone will be more be taken as indicative, and new tests should be
resistant against everyday dirt and spills. run on the specific stone from the specific
quarry to be used.
In today’s natural stone industry, many
species of granite receive a resin treatment at 7.0 SAMPLING
the factory where the blocks of granite are cut
into slabs and then polished. The treatment is 7.1 Stone Samples And Mockups.
used to fill microfissures, indentations and Preparation and supply of dimension stone
other minor characteristics that are found in samples and mockups are often expensive and
many natural stones. The reason for the resin time-consuming, but an essential part of stone
treatment is to address what most consumers projects. Samples and mockups help ensure
consider as imperfections, but in reality are that materials meet contract requirements.
“birth marks”. The consuming public
gravitates to perfection, defined as no “birth 7.2 Promotional samples are for color
marks,” and so the marble and granite consideration only, but must be
industry tries to fulfill the desire. Both representative of the color and finish being
resined as well as unresined slabs will outlast proposed for use. They should be supplied in
most of our lifetimes. Granite should, and in small sizes, such as 3" x 4", 4" x 6", or 6" x
most cases will, be the last countertop surface 6".
a person will buy, providing a strong return
on investment. The bottom line: Sealing resin 7.3 Project samples should be 1' x 1' in
treated countertops may increase the size or larger. Care must be taken to select
resistance of the already resistant nature of samples that accurately reflect the shades,
stone (adopted 11/8/06). markings, and anticipated ranges of color,
texture, finish, veining, filling, and other
6.0 TESTING FOR PHYSICAL characteristics of the variety of stones
PROPERTIES specified.

6.1 ASTM Tests. Stone is tested under a 7.4 Large Projects. For very large
rigorous set of standards developed by the projects, multiple samples are needed in order
ASTM International, the world’s largest to show the range of variations. These are
voluntary standards development normally assembled by selecting from the
organization. blocks that best meet the requirements at that
point in time. Sometimes visits to the
6.2 Purpose Of Tests. The tests apply quarries become a necessary step in the
standard methods to uniformly evaluate stone selection process. Selecting slabs to be cut for

Page 3-6 • Dimension Stone Selection Ó 2011 Marble Institute of America

the project is necessary to see the overall Define whether there is more than one quarry
variation of the stone and finish to be used. In and bed level of quarry where this stone is
all cases, availability of the material should be located.
secured.
7.8 This information will assure the
7.5 Number Of Samples. The number of Specifier of writing a specification that will
sample submissions required on a specific control that the material being specified will
project depends primarily on the amount and indeed be the stone to be used on the job.
particular use of the stone required.
However, there should never be fewer than Note: As an example, specifying White
two sets of samples submitted. Control Carrara (a generic name with over 30
samples should be kept by the Architect, quarries, and each quarry having possibly 4
Contractor, and Producer for verification of selections) is meaningless if all the other
the selection approved. information is not supplied.

7.6 For stone that will be matched, 8.0 COST

prepare at least two sets of four matched
samples each, showing proposed veining, 8.1 Pricing Stone For The Job. A key
flows, movements, texture, and range in each factor in determining which stone to use will
set. be the price. Today, thanks to the
development of new technologies, stone is
7.7 Support Documentation. Depend- plentiful and competitively priced. There are
ing on the stone selected and quantity many alternatives in stone selection, with a
required, a mock-up containing a full range of range of prices to fit any budget. The
colors may be needed to further define the Specifier should ask for a budget price when
texture and characteristics of the stone. The initially considering a stone for the stone only.
Specifier or Buyer should request all samples In the final consideration and determination,
and submission of stone be accompanied by the Specifier should know the real cost of the
the following in writing: stone based on the design and its installation
costs to see if the stone fits into the budget of
7.7.1 Actual name of stone and name of stone the job.
as applied by the Quarrier, as well as alternate
names of stones in the marketplace, if any are 8.2 Size of stone is also important. Not
known. all stones are available either in the size being
designed or to get the best yield from the
7.7.2 Country or state of origin. blocks or boulders. Price will be determined
many times by the size and waste factor of the
7.7.3 Quarrier, if known. blocks in relation to the finished project.

7.7.4 ASTM test data or European equivalent 8.3 Stone Thickness. In the past,
for first evaluation purposes. buildings were erected using blocks or thick
slabs. Now, cladding systems make it possible
7.7.5 Age of sample, if known. to use panels only ¾" or 1¼" thick, and with
a notable reduction in the cost of stone. The
7.7.6 References of where this stone has been thickness of the stone will be determined by
used near where the job may be located. engineering and the anchoring system for the
specific stone.
7.7.7 Photos of slabs showing more range of
the material and other finishes available.

Ó 2011 Marble Institute of America Dimension Stone Selection • Page 3-7

8.4 Modular thin stone tile, a product 8.6.5 Consult with your local MIA Member
of modern technology cut to a thickness of to review these and other costs that factor into
only 1 cm, is suitable for many applications the overall project budget.
and is competitive in price. These panels and
tiles compare very favorably with other 9.0 MAINTENANCE
natural and manufactured products available
for construction, and have the added 9.1 General. Maintenance of the stone
advantage of conferring character and after it is installed is commonly forgotten. The
durability to the structure. Specifier should be aware of the maintenance
required to maintain the color and finish of
8.5 Multiple Factors Affect Price. the stone for years to come. Ask the Stone
Many factors determine the price of a Supplier and Salesperson for maintenance
particular stone. Availability, ease of suggestions or requirements. Investigate with
extraction, market demand, quality, and authoritative maintenance companies what
transportation are a few of the variables that they recommend for a specific stone and the
will affect the price. This is an advantage cost factors involved in maintaining the stone.
when cost is important, for there is always the The more knowledgeable the Specifier and
possibility to select alternatives offering End Buyer are about stone maintenance, the
essentially the same desired characteristics. longer and happier all parties will be in giving
Availability is important to check to the Owner a quality finished job that will last
determine whether the stone is still quarried, for years to come.
is available in the quantity required, and in the
time frame of installation of the project. 9.2 Sealers. If sealers are to be used, have
Sometimes the more limited the availability, the stone tested to ensure in writing the
the higher the cost. If the stone is only sealer’s performance for the stone and
available from one company, the Producer can application of the stone intended. New
demand a very high price and the Specifier surface and penetrating sealers are becoming
should be made aware of this. available on the market every year.

8.6 Other factors affecting the cost on 9.3 Maintenance And Cost. The
large projects may include: maintenance issues for a specific stone and the
cost attributed to it can vary from one type to
8.6.1 Quantity allowed for storage or attic another, and may impact the decision to use
material. that stone in a particular application.

8.6.2 Extra material needed in the event of MIA Bookstore Resources:

damages, improperly fabricated material, or Reprints of this chapter, along with the Stone
other reasons replacement material might be Testing chapter, can be purchased in a separate
needed. publication from the MIA Bookstore. The “Stone
Selection & Stone Testing” technical module
8.6.3 Determination of who will pay taxes includes the contents of both chapters and
may be an issue and should be clarified. additional illustrations and pictures.
Two MIA-produced, consumer-focused brochures
8.6.4 Availability of a storage facility at the are available on the use and care of natural stone:
“Beautify Your Home with Natural Stone (A
jobsite that is of adequate size to properly and
Guide to Choosing Natural Stone and a Qualified
securely store material until job is complete. Stone Contractor),” and “Care & Cleaning of
Natural Stone Surfaces.” Stone professionals can
purchase both of these brochures from the MIA
Bookstore.

Page 3-8 • Dimension Stone Selection Ó 2011 Marble Institute of America