Technology, Knowledge and Learning (2023) 28:865–899

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-022-09607-9

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced

in Using Emerging Technology: A Qualitative Study

Zuheir N. Khlaif1,2 · Mageswaran Sanmugam1 · Amjad I. Joma3 · Ahmad Odeh2 ·

Kefah Barham2

Accepted: 3 May 2022 / Published online: 29 June 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2022

Abstract
In this era of rapid technology growth, many countries have begun to adopt emerging
technologies into their educational systems to improve learning outcomes. The aim of this
study is to explore the factors influencing teachers’ experiences of technostress while using
new technology in academic classrooms and how it might be mitigated. Prior research has
not focused on how technostress develops among individuals over time or how it can be
mitigated in an individual context; the intention of this study is to contribute to the tech-
nostress literature in these particular areas. To address the research gap, we conducted a
qualitative study that collected data through the use of an open-ended question question-
naire. Seventy teachers of different backgrounds and locations responded to the survey. We
used thematic analysis to analyze their responses and reveal how lack of school support
and their professional identities influence their levels of technostress. Technology char-
acteristics, including the complexity and the benefits of a given technology, and privacy
concerns play a crucial role in teachers’ experiences of technostress. Moreover, we found
that colleague support in using new technology and open educational resources each con-
tributed to mitigating teachers’ technostress levels. Our study extends technostress research
to examine a new learning environment and context. This focus allowed us to highlight the
need to develop open educational resources and better social support structures for teachers
and to rethink the professional identities of developing teachers to mitigate their levels of
technostress. Suggestions for further research that resulted from this work include using a
mixed methods research approach in future studies and including more teachers in future
work to determine the relationships among the factors identified by this study.

Keywords Technostress · Professional identity · Techno-overload · Emerging technology ·

TPACK

* Zuheir N. Khlaif
[email protected]; [email protected]
Extended author information available on the last page of the article

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1 Introduction

Emerging technologies and their ubiquity have accelerated the integration of technology into
different aspects of our lives, and its increasing affordability will allow this to continue in the
future. In educational systems, the use of emerging technology to enhance the learning pro-
cess has increased exponentially due to incentives from government and non-governmental
organizations to meet learners’ education needs (Dunn & Kennedy, 2019). Many education
systems worldwide use a variety of technology applications for student self-service and aca-
demic administration (Wang et al., 2018), massive open online courses (attendance, enroll-
ment (Ofelia et al., 2017), and learning management systems (Barana et al., 2016). In addition,
emerging technology assists in reducing distance challenges and paperwork (Agarwal & Mit-
tal, 2018; Vahedi et al., 2019) and improves learning processes (Mirzajani et al., 2016).

2 Palestinian Context of Using Technology

This study focuses on the unique case of Palestine, which has suffered from simultaneous
political, economic, and natural crises that have affected different sectors, including the educa-
tion system. The Ministry of Education (MoE) has implemented many technological initia-
tives such as smart learning (Shraim & Crompton, 2015) and the digitalization of education
(Fragkaki, 2017; Khlaif & Farid, 2018) to mitigate the negative impact of these crises. These
initiatives were implemented in different areas of Palestine with the intention to improve learn-
ing outcomes. The MoE has invested more than five million US dollars to improve the infra-
structure of specific schools, train teachers, develop e-content, and provide 1,500 teachers with
mini laptops and tablets; it has also implemented the use of Microsoft Teams to communicate
with students during crises. While using technology for academic purposes is mandatory in
Palestine, many teachers do not use it in their practice as the MoE requires and expects. It has
been shown that teachers lack training on using technological tools such as Edpuzzle, Zoom,
H5P, and Google Classroom (Khlaif et al., 2022, and research has shown that lack of training
pushes teachers to be “of two minds” with regard to developing their personal and professional
development. Palestinian teachers find it challenging to keep up with rapid updates in technol-
ogy, digital privacy, and cultural issues (Khlaif et al., 2022). Furthermore, the rapid develop-
ment of technology increases the challenges of using technology for academic purposes, given
the effort necessary to learn new technology or to follow up on technology updates (Joo et al.,
2016).
In this study we have used Microsoft Teams as the emerging/new technology as this is the
technology that has been adopted by Palestine’s MoE for online learning during crisis. How-
ever, teachers in Palestine also voluntarily use additional tools such as WhatsApp, a social
media app on their smart phone devices, for rapid communication with their students.

3 The Dark Side of Technology

Despite the unarguable benefits and affordability of emerging technologies for the learn-
ing process, interest in understanding the dark side of technology use has increased
among researchers. For example, emerging technologies such as smartphones and social
media have been found to remove the boundaries between end-users’ work and per-
sonal lives, resulting in an intertwining of their social lives with their professional lives

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(Salazar-Concha et al., 2021). In addition, researchers such as Tarafdar et al. (2019) and La
Torre et al. (2019), have extensively studied individuals’ struggles with new technology,
defining it as “technostress.” Studies define technostress as pressure brought on by the use
of technology and the skills and knowledge necessary to integrate technology effectively
in one’s teaching practice, which can generate stress (Çoklar et al., 2017; Tarafdar et al.,
2007).
The impact of technostress on end-users occurs in six areas of behavioral and psycho-
logical outcomes, including effects on productivity (Sarabadani et al., 2018), job satisfac-
tion (Krauss, 2020), commitment to change (Zainun et al., 2020), continuing use of a tech-
nology (Joo et al., 2016), health (Golz et al., 2021), and business (Marchiori et al., 2020).
Studies have also investigated the creators of technostress among end-users in different
fields, including health (Califf et al., 2020), business (Wu et al., 2022), and higher educa-
tion (Abd Aziz & Yazid, 2021), but there is a dearth of studies that investigate the factors
that influence teachers’ experience of technostress and how to mitigate it, particularly from
the perspective of teaching in an environment in which using a given technology is manda-
tory (Joo et al., 2016; Özgür, 2020; Salo et al., 2022). The lack of studies on teachers’ tech-
nostress while teaching in such an environment—and specifically, studies including teach-
ers in middle school settings—was the motivation behind conducting this study, the goals
of which are to fill the gap in the literature on the factors influencing teachers’ technostress
from the teachers’ perspective and to understand teachers’ reluctance to use emerging tech-
nology in their teaching practices. Our overall purpose is to explore the factors influenc-
ing middle school teachers experiences of technostress while using new technology in the
learning process and determine how it can be mitigated.
This study relied heavily on the lived experience of teachers who experienced technos-
tress. Exploring the factors that influence teachers’ technostress from their own perspec-
tives will add to the body of literature from a new context and could reveal additional fac-
tors that influence the technostress experienced by teachers who teach in an environment
that requires mandatory use of technology. This study’s findings will aid decision-makers
in Palestine and similar countries in developing programs that can mitigate the impact of
factors that influence technostress and will positively influence teacher performance. The
findings of this study will be disseminated through workshops that will support teachers’
efforts to reduce technostress levels. To achieve this study’s goals, we established three
research questions to guide the research:

– What are the causes of Palestinian middle school teachers’ technostress while using
information and communication technologies (ICTs) in teaching?
– How do Palestinian teachers in middle school settings describe their experience of tech-
nostress while using ICTs in teaching?
– What approaches do Palestinian teachers currently use to mitigate the levels of technos-
tress they face while using ICTs in teaching?

4 Literature Review

In recent times, teachers are urged to integrate technology in their classrooms, as they rep-
resent the agents of change in the educational system. While the success or failure of using
a new technology depends on whether and how much teachers use it, teachers often strug-
gle with a lack of time to implement these technologies due to the multitasking already

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required of them (Joo et al., 2016), which requires significant time and effort. Despite these
challenges, teachers do tend to use technology to attract students’ attention to teaching
materials (Dias & Victor, 2017).
Despite the bright side of using technology in the learning process, researchers have
discovered its dark side, which is related to computer anxiety, stress, and pressure (Lee
& Xiong, 2021) that negatively impact teachers’ intentions to use new technology in their
practice (Teo et al., 2019) and reduce their productivity (Qi, 2019). Over the past 6 years
(between 2016 and 2022) more than 40 articles (Appendix 1) have investigated the factors
that influence the levels of technostress among end-users in different contexts in the USA,
Europe, South Asia, and Australia. The majority of these studies were quantitative studies,
with only two having been qualitative; one of the studies used a mixed methods approach
in the health sector (specifically, a nursing workplace). Only a few of these studies were
conducted in a higher and public education context to include students, teachers, or both.
Based on the information presented in Appendix (1), to the best of our knowledge, there
have only been two studies in this area from Palestine and Saudi Arabia that have been
published in peer-reviewed journals. Both of these published articles from the Arab world
focus on the role of technostress and its impact on the participants’ continued intention to
use new technology such as augmented reality (Baabdullah et al., 2022) and mobile tech-
nology (Khlaif et al., 2022). It is worth noting that one study, Qi (2019), found that using
mobile devices for academic purposes had no impact on technostress, which is inconsistent
with previous findings (e.g., Camarena & Fusi, 2022; Abd Aziz & Yazid, 2021; Apple &
Mills, 2022).

5 Teachers’ Technostress

Dong et al. (2020) defined teachers’ technostress as a modern disease that affects teach-
ers’ ability to cope healthily with the rise of using new technologies in teaching practices.
According to Estrada-Muñoz et al. (2021), technostress can refer to an individual’s or
organization’s inability to use technology in a healthy way. Panisoara et al. (2020) defined
technostress as “a problem of improper adaptation caused by the failure of people to cope
with technology and the changes in requirements related to the use of technology, which
generate psychological and physical stress towards the latter.” Wang et al. (2020) defined
technostress from a psychological perspective, stating that it is a reaction between envi-
ronment and individuals that could generate positive or negative attitudes toward the new
environment. Finally, Estrada-Muñoz et al. (2021) define it as a condition resulting from
a lack of ability to use technology healthily, due to age, workload, and perception of work
environment. These definitions of technostress share common features, including the ina-
bility to use technology, inability to cope with the stress and pressure of using new technol-
ogy, psychological issues, and referring to technostress as a disease. For the purpose of this
study, we define technostress as the stress, pressure, or discomfort a teacher experiences
while using new technology (i.e., devices, platforms, changes to their teaching mode, or
any digital media) in the learning and teaching process.
While previous researchers have documented technology integration in higher education
in different fields (Nepo, 2017; Wood et al., 2018), there have been few studies that have
examined mandatory technology adoption and technostress in public and higher education
institutional settings. The findings of previous studies in different contexts have revealed
that due to the continuous emergence and upgrades of ICT devices and applications, users

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are required to spend more time and effort to learn how new technologies work and how
to use them (Maier et al., 2015; Joo et al., 2016; Qi, 2019; Tarafdar et al., 2010). Moreo-
ver, stress due to using new technology has been shown to have a negative influence on
instructors’ intentions to accept and integrate ICT in teaching (Baabdullah et al., 2022; Joo
et al., 2016; Khlaif et al., 2022). However, few studies have provided insight into the fac-
tors that influence technostress in instructors and how it may be effectively reduced (Salo
et al., 2022).

6 Factors Influencing Technostress

Few studies have explored the reasons behind teachers’ experiences of technostress in vari-
ous contexts, including higher and public education (Joo et al., 2016; Çoklar et al., 2017;
Chou & Chou, 2021; Baabdullah et al., 2022). In addition, researchers have developed a
variety of technostress scales for detecting technostress levels (Çoklar et al., 2017; Li &
Wang, 2021; Özgür, 2020). Califf and Brooks (2020) classified the creators of technostress
as techno-overload, techno-uncertainty, techno-invasion, techno-insecurity, and techno-
complexity; other scholars consider these to be the levels of technostress that end-users
experience with a given technology (Tarafdar et al., 2007). Techno-overload refers to the
feeling that people must work harder and faster than usual while handling technological
activities from different emerging tools (Pflügner et al., 2021). Techno-insecurity is the
feeling of threat that workers may lose their jobs to individuals who are more highly tech-
nologically qualified. Techno-invasion occurs when people feel they must remain con-
nected anywhere and anytime, which results in a blurring of the thin line between work
and personal contexts. Finally, techno-complexity refers to a lack of technological skills
accompanied by a technology’s complexity, which requires teachers to invest more time
and effort to accomplish their tasks.
Researchers have reported additional factors that create various levels of technostress
experienced by teachers, including technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK;
Waluyo & Nuraini, 2021), self-efficacy (Chou and Chou, 2021; Dong et al., 2020), experi-
ence with technology (Salem, 2018; Upadhyaya & Virinda, 2020), and organization cul-
ture and commitments (Balduzzi et al., 2020; Camarena & Fusi, 2022). Studies have also
reported that TPACK is the ideal model for guiding teachers in using new technology in
teaching processes (Dong et al., 2020; Soler-Costa et al., 2021).
Moreover, researchers have developed models for studying the relationship among the
factors that influence teachers’ experiences of technostress. According to Waluyo and
Nuraini (2021), teachers must have TPACK, which will enable them to integrate tech-
nology into learning, to change the way they teach. They must actively participate in this
process, as the available source of learning should be used actively for it to be integrated
appropriately. Furthermore, TPACK represents the intersection of the three bodies of tech-
nological knowledge, pedagogy, and content, which can affect and limit the context of
learning and teaching. The determining factor of TPACK components is their integration in
ICT; this can contribute significantly to the paradigm change for learning as a framework
for analyzing teacher knowledge of integrating technology in learning (Dong et al., 2020;
Özgür, 2020; Soler-Costa et al., 2021).
The other creator of technostress identified in the literature is “self-efficacy,” which
refers to the concept that teachers’ technology use skills crucially affect their attitudes
toward integrating technology into education. Furthermore, high computer self-efficacy has

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been shown to contribute to users’ abilities to solve difficulties caused by computer tech-
nology, which can reduce their degree of perceived technostress and moderate the negative
effect of technostress on innovation (Dong et al., 2020).
With regard to organization culture and commitment, organizations tend to employ sev-
eral approaches to counteract technostressors. The perceived quality of personal experience
occurs in three different domains: hedonic (using technology to generate positive expe-
riences), eudaemonic (designing technology to support individuals in reaching “engag-
ing and self-actualizing experiences”), and social/interpersonal (using technology to help
improve connectedness between individuals or groups; Brivio, et al., 2018).
Additional factors have recently emerged in the research, including the perceived use-
fulness of using a new technology (Khlaif et al., 2022), IT mindfulness (Shirish et al.,
2021), involvement facilitation (Li & Wang, 2021), mindfulness (Tuan, 2022), and time
management (Salo et al., 2022). Despite the emergence of new factors in the literature,
there remains a contradiction between these findings and the findings of new studies that
reported the same findings or investigated existing factors in a new context.

7 Research Design

We used a qualitative research approach to determine the causes of technostress experi-

enced by middle school teachers in settings where they must use mandatory ICT in their
teaching practice. A qualitative approach enables an understanding of a phenomenon from
the lived experience of a group of people (Mohajan, 2018). The research design we chose
was a case study, which allows a qualitative approach that facilitates an understanding of a
complex phenomenon experienced in a specific context; this enables researchers to under-
stand a real-life phenomenon (Yin, 2003).

7.1 Participants

The study’s participants included 70 teachers from various locations in Palestine, who had
various backgrounds and experiences of using ICT in teaching different topics and grades.
All of the teachers were required to use ICTs in teaching, and they used different tools,
such as tablets, interactive whiteboards, LCDs, and platforms for designing technological
interactive activities, (e.g., Zoom, Microsoft Teams), and others for uploading educational
resources in their practices. Before adopting Microsoft Teams, the teachers had used differ-
ent tools of their own choice without training. After teachers were trained by the MoE to
use Microsoft Teams, all teachers were required to use it as an official technological tool to
teach their students online.

7.2 Recruitment

We used maximum variation sampling to recruit the participants. This approach allows
researchers to choose participants with different individual characteristics in order to
understand a phenomenon by examining a range of different cases (Emmel, 2013). The cri-
teria for choosing the participants called for teachers who used different technological tools
for academic purposes and teach in middle school settings with a high level of performance
(i.e., had high scores in their annual academic performance reports). We requested that
the MoE’s educational technology department nominate teachers who teach in managerial

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Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 871

Table 1  Presents the Variable Number Percentage (%)

demographic information about
the participants
Gender
Male 30 42.8
Female 40 57.2
ICT experience (Years)
1–5 24 34.4
6–10 30 42.8
More than 10 16 22.8
Age (Years)
25–30 27 38.6
31–36 13 18.6
37–42 16 22.8
More than 42 14 20
School location
Village 25 35.7
City 28 40
Refugee camp 17 24.3

areas from different locations with different experiences of technology use. The department
provided a list of 100 teachers from different schools. Permission to contact the teachers
came from the MoE’s Scientific Research Directorate and the Supervisor and Teacher’s
Training Directorate. We sent the teachers an email invitation to participate in this work.
The invitation included information on the study instrument, an introduction to the study
and its purpose, reasons for inviting the recipient to participate, and a notice informing the
recipient that participation was optional and that they were free to withdraw from the study
at any time. Seventy teachers responded by using the research instrument. Table 1 presents
the participants’ demographic information.

7.3 Data Collection

We used open-ended questions to collect data from the target audience, this technique
allowed us to collect qualitative data about the participants’ lived experiences. The par-
ticipants were asked to write their responses to the listed questions on the form (Creswell,
2014). We developed the open-ended questions based on the findings of previous studies,
including the work of Joo et al. (2016), Çoklar et al. (2017), Özgür (2020), and Chris-
tian et al. (2020). Thorndike and Thorndike-Christ (2010) defined open-ended questions
as a method that asks the participants to write their responses in their own words. This
approach is generally used to gather unlimited information about a specific phenomenon
without limiting the participants’ responses and to explore the participants’ attitudes about
the phenomenon (Creswell, 2014; Harlacher, 2016). We developed an open-ended ques-
tionnaire in Arabic that explored the teachers’ responses about the factors that influenced
the technostress they experienced while using new emerging technology in the learning
process in middle school settings.
The form (see Appendix 1) includes three sections. The first section includes infor-
mation about the study, the second is designed to collect the participants’ demographic
information, and the third includes six open-ended questions (see Appendix 1). The six

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questions examine the technological, instructional, and social reasons for the negative
impact of technostress and using technology on teaching performance. We used Microsoft
Office 365 to design the form and sent the teachers a link to the form through email. We
used Office 365 because the participants would be familiar with it as all teachers in Pales-
tine have an account and can easily use and are familiar with the technology.

7.4 Data Analysis

We used thematic analysis to analyze the data and allowed the themes to come from the
teachers who have lived experience with technostress while using technology in teach-
ing in middle school settings. Thematic analysis is a type of qualitative data analysis that
offers an extensive view of variation, along with details that include basic, interruptive,
and qualitative content analysis (Drisko & Maschi, 2016). Using thematic analysis enables
researchers to analyze data by creating themes and subthemes (Creswell, 2014). We used
NVivo 12 software to analyze the collected data to understand the reasons behind teachers’
technostress.

7.5 Data Analysis Procedures

To analyze the data, we followed the thematic analysis procedures set out by Hsieh and
Shannon (2005). The analysis was carried out in three stages: preparing the data for the-
matic analysis by numbering participants’ responses, compiling the responses into one file,
and cleaning the data. The second phase was carried out in two stages, the first of which
was identifying a unit of analysis, which in the current study was a phrase or sentence
related to teachers’ technostress reported by participants. We based this stage (identify-
ing the unit of analysis) on the findings of previous studies on the same topic, including
Joo et al. (2016). The second stage of the second phase (compiling the responses) was to
develop a coding book, create themes based on the literature review, and organize these
themes into reasons for technostress experienced by teachers while using technology in
teaching. After developing the coding book, we pre-tested the code by asking an external
researcher to take a portion of data (10%) and apply the coding to it to ensure its consist-
ency and accuracy. The last phase of data analysis was coding all the data, then assessing
the coding to check the trustworthiness of the data analysis by establishing a comparison
between the agreement and disagreement of the coding process; for this phase, we followed
the procedures suggested by Creswell and Miller (2000). Moreover, two of the current
study’s researchers coded the data individually to enhance the reliability of the research by
comparing their coding once the process was finished. The agreement and disagreement
between the two coders was 86%. The two researchers resolved the disagreement through
negotiations to achieve agreement on the final themes and subthemes. Table 2 shows an
example from the coding book used in the data analysis.

7.6 Trustworthiness

Arabic teachers checked the open-ended questions for the survey to increase understand-
ability and verify the content for accuracy. Three professors (of educational technology and
psychology) then received the form to check the appropriateness of the questions. The form

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 Table 2  Shows an example from the coding book we have used in our data analysis
Text segment Main idea Theme Subtheme

Teacher 5: as teachers we are required to use new technology Using technology mandatory; technology characteristics School support; technol- Policy; easy to
each time with lack support from schools. According to my ogy characteristics use; accessibility
experience with using new technology, I have to check if the usefulness
technology easy to use and I can use in my classes without extra
cost. Previously I used a technology but after designing the
activities the whole website asked me to pay while put me under
stress and anxiety
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in…

Teacher 33: I experienced a lot of anxiety while trying to use a Attitudes, knowledge, skills, previous experience Individual characteristics Professional identity
given new technology because honestly I am convinced to use
technology in teaching kids, it is consuming and wasting my
time … my knowledge and experience in integrating technology
in my classes is limited
Teacher 62: I am familiar in using technology for different pur- Instructional issues in using technology TPACK Change of teaching
poses, but when I come to using it for teaching in-class…it is strategies; design
difficult for me to change the traditional strategies in teaching, suitable activities
I am struggling to design technological activities and suitable
content which made me upset
873

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was also piloted by five different teachers to test the understandability of the open-ended
questions.
The MoE and the Scientific Research Directorate granted permission based on our
research proposal before we proceeded to contact the participants and invite them to
participate.

7.7 Findings

7.7.1 Research Question #1: What Are the Causes of Palestinian Middle School
Teachers’ Technostress While Using ICTs in Teaching?

The aim of the first research question was to explore teachers’ opinions about the causes
of technostress they faced while using new technology in their classrooms for academic
purposes. The 70 participants in the study reported a variety of causes. The participants’
opinions reflected their experiences with new technology in an environment in which they
face daily difficulties, political crisis, and economic crisis and requires the mandatory use
of new technology in their teaching practice. We coded 140 different opinions from 70
teachers in middle school settings, which we grouped into themes and subthemes based on
their characteristics, the themes that emerged were individual factors, school support, tech-
nology characteristics, and TPACK. Table 3 summarizes the themes and subthemes of the
sources of technostress reported by the teachers.

7.8 Individual Factors

We based our definition of this theme on different previous studies. Analyzing the teachers’
responses to the open-ended questions revealed subthemes related to individual character-
istics, including professional identity, language problems, lack of experience, lack of time,
and social commitments.
Professional identity refers to professional knowledge, perception of teaching with tech-
nology, attitudes, skills, and willingness to share knowledge with the community (Rodri-
gues & Mogarro, 2019). Forty-three of the participants reported that a teacher’s profes-
sional identity, which includes their attitudes, knowledge, skills, self-efficacy, and sharing
knowledge with the community, is an important factor that could increase or mitigate tech-
nostress levels confronted by teachers while using new technology. For example, Teacher 3
stated that “My negative attitudes towards the new technology I have to use put me under
stress and pressure.... My attitudes came due to a previous experience I had with similar
technology.”
Five of the teachers connected the technostress they confront to the multitasking they
must perform through various platforms and their ability to finish teaching tasks. Teacher
11 stated, for example, that “I do not have the ability to do many tasks on different plat-
forms at the same time.... I do not have enough skills and knowledge to use the platforms.”
Fifteen of the teachers reported that language barriers were another source of stress, as
the applications and platforms are in English and some platforms do not support writing
from right to left (as is standard in Arabic). Teacher 70 reported that “The tools on the
platforms are in the English language.... I do not know English; I use Google Translate to
translate.... In addition, the platforms do not support writing in Arabic language, it converts
it to symbols.”

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 Table 3  Themes and subthemes reported by the participants in the current study
Theme Subtheme Example

Individual factors Professional identity Lack of skills and knowledge of using new technology in a successful use makes me upset and demotivate
me to use it (Teacher 11)
Language problems The guideline of using a technology and the concepts are in a foreign and I don’t understand anything. I
need to know what it is. This makes me anxious…” (Teacher 19)
Lack of previous experience …This is the first time for using this technology [Microsoft Teams] in my teaching…I have to put more
with using technology efforts to use it effectively which put me under stress (Teacher 28)
Lack of time Using new technology needs a lot of time to learn about it and to prepare activities to use it (Teacher 69)
Social commitments Not visiting and participating my family and friends social events makes me stress (Teacher 30)
School support Training programs Training how to use a given technology and how it works are insufficient which force me to look for addi-
tional resources…It is time consuming (Teacher 27)
Policy The policy of using technology is not clear, is using it supplemental or mandatory? (Teacher 18)
Trust Our school administration did not allow us to choose the time and specific technology to use based on our
needs (Teacher 5)
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in…

Management support Lack of financial and managerial support from the school management make me anxious (Teacher 13)
Peer support When I asked to assistant or a consultant about using technology in my classes from my colleagues in the
school they did not give me sufficient information that I need to use technology (Teacher 21)
Technical support People who help teachers in case of technical issues such as crash or not responding are limited which
increase risks and stress on teachers (Teacher 45)
Infrastructure Unfortunately schools are not well equipped with suitable infrastructure to use technology such as strong
Wi-Fi, suitable resources,… (Teacher 51)
Technology characteristics Continue updating When I was using it [MS Teams]. It started updating without any notification message which forced me to
stop the class (Teacher 58)
Simplicity to use The complexity of a given technology needs much time and efforts and made me afraid to fail in using it
(Teacher 65)
Usefulness Knowing the value and benefits of using a given technology motivate me to use it and reduces the anxiety
… (Teacher 67)
Reachability I am stressed when I have difficulties to access to the new technology (teacher 31)
Privacy concerns I am not savvy in technology, my fears and concerns always on using a new technology is my identity,
safety, and privacy (teacher 37)
875

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 Table 3  (continued)
876

Theme Subtheme Example

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TPACK Change of teaching strategies I do not enough knowledge about the technology pedagogy to use technology in my teaching practice
(Teacher 17)
Meet student’s needs The new given technology cannot meet my needs and student’s needs (Teacher 25)
Design activities (content) My concern is about designing suitable content and activities for using the new technology in my classes, I
do not have enough skills to do that (Teacher 41)
Z. N. Khlaif et al.
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 877

The majority of the teachers connected the levels of technostress they experience with
their ability to use new technology in their teaching practice and to meet the expectations
of their school principals. Teacher 23 reported that “I do not believe that I will succeed
in using the new technology in teaching my math class.... It needs a lot of effort, which
caused me to be stressed.” One female teacher said, “I think the source of my stress and
pressure is to meet the expectations of my headmaster to use technology.... I do not have
the ability to succeed in it” (Teacher 3).
A few of the teachers reported that they consider it their social responsibility to share
knowledge and skills with the local community to educate them and help them to assist
their children with their school work. We sent a follow-up question to those teachers
enquiring how sharing knowledge with the community would increase their level of tech-
nostress. An example of the responses is represented by the teacher who said that “parents
start to send for help and clarification about the new technology, which forces me to spend
more effort and time to teach them how to use the technology” (Teacher 55).
Most of the teachers connected their levels of technostress with a lack of time to learn
about the technology and how to use it in their practice, which requires more effort. As one
teacher reported, “learning how the new technology works and how to use it needs more
time and effort.... I do not have enough time... lack of time makes me stressed” (Teacher
11).
The majority of the teachers expressed that not being able to attend to or achieve their
social commitments raised their levels of technostress. As one participant stated, “It is
important for me and my family to meet the social commitments such as visiting relatives,
participating in the family, community activities.... This cannot happen because I am learn-
ing about a new technology or sometimes because of the intertwine between my life and
teaching from home” (Teacher 17).

7.9 School Support

We found different subthemes related to the theme of school support, including train-
ing programs, policy, trust, management support, peer support, technical support, and
infrastructure.
Thirty-nine of the teachers reported that absent or insufficient training programs for new
technology are a source of increased levels of technostress. For example, Teacher 19 said,
“I did not attend any training about using the new technology; also, they did not provide us
instruction about how to use it, which put me under stress.”
Using new technology was a mandatory policy implemented by the MoE without any
flexibility; thus, teachers must use it or be punished, which, as 29 of the teachers reported,
put them at managerial risk and under stress. As Teacher 13 reported, “We have to use the
new technology without any exclusion or training, if I do not use it, my supervisor will
report me to the principal and the directorate, which could influence my promotion.”
Moreover, some of the teachers reported that the technostress they experienced was due
to lack of trust from their school administration, parents, or their supervisors. One teacher
reported that “My school administration asked me to provide them with the link to use MS
Teams to make sure that I am teaching which makes me stressed.... They can know about
my online teaching through asking in a different one” (Teacher 31).
Thirty-five of the participants reported that lack of school administration support,
including from principals and managerial staff, increased their levels of technostress
related to using new technology. Teacher 26 said, for example, “When I required assistance

13
878 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

from the principal to use MS Teams, she did not give me the required information, which
made me anxious.”
Seven of the teachers mentioned that lack of colleague support in using new technology
sometimes increased stress among them. Teacher 57 stated, “I asked my colleagues from
other schools to get assistance to use the new technology, they refused because they do not
have time.”
Lack of technical support was also a source of technostress reported by 10 of the teach-
ers who experienced various levels of technostress, and especially techno-overload. As
Teacher 33 said, “I faced many technical issues without managing to resolve them, which
forced me to stop using technology, which put me under stress.”
The infrastructure of teaching and learning for teachers and students was reported to be
a creator of technostress, especially when the internet was weak or students lacked devices.
One teacher reported that, “I get angry when I am talking and suddenly there is no internet
or students got out because of the weakness of internet on their side or because of electric-
ity cut-off” (Teacher 5).

7.10 Technology Characteristics

Fifty-four teachers reported that technology characteristics have a role in the level of tech-
nostress. Technology characteristics include continuous updating, simplicity of use, useful-
ness, reachability, and privacy concerns.
Seventeen of the teachers reported that the system started updating (i.e., to update the
application and the platform) while they were using the new technology, which interrupted
their use of the technology during the class and put them under stress and pressure. Teacher
51 said, “While I was using MS Teams in the class, it started updating, which stopped the
class; that made me anxious.”
The complexity of using new technology was another source of technostress reported
by 48 of the teachers. The teachers confirmed that it requires effort and time to learn about
complex technology and how to use it in teaching. For example, Teacher 5 said, “I felt
stress and under pressure when I tried to use the technology because it is difficult to use its
interface and the tools on it.”
Sixty of the teachers reported that they felt comfortable when they understood the value
and benefits of using new technology in teaching. As Teacher 30 reported, “I feel comfort-
able and happy when I know the value and the usefulness of the new technology in teach-
ing my classes.”
Nine of the teachers reported that difficulties in accessing the new technology increased
their level of technostress. For example, Teacher 8 stated that, “While I tried to access the
website of the platform, I faced difficulties, which made me stressed to continue using it.”
Concerns related to digital privacy are another source of technostress; 59 of the teachers
reported thinking deeply about their privacy with regard to using new technology. Teacher
21 said, “My digital privacy was damaged while using the platform because students were
able to get my social accounts without permission and asked me to add them...that is the
kind of stress came from this platform.”

7.11 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Thirty participants confirmed that their lack of TPACK skills was a major source of their
technostress. Eight teachers reported that they have the technical skills to use technology

13
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 879

but lack knowledge of the suitable instructional strategies for use in new-technology inte-
gration. As one teacher stated, “The big issue for me is using the suitable teaching method
while using a new technology” (Teacher 14).
Designing activities with suitable open educational resources was another source of
technostress reported by 25 of the teachers. Teacher 67 stated, “I do not have the skills
required to design activities to be used in the integration process of a new technology in my
classes.”
The last source of technostress that was reported by 41 of the teachers relates to meeting
the students’ needs through the use of the new technology. Teacher 10 reported that, “MS
Team did not meet the students’ needs in teaching science, which caused me to be angry
and upset.”
In summary, the teachers who participated in this research reported sources of technos-
tress that we divided into themes and subthemes. The main sources of technostress were
found to be technology characteristics and individual factors.

7.11.1 Research Question #2: How Do Palestinian Teachers in Middle School Settings

Describe Their Experience of Technostress While Using ICTs in Teaching?

We asked the teachers to describe their experiences with technostress caused by using new
technology. The teachers’ responses varied, ranging from experiencing a small amount of
anxiety and stress to feeling unable to use the new technology in their teaching practices
even though they know it is mandatory.
Some teachers expressed that they experienced technostress related to their students not
interacting with them while using technology. One teacher said, “I feel anxious because I
don’t see and feel the responses from the students; because of that I feel distance, not just
the physical distance, but also emotional distance between myself and the students. That
puts me under stress” (Teacher 29).
Twenty of the teachers experienced high levels of technostress because their students
did not interact with them while using the new technology, and they felt that this separated
them from their students. As Teacher 55 reported, “While I was teaching using Microsoft
Teams, half of the students in the class did not interact with me, which made me anxious.”
Another teacher stated that “The biggest stress in using MS Teams is you cannot know
what the student is doing behind the screen” (Teacher 40).
Forty of the teachers who had experience with using technology in teaching reported
low levels of stress. In their responses, they mentioned their experience with integrating
various tools of ICT into their teaching process. For example, Teacher 41 said, “I have
extensive experience with using computer applications for designing technological activi-
ties for the interactive projector in my school.” More than 15 teachers reported that they
increased their knowledge and skills in using technology in teaching through practice, and
that this reduced the technostress they confront.
Forty-two of the teachers expressed discomfort related to using new technology that dif-
fers from previous technology they had experience with. They reported pressure resulting
from not having enough time to learn how the new technology works and how to use it in
their teaching.
Sixty of the teachers, meanwhile, expressed their level of technostress as techno-over-
load resulting from using different platforms and technology in their teaching practice.
Teacher 51 said, “During summer I attended two workshops about using various tech-
nological platforms to design activities, which made me upset and asking the trainers

13
880 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

which one should I use? Why did you not train us on only one?” Other teachers reported,
“I’m spending a lot of time on the Facebook and WhatsApp groups and having to write
responses for the students and even having online sessions on Zoom. Some students send
files or questions. It is a complicated process and I think this might be the main cause of
stress” (Teacher 39).
Four of the teachers expressed techno-complexity as a contributor to technostress,
mentioning the difficulties of using the notebook in the Microsoft Teams application. For
example, Teacher 29 said, “I felt stressed with how to create the notebook for my students
and add the activities on it.”
Moreover, five of the teachers preferred to use technology they were familiar with
since it did not require extra work and would have been easy for them to continue using it.
Teacher 17 reported that “I felt stressed when the school administration asked me to use a
new one.... I do not know why, I prefer to use the technology I had used in my classes, I am
familiar with it.”
Techno-invasion was another level of stress that 15 of the teachers mentioned as a cause
of discomfort and stress. Preparing activities to use with a new technology intertwines with
their social life as they must prepare the activities from home. As Teacher 57 stated, “I
have to work from home to prepare for the activities, I felt stress because there are no
limited working hours, which causes me to cancel my social activities with my family.”
Another teacher shared that “The stress is managing my social activities with my family so
I cannot go out for a short trip” (Teacher 8).
Seventeen of the teachers wrote about their experiences with isolation when they were
teaching online using Zoom. “I felt isolated from my environment while teaching online....
There is no social communication, it was a hard time for me, which made me stressed”
(Teacher 13).

7.11.2 Research Question #3: What Approaches Do Palestinian Teachers Currently Use

to Mitigate the Levels of Technostress They Face While Using ICTs in Teaching?

We asked the teachers about the steps they took to reduce the level of technostress they
faced while using a given technology in their teaching practices. In their responses, the
teachers reported many different approaches they have taken to reduce the level of tech-
nostress and its consequences. For example, 18 of the teachers reported that they changed
their teaching approach. The changes they described included using new strategies (such
as a flipped classroom), giving students more roles in the online sessions, and using open-
education resources suitable for their students and classroom activities. For example, one
teacher expressed that “When I experienced stress while using Zoom, I started thinking
about the activities and how can I engage the students in online learning” (Teacher 5).
Another teacher said, “Honestly, I used a lot of extra curriculum from free websites and
open resources, they were helpful to reduce the time I need with less stress” (Teacher 21).
Thirty of the teachers expressed the importance of the awareness of using technology
versus teaching without using technology, which encouraged teachers to shift their expec-
tations to using technology and preparing for it. For example, Teacher 33 said, “Changing
your expectations toward using technology may make teachers to prepare well and reduce
stress.”
Another approach that 25 of the teachers reported using to reduce technostress while
teaching was time management. “It is important to put a schedule to divide your working
time and social events even when you are teaching online.... My experience taught me to

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Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 881

put boundaries [working hours and social events] and organize my time to reduce stress as
I can as possible,” shared Teacher 41.
Twenty of the teachers reported having received social support from their colleagues in
and out of their schools, which had a positive impact on reducing their levels of technos-
tress while using new technology. For example, Teacher 69 stated that “I got support from
my friends who are teaching the same topics by using technology, they taught me how to
use it [technology] in my topics and share with me educational resources that are suitable
for the new technology.”
Five of the teachers reported that they reduced their technostress levels by working col-
laboratively with their peers in planning for technological activities and developing materi-
als. Teacher 49 said, “I collaborated with my friends from different schools to share with
each other the activities we teach online and develop materials for all of us.... It was helpful
in reducing the time I needed, getting support, and reducing stress.”
Receiving technical and instructional support from school administration and colleagues
may also reduce the stress of using new technology, as 23 teachers reported. Teacher 5
said, “My principal was helpful for me through providing technical and instructional assis-
tance to use technology.... He was an IT teacher before being a principal.” Another par-
ticipant reported that “My colleagues are good in using technology in teaching, they have
experience.... I asked them for assistance, which helps me to reduce the time I need to learn
about the new technology” (Teacher 29).
Fifty-five of the teachers reported that the best way to mitigate technostress is to ensure
that they receive training on how a new technology works and how they should use it in
teaching. Teacher 67 said, “Through getting skills and knowledge about the new technol-
ogy and how to use it can mitigate the stress levels.... It can be achieved through weekly
workshops and training days during the academic year.”
Seven of the teachers expressed their need for the MoE to provide suitable material
and teaching activities through the curriculum unit to use in integrating a new technology.
Teacher 7 expressed that “Providing us with designed activities and materials to be used
with the new technology from the MoE, it can reduce our efforts and time to design such
activities.”
Lack of previous experience with using technology was another source of stress and
anxiety, and 35 teachers reported that teachers do not always know how to use new tech-
nology. For example, Teacher 23 said, “I do not have experience with using technology in
teaching... this is the first time for me to use it.... This made me anxious.”
Finally, 65 of the teachers cited lack of time to learn about new technology and how to
use it with their social commitments and family as a major source of stress while using new
technology. One teacher shared that “On the weekend, I prefer to spend it with my family
and relatives... but while learning about the new technology, I cancelled the social activi-
ties, which made me stressed and angry” (Teacher 67).

8 Discussion

The changes and challenges generated by emerging technology require more research to
reduce risks and avoid negative effects on teachers and schools. Many of the previous stud-
ies on the bright and dark sides of new technologies in various fields such as the business,
health, and IT sectors suggest a focus on regulations and identifying working conditions
in the context of emerging technology. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a

13
882 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

deeper understanding of the factors influencing teachers’ experiences of technostress while

using new technology in the learning process, specifically in middle school settings in Pal-
estine. We also aimed to classify these factors into themes based on their features, which
we determined using open-ended questions for data collection. The current study’s findings
could inspire decision-makers, teachers, and researchers to design training programs and
develop policies for integrating technologies in teaching and learning to mitigate the nega-
tive effects of using a given technology. This study was conducted in a country with unique
characteristics, and the teachers who participated are under daily stress due to overall insta-
bility and using a new technology, which causes levels of technostress.
In this study, individual characteristics were found to play a crucial role in the levels of
technostress teachers experienced while using a new technology, which corresponds to the
findings of previous studies such as Chou and Chou (2021) and Krishnan (2017). Our anal-
ysis found that the major creator of technostress under the individual theme was the pro-
fessional identity subtheme, which is normally related to one’s skills to use a technology
and knowledge of how it works (Califf et al., 2020). Moreover, teachers’ attitudes toward
using new technology is considered to be a component of professional identity, which can
be a source of technostress (ÇOKLAR & BOZYİĞİT, 2021). Our findings revealed that
a lack of teacher self-efficacy may also contribute to technostress due to techno-overload,
which is related to different tools that teachers are required to use, such as designing tech-
nological tools while using Microsoft Teams to teach online. These findings are consistent
with a recent study by Kim and Lee (2021) that found technology users’ self-efficacy can
reduce their levels of technostress. Lack of experience in using new technology in teach-
ing may cause additional technostress for teachers because they do not know how to use
it for academic purposes; this finding is inconsistent with the work of Camarena and Fusi
(2022). Based on our study’s findings, technostress generated in the learning environment
may not depend only on teachers’ experience, skills, knowledge, and attitudes, which opens
up theoretical implications. Our analysis shows that social support from school peers, fam-
ily, and students plays an important role in reducing teachers’ levels of technostress, which
reveals a practical implication for decision-makers in the MoE to design and implement
these kinds of supports. Moreover, school support in various forms, including from admin-
istration and colleagues, and good infrastructure with suitable technical support may miti-
gate technostress levels experienced by teachers who use new technology; this is likely to
have a positive effect on teacher performance. This is supported in the literature; for exam-
ple, Li and Wang (2021) reported that technical support and literacy facilitation can reduce
teachers’ levels of technostress. Moreover, Palestinian teachers use new technology due to
the MoE’s policy rather than their own attitudes and internal motivation, which can cause
additional stress and anxiety. Moreover, when teachers feel anxious about being required to
change their teaching strategies and use newly emerging technology, they resist accepting
and adopting the new technology. Therefore, with regard to practical implications, school
administration and policy makers should be aware of the negative side of top-down deci-
sions for using new technology; they must recognize that teachers may experience various
levels of technostress regarding their acceptance, adoption, and continuance intentions to
use new technology (Khlaif et al., 2022).
Moreover, our findings indicate that social support from peers within the school or from
other schools, such as having the opportunity to communicate and share knowledge and
open educational resources related to the use of the new technology, are necessary for the
reduction of technostress among teachers (Joo et al., 2016; Özgür, 2020). Consequently,
teachers can gain emotional support from their peers and develop their skills and knowl-
edge by sharing with their colleagues. Moreover, technical support, which is an important

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Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 883

part of school support, plays a crucial role in reducing technostress levels among teachers.
This is congruent with Kim and Lee’s (2021) findings, which revealed that technical sup-
port may reduce technostress.
Teachers’ daily use of new technology and rapid changes in this technology through
upgrades and updates often negatively affects teachers’ usage intentions due to the tech-
nostress levels they experienced in this context. This is consistent with the findings of Salo
et al. (2017) and Lee (2021), which confirmed that teachers who had experience using
technology in teaching can recall prior skills and knowledge to help in integrating new
technology.
The complexity and value of a given technology have been shown to be major sources of
technostress, as the complexity of a technology affects the amount of time and effort teach-
ers must invest to learn about how the technology works and how to use it, and this can
increase technostress for those who lack technical and colleague support (Özgür, 2020).
Creating communities of practice for using new technology among teachers may reduce
levels of technostress (Salo et al., 2017). Different levels of technostress among teachers
may also relate to different teaching experiences with technology and the learning envi-
ronment or the technology itself. However, our results indicate that teachers often attempt
to mitigate their technostress levels through various strategies, which is also supported by
previous work. Some mitigation strategies include peer support (Joo et al., 2016), profes-
sional development programs (Li & Wang, 2021), open educational resources (Murphy
et al., 2021), changing teaching strategies (Joo et al., 2016), and working collaboratively to
develop technological activities to use with new technology (Qi, 2019).
This study’s findings have also revealed additional factors that could increase teachers’
levels of technostress. These factors include a lack of TPACK skills in using new technol-
ogy for teaching purposes, which is consistent with the works of Özgür (2020) and Dong
et al. (2020). A lack of TPACK skills could be related to individual characteristics or due to
the new technology itself.

9 Theoretical Implications

The findings of the present study indicate that the factors that influence teachers’ levels of
technostress can provide a useful understanding of how new technology use in teaching
practices.
affects technostress levels and extends existing factors of teachers’ perspectives (Dong
et al., 2020; Özgür, 2020; Li & Wang, 2021) through reporting new factors such as trust,
privacy, and professional identity. Our findings resulted from a unique case in which teach-
ers used new technology in a mandatory environment during political, economic, and natu-
ral crises. Moreover, this study advances our understanding of the use of new technology
in teaching and learning and how individual characteristics and social support can affect
technostress levels (Murphy et al., 2021; Qi, 2019).

10 Practical Implications

This study provides important practical implications for MoE decision-makers. Teachers,
school administrations, and non-profit organizations could refer to its findings when devel-
oping approaches to improve responses to using new technology in teaching and learning.

13
884 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

First, decision-makers should focus on improving professional identity (especially

skills and knowledge and ability to succeed in using technology) through training pro-
grams and providing technical support for teachers (Taser et al., 2022). Second, to
reduce technostress levels, the MoE and schools should encourage peer support and
cultivate a culture of collaborative work among teachers to allow them to share knowl-
edge, skills, and technological activities related to using a new technology (Li & Wang,
2021). Third, to mitigate technostress levels, teachers must be supported in creating a
knowledge community through which they can share their experiences with designing
activities and TPACK skills (Dong et al., 2020).

11 Limitations and Future Research

The current study has some limitations that make its findings difficult to generalize. One
such limitation is the number of the participants, while another is our use of an open-
ended question form for data collection. Moreover, we collected the data for this study
during a crisis, when teachers were just starting to teach online using Microsoft Teams,
and therefore, they still had limited experience. Future research that includes more
teachers and uses different research instruments and a different methodology would
be beneficial for uncovering additional factors; it would also be beneficial to conduct a
study that focuses on the use of a different technology. Finally, it is important to further
investigate the relationship between the factors to determine how these factors influence
each other and their indirect impact on teachers’ technostress.

12 Conclusion

The aim of this study was to explore the factors that contributed to teachers’ experiences
of technostress due to teaching in a mandated environment that requires integrating new
technology into their teaching practice. We approached this by attempting to learn from
the participants’ lived experiences. Therefore, this study contributes to the body of lit-
erature and current knowledge of technostress among teachers and expands the research
on teachers who teach in a mandated environment in a country that has suffered crises
over more than 70 years. This work differs from previous studies that mainly focused on
other sectors, such as business and health.
This study revealed a variety of factors that contribute to the levels of technostress
experienced by teachers. We have grouped these factors into the themes of individual
factors, school support, technology characteristics, and TPACK knowledge. The teach-
ers’ responses indicate that they experience various levels of technostress while using
new technology in their teaching practice. Further to this, teachers report many strate-
gies that they employ to reduce the levels of technostress they are faced with; these
include receiving social support, using open educational resources, and attending train-
ing on using a new technology. Previous experience with using technology in teaching
plays an important role in mitigating the levels of technostress experienced by teachers.

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Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 885

Appendix 1

Systematic Review of Prior Research on Factors Influencing

Technostress (2016–2022) Published in Peer‑Reviewed Journals Only

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study

Camarena and Always Con- Quantitative Existed survey Business ICT use, age,
Fusi (2022) nected: gender, organi-
Technology zation practices
Use Increases
Technostress
Among Pub-
lic Managers
Tuan (2022) Employee Quantitative Existed survey Service indus- Job insecurity,
mindfulness try, Veitnam mindfulness,
and proactive gender
coping for
technos-
tress in the
COVID-19
outbreak:
The roles of
regulatory
foci, technos-
tress, and job
insecurity
Baabdullah Usage of aug- Quantitative Scale items Undergraduate
et al. (2022) mented real- study of UGT students from
ity (AR) and constructs Saudi Arabia
development were derived
of e-learning from Nam-
outcomes: An bisan and
empirical Baron
evaluation of
students’
e-learning
experience
Salo et al. Formation and Qualitative The researchers IT users, Invasion,
(2022) Mitigation study developed the Finland depend-
of Technos- tool ency, privacy
tress in the concerns, time
Personal Use management,
of IT and complexity

13
886 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Li and Wang Technostress Quantitative Developed University Literacy facilita-
(2021) inhibitors and study based on teachers, tion, technical
creators and Tarafdar et al. China support, and
their impacts (2007) involvement
on university facilitation
teach-
ers’ work
performance
in higher
education
Chou and Chou A multi-group Quantitative Self-developed Teachers Self-efficacy,
(2021) analysis study questionnaire in formal school sup-
of factors education in port, privacy
underlying Taiwan concerns
teachers’
technostress
and their
continuance
intention
toward online
teaching
Iskandar (2021) The Factors Quantitative Not reported High school technology
Influencing study wither students, feature of using
Compul- adapted or Malaysia social applica-
sive Social developed tion does not
Apps and tool influence
Its Impact technostress
on Technos-
tress among
Students
Shirish et al. Switching to Quantitative survey adapted Graduate stu- IT mindfulness
(2021) online learn- study from existed dents, France
ing during survey
COVID-19:
Theorizing
the role of IT
mindfulness
and techno
eustress for
facilitating
productivity
and creativity
in student
learning
Thiyagu (2021) Techno-Stress Quantitative Self-developed Teacher, India The researcher
Scale of did not report
Teacher the dimensions
Educators: of the survey
Construction
of the Tool

13
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 887

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Pflügner et al. The direct Quantitative Adapted from Workers in dif- Mindfulness
(2021) and indirect study Ragu-Nathan ferent fields,
influence of et al., 2008) Germany
mindfulness
on techno-
stressors and
job burnout:
A quantita-
tive study of
white-collar
workers
Stadin et al. Technostress Quantitative Adapted Health sector, ICTs demands,
(2021) operational- existed Sweden lack of work
ized as infor- survey control,
mation and insufficient
communica- administrative
tion technol- support, the
ogy (ICT) risk of manage-
demands rial turnover
among
managers
and other
occupational
groups –
Results from
the Swedish
Longitudinal
Occupational
Survey
of Health
(SLOSH)
Abd Aziz and Explora- Quantitative developed by Undergradu- Techno-overload,
Yazid (2021) tory Factor study the research- ate student, techno-uncer-
Analysis of ers Malaysia tainity, techno-
Technos- insecurity,
tress among and techno-
University complexity
Students
Gökbulut The Relation- Quantitative Adapted previ- Teachers, TPACK and its
(2021) ship Between study ous tools Turkey sub-factors
Teachers’ (TPACK and
Technostress technostress
and Their scale
Techno-
pedagogical
Competence

13
888 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Panisoara et al. Motivation and Quantitative Developed by Teachers, extrinsic, intrin-
(2020) Continuance study the research- Romania sic motivation,
Intention ers TPK Self-
towards efficacy
Online
Instruc-
tion among
Teachers
during the
COVID-19
Pandemic:
The Mediat-
ing Effect of
Burnout and
Technostress
Wang and Li Technostress Quantitative Adapted from University stu- Personal factors,
(2019) in university study established dents, China environment
students’ research factors, organi-
technology- zation factors,
enhanced and job factors
learning: An
investiga-
tion from
multidimen-
sional person-
environment
misfit
Upadhyaya Impact of Quantitative Adapted from Undergradu- Gender, level of
and Virinda technostress study Tarafdar et al. ate students, education, ICT
(2020) on academic (2007) India experience,
productivity
of university
students
Wang et al. Measuring Quantitative Self-developed University stu- Person-Environ-
(2020) university study dents, China ment factors
students’ which relate
technostress to Ability-
in technology demands,
enhanced Needs-supplies
learning:
Scale devel-
opment and
validation

13
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 889

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Dong et al. Exploring the Quantitative Use differ- K-12 in-service Administrative
(2020) Structural study ent existed teachers in support, col-
Relation- instrument China legial support,
ship Among and adapted computer self-
Teachers’ based on the efficacy
Technostress, constructs of
Technologi- the study
cal Pedagogi-
cal Content
Knowledge
(TPACK),
Computer
Self-efficacy
and School
Support
Maier et al. Personality Quantitative Online survey Workers in Personal traits
(2015) Profiles that study different
Put Users organization
at Risk of in Bavaria
Perceiving
Technostress
Özgür (2020) Relationships Quantitative Developed Teachers in Gender, Age,
between study from other Turkey overall school
teachers’ studies and support, techni-
technostress, use some cal support,
technological scales existed TPACK
pedagogi-
cal content
knowledge
(TPACK),
school
support and
demographic
variables:
A structural
equation
modeling
Christian et al. Technostress Quantitative Not reported Higher Techno-overload,
(2020) Creators on study education in techno-uncer-
Teaching Indonesia tainity, techno-
Performance insecurity,
of Private and techno-
Universities complexity
in Jakarta
During
Covid-19
Pandemic
Estrada-Muñoz Teacher Tech- Quantitative RED-TIC Teachers in techno-fatigued,
et al. (2020) nostress in study questionnaire middle and Techno-anx-
the Chilean integrated high schools iety, teaching
School into the Tech- in ٍ Spain age, and gender
System nical Note of
Prevention

13
890 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Oladosu et al. Learning Quantitative self-developed undergradu- Using mobile
(2020) with Smart study survey ate students, devices caused
Devices: Nigeria technostress
Influence of for the students
Technostress because of the
on Under- tasks and using
graduate it for academic
Students’ performance
Learning at
University
of Ilorin,
Nigeria
Marchiori et al. A RELA- Quantitative Developed IT users, Brazil Individual fea-
(2020) TIONSHIP study based on tures (age, gen-
BETWEEN literature der, education,
TECHNOS- review professional
TRESS, SAT- experience,
ISFACTION occupy).
AT WORK, Techno-over-
ORGANI- load, techno-
ZATIONAL complexity,
COMMIT- techno-inse-
MENT AND curity, techno
DEMOG- uncertainty
RAPHY:
EVIDENCE
FROM THE
BRAZILIAN
PUBLIC
SECTOR
Christopher B. An empiri- Quantitative Adapted from K-12 teachers, techno-complex-
Califf, Stoney cal study of study previous USA ity, techno-
Brooks techno-stress- studies insecurity,
ors, literacy techno-
facilitation, invasion,
burnout, techno-over-
and turnover load, techno-
intention as uncertainty,
experienced and literacy
by K-12 facilitation
teachers
Califf and The bright and mixed methods Developed by Nurses, USA Involvement
Sarker (2020) dark sides of approach the research- facilitation,
technostress: ers from the technical
A mixed qualitative support,
methods phase based usefulness,
study involv- on theories unreliability,
ing health IT and models insecurity,
change overload,
uncertainty,
and complexity

13
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 891

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Liu et al. Exploring the Quantitative Developed physicians in Personal
(2019) factors that study based on hospitals, characteris-
influence theories and Taiwan tics, mobile
physician previous self-efficacy,
technostress question- and technology
from using naires characteristics
mobile elec- composed
tronic medi- of perceived
cal records usefulness,
perceived
complexity,
and perceived
reality
Mäkiniemi How are Quantitative Developed by Teachers, Self-efficacy,
et al. (2022) technology- study the research- Finland technology
related ers as apart related com-
workplace of a large petency and
resources project in autonomy
associated Finland
with techno-
work engage-
ment among
a group
of Finnish
teachers?
Krishnan Personality Quantitative The the Graduate Personality traits
(2017) and espoused study constructs students in and espoused
cultural dif- used in the India culture
ferences in study were
technostress measured
creators using scales
adapted
from prior
studies (see
Appendix)
to enhance
validity
Qi (2019) A double- Quantitative Not reported University stu- Individual
edged sword? study dents, China differences,
Exploring self-efficacy
the impact of
students’ aca-
demic usage
of mobile
devices on
technostress
and academic
performance

13
892 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Hauk et al. The mediating Quantitative The survey Employ- Age
(2019) role of coping study adapted from ees from
behavior Tarafdar M, Germany,
on the age- Tu Q, Ragu- Austria and
technostress Nathan BS, Switzerland
relationship: Tarafdar et al.
A longitudi- (2007)
nal multilevel
mediation
model
Hassan et al. THE EFFECTS Quantitative The survey Teachers, Techno-overload,
(2019) OF TECH- study adapted from Malaysia techno-uncer-
NOSTRESS Tarafdar M, tainty, techno-
CREA- Tu Q, Ragu- insecurity,
TORS AND Nathan BS, and techno-
ORGANI- Tarafdar et al. complexity
ZATIONAL (2007)
COMMIT-
MENT
AMONG
SCHOOL
TEACHERS
Hauk et al. Technostress Quantitative Self-developed Germany, All the three
(2019) and the study questionnaire Organization personal traits
hierarchi- (Employees) including:
cal levels of neuroticism,
personality: personal inno-
a two-wave vativeness in
study with IT (PIIT), and
multiple data IT mindfulness
samples influence the
perception of
technostress
Fischer et al. Is the Technos- Qualitative Developed by Employees in Techno-unrelia-
(2019) tress Creators study the research- companies, bility, IT-based
Inventory ers Austria monitoring,
Still an cyberbullying,
Up-To-Date techno-over-
Measurement load, techno-
Instrument? invasion,
Results of a techno-com-
Large-Scale plexity, techno-
Interview insecurity, and
Study techno-uncer-
tainty
Ioannou et al. Using IT Quantitative Adapted from Workers from IT mindfulness
(2022) Mindfulness study Ragu-Nathan UK
to Mitigate et al. (2008)
the Negative and Thatcher
Conse- et al. (2018)
quences of
Technostress

13
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 893

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Kim and Park THE EFFECTS Quantitative Developed by Individual IT environment
(2018) OF TECH- the research- residing in characteris-
NOSTRESS ers Korea tics (relative
ON INFOR- advantage,
MATION complexity,
TECH- reliability, pace
NOLOGY of change, and
ACCEPT- connectivity)
ANCE
Sarabadani 10 Years of Review study USA Individual dif-
et al. (2018) Research on ferences (age,
Technostress gender, educa-
Creators and tion, computer
Inhibitors: confidence)
Synthesis and involvement
Critique facilitation,
technical sup-
port, innova-
tion support,
techno-over-
load, techno-
complexity,
techno-insecu-
rity, techno-
uncertainty,
techno-inva-
sion
Okolo et al. An Explora- Quantitative Adapted from Bussines, Job design
(2018) tion of the study previous Nigeria
Relationship research
between
Technostress,
Employee
Engagement
and Job
Design from
the Nigerian
Banking
Employee’s
Perspective
Hauk et al. Do Individual Quantitative instrument Workers in Age, gender,
(2019) Characteris- study presented by Brazil experience, and
tics Influence Tarafdar et al. education level
the Types of (2007)
Technostress
Reported by
Workers?
Çoklar et al. Defining Quantitative Self-develop- Teachers, Technical issue
(2017) Teachers’ study ment Turkey oriented, per-
Technostress sonal oriented,
Levels: A social oriented,
Scale Devel- professional
opment oriented, and
learning-teach-
ing process
oriented

13
894 Z. N. Khlaif et al.

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Yang et al. Techno-Stress Quantitative developed Teachers, Techno-change
(2017) of Teachers: study China frequency,
An Empirical techno-ambi-
Investigation guity
from China
Hsiao et al. Exploring the Quantitative Adapted from Computer sci- Personality trait,
(2017) effect of com- study prior similar ence students compulsive
pulsive social research with in Taiwan mobile applica-
app usage on slight modifi- tion use
technostress cation
and academic
performance:
Perspectives
from person-
ality traits
Joo et al. The effects of Quantitative Developed Teachers TPACK and
(2016) secondary study from previ- in public School support,
teachers’ ous studies schools in technical and
technostress Soujth Korea environmental
on the inten- support,
tion to use
technology in
South Korea
Çoklar et al. Investigation Quantitative Self-developed Teachers Gender, profes-
(2017) Of Techno- study from public sional experi-
Stress Levels schools, ence, time
Of Teachers Turkey spent on Inter-
Who Were net, Learning-
Included In Teaching Pro-
Technology cess Oriented
Integration Techno-Stress,
Processes Profession
Oriented
Techno-Stress,
Technical
Issue Oriented
Techno-Stress,
Personal Ori-
ented Techno-
Stress, and
Social Oriented
Techno-Stress
Syvänen et al. When does the Quantitative Based on Teachers ICT compe-
(2016) educational study existed scales (subject and tence, attitudes
use of ICT such as classroom towards using
become a TPACK teachers) ICT, the
source of Finland frequency of
technostress using ICT,
for Finnish school support,
teachers? the concord-
ance of the
educational use
of ICT with the
teaching style

13
Factors Influencing Teacher’s Technostress Experienced in… 895

Authors Title Type of the Instruments Context Factors

study
Estrada-Muñoz Reducing quantitative Designed by Teachers, Spain ICT problem
et al. (2020) techno- and qualita- the research- solving skills
anxiety in tive ers
high school
teachers by
improving
their ICT
problem-solv-
ing skills
Çoklar et al. Determining Qualitative Developed by Teachers, Individual prob-
(2017) the Reasons study the research- Turkey lems, technical
of Tech- ers problems, edu-
nostress cation oriented
Experienced problems,
by Teachers: health prob-
A Qualitative lems, and time
Study problems

Funding The authors have not disclosed any funding.

Data availability Data availability will be upon request from the interested and readers of the manuscript.

Declarations
Conflict of Interest There is no conflict of interest among the authors of the paper. The participants of the
research were teachers who are teaching in K-12 school settings in Palestine.

Informed consent All of the participants were informed about the purpose of the study and signed a consent
form.

Consent for Publications No previous publications in the field of Psychology education.

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Authors and Affiliations

Zuheir N. Khlaif1,2 · Mageswaran Sanmugam1 · Amjad I. Joma3 · Ahmad Odeh2 ·

Kefah Barham2
Mageswaran Sanmugam
[email protected]
Amjad I. Joma
[email protected]
Ahmad Odeh
[email protected]
Kefah Barham
[email protected]
1
Centre for Instructional Technology & Multimedia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Education and Teachers Preparing, An-NAjah National University, Nablus, Palestine
3
Psychological Department, A’Sharqiyah University, Sultanate of Oman, Ibra, Oman

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