Mahabharata By Vyasa (Summary)
Book 1: Beginnings
We begin during the rule of Bharata, when everyone on Earth follows dharma. His lineage is traced to
two sons: Dhrtarastra, who is blind and cannot inherit the throne, and Pandu, who becomes king. Pandu
has one illegitimate son he must give up to be raised as a Suta and five sons to call his own, and all six
are gods incarnate. Dhrtarastra has 100 sons (called Kauravas), all demons. Pandu's five
sons Arjuna, Bhima, Yudhisthira, Nakula, and Sahadeva are all great warriors or great kings, and marry
the princess Draupadi. Dhrtarastra's son Duryodhana leads the other 99 brothers, and has a seething
hatred for the Pandavas, or Pandu's sons. Both Yudhisthira and Duryodhana are granted kingdoms by
Dhrtarastra.
Book 2: The Hall
After Yudhisthira is consecrated as king, Duryodhana schemes to take his kingdom. So, Duryodhana
challenges Yudhisthira to a dice game. Duryodhana implores Yudhisthira to participate, and Yudhisthira
determines that it's his dharma to play despite being a terrible gambler. He gradually gambles away his
entire kingdom and the freedom of his wife, but Dhrtarastra commands Duryodhana to give Yudhisthira
one more change. Duryodhana agrees, saying that if Yudhisthira loses he and the other Pandavas must
live in exile for 12 years and spend a 13th year in disguise, and if they're recognized, they must spend
another 12 years in exile. Yudhisthira loses.
Book 3: The Forest
The brothers and Draupadi spend the 12 years of exile in the forest, studying with Brahmins and
training. During this period of time, Arjuna is granted a celestial weapon by the god Indra. Draupadi is
kidnapped and brought back.
Book 4: Virata
During their 13th year, the Pandavas take refuge in the king Virata's palace, posing as former subjects of
Yudhisthira. Draupadi poses as a maidservant to maintain her independence. It's an eventful year, with a
rape attempt on Draupadi that leads to Bhima slaughtering all of the aggressor's supporters and Arjuna
helping Virata's son win back cattle from thieves. The brothers make it through the 13th year
undetected despite these showy adventures.
Book 5: Perseverance
Yudhisthira returns to take his kingdom back, but learns Duryodhana has no intention of turning it over.
Duryodhana clearly wants war, but Krsna advises Yudhisthira to ask for a peaceful transfer of power
first. Duryodhana denies this peaceful transfer, clearly desiring war despite being chided by everyone
close to him. The two sides prepare for war. Duryodhana appoints Bhima his commander. Krsna tells the
Yudhisthira that even though he will equip Duryodhana with soldiers, he will side with the Pandavas.
Book 6: Bhisma
At the beginning of the battle, Arjuna asks Krsna for permission to throw down his arms since he does
not want to slay his kind. Krsna recites the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna, explaining the tenets of dharma and
action, and specifically Arjuna's duty to fight in this war with a preordained outcome. After a sustained
conflict between Arjuna and Krsna, Arjuna finally kills Bhisma on the 10th day of the war, and Bhisma
chooses to lay on a bed of arrows and delay the date of his death.
Book 7: Drona
Drona, Arjuna's former military trainer, is appointed the new commander of Duryodhana's army. He is a
fearsome fighter, so the Pandavas devise a plan to trick Drona into defying his dharma, making himself
ready to die. Yudhisthira tells Drona that Bhima killed Asvatthaman, which is the name of Drona's son. In
reality, Bhima killed an elephant named Asvatthaman. Drona flies into a fit of rage and violates his
dharma by massacring soldiers he shouldn't kill. When he realizes what has happened, he lays down his
arms and accepts his death.
Book 8: Karna
Duryodhana begins to grasp that his campaign is doomed, but at Karna's request, he appoints Karna the
new commander of his army. Karna and Arjuna meet on the battlefield in a bloody exchange, in which
Karna is slowly brutalized and killed.
Book 9: Salya
Salya is appointed the next and, ultimately, final commander of Duryodhana's army. He is quickly killed
by Yudhisthira. Duryodhana flees to hide in a lake, knowing the end of the war is imminent, but the
Pandavas find him. Bhima kills him in a match with clubs, using an unfair strike. Despite the protests of
observers and Duryodhana himself, Krsna ordains the strike, saying it was within Bhima's dharma and
that Duryodhana had acted in adharma by instigating the war.
Book 10: The Night-Raid
Among the handful of Kauravas surviving, Asvatthaman sneaks into the Pandavas' camp and massacres
everyone in it, some of them in such a way that they do not die a proper warrior's death and can't attain
heaven. As he leaves, he places a curse on Pandava wombs, making them barren.
Book 11: The Women
Yudhisthira visits Dhrtarastra, who is mourning over the death of all of his sons. Likewise, the Kauravas'
wives confront Yudhisthira about massacring their husbands. When Dhrtarastra sees Bhima, he tries to
kill him, but Krsna tricks Dhrtarastra into attacking an effigy of Bhima instead. There is a funeral pyre for
the Kauravas and then a ritual at the Ganga river. At the Ganga, Yudhisthira learns that Karna was his
brother, and plunges into grief.
Book 12: Tranquility
Yudhisthira is ambivalent about taking his throne, but agrees to it to honor Dhrtarastra. The Pandavas
travel to visit the dying Bhisma, who asks for a pillow from Arjuna, but means that he wants more
arrows to rest his head on. Bhisma begins a philosophical conversation with Yudhisthira on his duties as
a king and the nature of dharma.
Book 13: Instruction
Bhisma's and Yudhisthira's conversation continues, as they talk about how to live well and abide by
dharma, as well as about women. Bhisma tells Duryodhana that he should consider the Pandavas his
own sons, and forget about his wicked sons that have gone to hell. Bhisma dies and is cremated.
Book 14: The Horse Sacrifice
Yudhisthira hesitates to resume ruling, but Krsna instructs him to undertake a horse sacrifice ritual to
cleanse the world. Arjuna rides the white horse that will be sacrificed around the former sites of battle
and fends off various aggressors. After the journey, the horse and many other animals are sacrificed in a
pyre, and the smoke from the horse's burning intestinal sac does the purifying.
Book 15: The Hermitage
Dhrtarastra and his wife Gandhari, along with the Pandavas' mother Kunti and some others, retreat to a
forest hermitage to live out their days as ascetics. The Pandavas miss their mother sorely and organize a
trip to visit the elders. Shortly after their trip, their elders burn to death in a sacred fire lit by
Dhrtarastra.
Book 16: The Clubs
We read the tale of the Vrsni who descend into sin when they learn of their demise by time. Krsna is
himself killed by a hunter named Jara, which is Sanskrit for "old age." He ascends and rejoins the gods.
Without Krsna, Arjuna is unable to defend the Vrsni women from a kidnapping by a pack of thieves. He
returns to tell his brothers of his defeat.
Book 17: The Great Journey
With Krsna dead, Yudhisthira decides it is his time to die as well. He leaves the throne to Pariksit, and he
and his brothers set out on a journey to travel the world. In the mountains, the brothers and Draupadi
die one by one. When Yudhisthira is met by Indra to be taken in a chariot to heaven, Yudhisthira refuses
to leave his dog behind, since it was loyal to him. The dog transforms into the god of dharma and praises
Yudhisthira for his virtuousness.
Book 18: The Ascent to Heaven
Yudhisthira only finds Duryodhana in heaven and is baffled. He demands to be taken to where his
brothers are, so he is taken to hell. There, Yudhisthira says he will stay with his brothers instead of
choosing to go to heaven. Indra informs him that this was the final test that he passed, and he and all
the Pandavas are sent to heaven, while Duryodhana is condemned to hell.
Reference: GraveSaver, (1999). Mahabharata by Anonymous. Gradesaver.com
Ramayana by Valmiki (Summary)
Dasharatha was the King of Ayodhya and had three wives and four sons. Rama was the eldest
and his mother was Kaushalya. Bharata was the son of Dasharatha’s second and favorite wife, Queen
Kaikeyi. The other two were twins, Lakshmana and Shatrughna whose mother was Sumithra. In the
neighboring city the ruler’s daughter was named Sita. When it was time for Sita to choose her
bridegroom (at a ceremony called a swayamvara) princes from all over the land were asked to string a
giant bow which no one could lift. However, as Rama picked it up, he not only strung the bow, he broke
it. Seeing this, Sita indicated that she had chosen Rama as her husband by putting a garland around his
neck. Their love became a model for the entire kingdom as they looked over the kingdom under the
watchful eye of his father the king.
A few years later, King Dasharatha decided it was time to give his throne to his eldest son Rama
and retire to the forest. Everyone seemed pleased, save Queen Kaikeyi since she wanted her son
Bharata to rule. Because of an oath Dasharatha had made to her years before, she got the king to agree
to banish Rama for fourteen years and to crown Bharata, even though the king pleaded with her not to
demand such a request. The devastated King could not face Rama and it was Queen Kaikeyi who told
Rama the King’s decree. Rama, always obedient, was content to go into banishment in the forest. Sita
and Lakshmana accompanied him on his exile.
One day Rama and Lakshmana wounded a rakshasas (demon) princess who tried to seduce
Rama. She returned to her brother Ravana, the ten-headed ruler of Lanka. In retaliation, Ravana devised
a plan to abduct Sita after hearing about her incomparable beauty. He sent one of his demons disguised
as a magical golden deer to entice Sita. To please her, Rama and Lakshmana went to hunt the deer
down. Before they did though, they drew a protective circle around Sita and told her that she would be
safe for as long as she did not step outside the circle. After Rama and Lakshmana left, Ravana appeared
as a holy man begging alms. The moment Sita stepped outside the circle to give him food, Ravana
grabbed her and carried her to his kingdom in Lanka.
Rama then sought the help of a band of monkeys offer to help him find Sita. Hanuman, the
general of the monkey band can fly since his father is the wind. He flew to Lanka and, finding Sita in the
grove, comforted her and told her Rama would come to save her soon. Ravana’s men captured
Hanuman, and Ravana ordered them to wrap Hanuman's tail in cloth and to set it on fire. With his tail
burning, Hanuman escaped and hopped from house-top to house-top, setting Lanka on fire. He then
flew back to Rama to tell him where Sita was.
Rama, Lakshmana and the monkey army built a causeway from the tip of India to Lanka and
crossed over to Lanka where a cosmic battle ensued. Rama killed several of Ravana’s brothers and
eventually confronted the ten-headed Ravana. He killed Ravana, freed Sita and after Sita proved here
purity, they returned to Ayodhya where Bharata returned the crown to him.
Reference: Tiernan, P. (2006). Cultures and Religions of the Himalayan Region
SENSORY IMAGES AND IMAGERY
Imagery
Imagery is a literary device used in poetry, novels, and other writing that uses vivid description that
appeals to a readers’ senses to create an image or idea in their head. Through language, imagery does
not only paint a picture, but aims to portray the sensational and emotional experience within text.
Sensory images
Sensory imagery is a literary device that’s created through descriptions that make scenes feel real and
tangible. When reading this kind of imagery, one should find themselves imagining what something
looks like, smells like, sounds likes, or even tastes like.
1. Visual Imagery
The visual imagery appeals to our sense of sight. The author uses similes,
metaphor, and personification in the descriptions to narrate what he wants
his readers to see.
Visual Imagery Examples:
The deep yellow hues of the sunset drowned in and mixed with the
blues of the sea.
The sunset was the most gorgeous they’d ever seen; the clouds were
edged with pink and gold.
2. Auditory Imagery
The auditory imagery appeals to our sense of sound. It may include pleasant
and unpleasant descriptions of sounds. Some authors also use words that
imitate sounds to create the auditory experience for readers.
Auditory Imagery Examples:
The clank of the keys
The clang of the plates
Crow of the rooster in the morning
The chirping of the birds
Whistling crescendo of the nightingale
The rustle of the papers
3. Olfactory Imagery
The olfactory imagery appeals to our sense of smell by describing something
the narrator or protagonist inhales. It may include off-putting odours,
pleasant fragrances, and other familiar scents.
Olfactory Imagery Examples:
The honeysuckle fragrant lawn lured the insects and flies; I
could hear the crickets calling and singing their eerie song of
the night.
The scent of wet soil reached my nostrils and my eyes closed
on their own accord.
4. Gustatory Imagery
The Gustatory imagery appeals to our sense of taste by describing something
the narrator or protagonist tastes. It’s most effective when the author
describes a taste a reader might have experienced before so they can recall
it from their memory.
Gustatory Imagery Examples:
The salty, sweet flavour of saltwater taffy was Carrie’s very favourite
thing about going to the beach for summer vacation.
Joe plucked an apple right from the tree and crunched into it, the tart
juices filling his mouth and running down his chin.
5. Tactile Imagery
The tactile imagery appeals to our sense of touch by describing something
the protagonist feels on their body. It may include the feel of different
physical sensations, temperatures, and textures.
Tactile Imagery Examples:
As I tumbled down the hill, the loose rocks raced alongside me,
pricking my hands and face like a hundred tiny knives.
She started to sweat so feverishly that, when she rose from the leather
couch, her slippery skin stuck to it like a Command Strip
Reference:
Blissful book, (2023). Literature Techniques: Different Types of Sensory Imagery (With Examples)
