CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page

No. No.
1 Amplitude 1
2 Twilight 3
3 Reading a Sextant 4
4 Correction to Altitudes 8
5 Circumpolar Bodies 19
6 Definitions 21
7 Measurement of time 33
8 Movement of Planets 42
9 The Earth Moon system 46
10 The Years 51
11 Precision of the Equinoxes & Nutation 53
 Chapter 1
AMPLITUDE
Introduction
We have seen the definition of amplitude and also the procedure to
calculate it in earlier chapters. Let us now see when one must go about
actually taking the amplitude of the sun.

Refraction
Since refraction causes celestial bodies to appear elevated in the sky,
they are above the horizon longer than they are otherwise. The mean
diameter of sun and moon is each about 32’.
Let us consider a case when an observer at sea level measures the
altitude of sun’s lower limb when it is just touching the horizon, by a
Sextant (I.E = 0) and HE = 0.

From the above diagram it is evident the apparent altitude of the Sun is
0° while the centre of Sun is one Semi-diameter above the horizon. If
you glance through ‘Altitude Correction Tables 0° - 10° - Sun, Stars,
Planets’ you will notice that total correction for apparent altitude of LL.
of sun is -18.2’

Apparent Altitude = 00° 00’

Total Correction = 00° 18.2’

∴ True altitude = − 00° 18.2’

i.e. The True altitude of Sun’s centre is 18.2’ below the horizon but for
the observer the sun’s centre appears to be about 00°16’ above the
horizon.

1
Therefore, when the Sun’s centre is on the rational horizon, the center
will appear to an observer to be about 32’ or one diameter above the
visible horizon due to refraction.
Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset occurs when the Sun’s centre crosses
the observers rational horizon i.e. True altitude is 00° 00’. As seen
above at that time the observed position of sun’s centre would be about
14.7’+16’ = 30.7’ above the horizon when viewed from sea level.
(Approx value of Observed altitude is taken as 14.7’ i.e. when the lower
limb is one semi diameter above the horizon)
App alt = 0º 14.7’
Refraction = - 30.9’
= - 16.2
S.D. = + 16.0’
= - .2’
Parallax = + .2’
T. Alt. = 0º 00’ (average S.D of sun has been taken as 16.0)
If a bearing of sun is taken at this instant (when the suns LL is about ½
a diameter above the visible horizon) the measurement of error
becomes simple using the azimuth by amplitude
The compass error can be found by comparing the Compass bearing
with the calculated Azimuth.

2
 Chapter 2
TWILIGHT
Introduction
The period of daylight for any observer is the interval between sunrise
and sunset. When the sun sets below the rational horizon the light is not
suddenly cut off. Although the observer does not receive direct sunlight
the atmosphere will still be sunlit. Scattering and reflection of suns light
by atmosphere allows some light to reach the observer indirectly. The
amount of light reaching the observer keeps on decreasing as the sun’s
depression below the horizon increases.

Evening twilight
The interval between the setting of sun and when very little or no light
reaches the observer is called as evening twilight. It is impossible to
determine the exact moment when no light reaches the observer. For
this reason twilight is considered to end or begin when the sun’s centre
is 18° below the rational horizon. This period of twilight is further sub-
divided as follows:
Position of centre wrt. Rational horizon.

00° - 06° Civil Twilight

06° - 12° Nautical Twilight

12° to 18° Astronomical Twilight

The time of Sunrise, Sunset duration of twilight varies with the latitude
of the observer. This information is given for various latitudes between
72° N and 60° S to the nearest whole minute in the nautical almanac.

3
 Chapter 3
READING A SEXTANT

Introduction
Sextant may have gone out of use on your ships due to the existence of
GPS and other electronic aids but it is still the last resort if every thing
fails when in the middle of any open waters
The sextant

Development of the Sextant

The double-reflecting instrument (one that uses two mirrors to bring the
celestial body down to the horizon; hence the navigator no longer has to
try to look two places at once) was apparently invented by Sir Isaac
Newton in 1699, though it was London mathematician John Hadley who
got the credit for first producing one in 1731. To complicate matters,
American inventor Thomas Godfrey built one in 1730, but was not
acknowledged by the Royal Society.
Hadley's second instrument had an arc of 1/8 of a circle and hence was
called an octant; the sextant is 1/6 of a circle. Here is Bruce Bauer's
definition: "A sextant is, in essence, a machine for varying the angle
between two mirrors by precisely measurable numbers of degrees to
utilize the phenomenon that the angle of the departing light ray will have
been changed by double the angle between the mirrors."

4
How a Sextant Works

There's nothing mystical or complicated about a sextant. It is a device

that measures the angle between two objects.
The sextant makes use of two mirrors. With this sextant, one of the
mirrors (mirror A in the diagram) is half-silvered, which allows some
light to pass through. In navigating, you look at the horizon through this
mirror.

The other mirror (mirror B in the diagram) is attached to a movable arm.

Light from an object, let's say the sun, reflects off this mirror. The arm
can be moved to a position where the sun's reflection off the mirror also

5
reflects off mirror A and through the eyepiece. What you see when this
happens is one object (the sun) superimposed on the other (the
horizon). The angle between the two objects is then read off the scale.
What makes a sextant so useful in navigation is its accuracy. It can
measure an angle with precision to the nearest ten seconds. (A degree
is divided into 60 minutes; a minute is divided into 60 seconds.)
If the weather is reasonable when you are at sea, you will be able to
see the horizon line clearly and directly under the sun. An observation
of the sun using a sextant must use a dark filter in place between the
top mirror and the horizon mirror. Without these shades you will blind
yourself by looking at the sun especially through a telescope.
Stand facing the sun with the sextant held vertically in your right hand.
Clamp the movable index arm at “zero” and point the telescope towards
the sun. Look through the telescope until you see the sun through the
horizon mirror and the glass. Once you see the image of the sun in the
horizon mirror (it will look like a red circle through the dark filter), press
and unlock the arm clamp and manipulate the angle of the sextant as a
whole, and the angle of the arm, so that you can pull the image of the
sun down. Pull the sun down to where, you can see the horizon through
the horizon glass and the suns image through the horizon mirror.
Holding the sextant exactly vertical and steady, by moving its arm, bring
the sun's image so that it’s lower limb (usually) or upper limb just
touches the line of the horizon. Lock the clamp on the arm and make
fine adjustment with the help of a micrometer screw to keep the lower
limb of the sun skimming the horizon. You will need to do this
continuously as the sun is continuously rising or setting. To determine
whether you are holding the sextant exactly vertical and obtaining the
correct altitude, rock it slightly. This is called swinging the sextant. You
will see the image of the sun rise a little on each side of a low point
which is touching the horizon. When the sun is at the lowest point and
touching the horizon, you are holding the sextant exactly vertical. That
is the sextant altitude of the sun’s lower limb at that instant. Call for the
time keeper to record the time. Recording the time is essential to work
the celestial observations.
Read the point where the engraved zero mark of the arm crosses the
scale of degrees on the arc of the sextant.

6
The engraved zero mark of the arm may not be exactly aligned to any
particular degree mark on the arc, but may be at a position between two
degree marks on the arc. The degree mark to the right is read as the
whole degree mark and the fractions in minutes can be read from the
micrometer drum scales. See above figure for details.

7
 Chapter 4
CORRECTION TO ALTITUDES
Introduction
The observed altitude of a heavenly body as measured by a sextant
needs to be converted into true altitude, as it is this true altitude, which
needs to be converted into True zenith distance for celestial calculation
purposes. The true altitude by definition is the angular distance of a
celestial object above the ration horizon of the observer.

Definitions
Even though the definitions are familiar to you let us just revise them to
ensure that there is no confusion.
Visible Horizon is the circular line limiting the observer’s view at sea.
Sensible horizon is the imaginary plane passing through the
observer’s eye. Both the planes of the visible and the sensible horizon
are not parallel to each other, as the height of eye is some distance
above the surface.
When observing the stars or the planets they appear to be points but
when we observe the sun or the moon we observe the disc and we
need to determine the centre of the moon or the sun.
In order to do that we observe either the lower limb or the upper limb
and apply a correction to arrive at the altitude of the object.
Lower limb is the arc of the visible disc, closest to the horizon.
Upper limb on the other hand is the arc, which is farthest from the
horizon.
The closer the body the greater the diameter when the body is at
perihelion
Sextant correction
Now let us look at the actual correction parameters.

• We have seen that the sextant altitude is the angle subtended at the
observer between the visible horizon and the object.

• Index error is the error on the sextant that needs to be applied to ensure
our process further.

8
 Just to recapitulate the sextant has various errors and they together are
termed Index error. The index error is one of the adjustable errors and
affects the observations. The other adjustable errors are:
™ Error of perpendicularity (Index glass not being perpendicular to the
plane) and
™ Side error (Horizon glass not being perpendicular to the plane).
These must be checked and removed using the following methods.

Error of perpendicularity
To check for this, clamp in the index bar about half way along the arc,
hold the sextant horizontally with the arc on the further side at an arms
length and look obliquely into the index mirror. The arc and its reflection
in the index mirror should appear to be in one straight line. If not, error
of perpendicularity exists. This error can be eliminated by carefully
altering the setting of the first adjustment screw situated at the top of
the frame of the index mirror. This adjustment is critical and must be
carried out first before any others. In some sextants it may be
necessary to unship the telescope before checking for this error as it

9
 may obstruct the view of the arc and its reflection. This is also called the
first adjustment.
Side error
This error cannot be carried out unless the error of perpendicularity has
been correctly corrected. Clamp the index at 0° 0’. Hold the sextant
vertically & look at a heavenly body. Turn the micrometer (or tangent
screw) one-way and then the other way, while looking at the body. The
reflected image of the body will move above and below the direct image
and should pass exactly over it. If the reflected image passes to the left
or right of the direct image, side error exists.

Clamp the index at 0° 0’. Hold the sextant horizontally and look at the
horizon. The reflected image of the horizon should appear exactly in a
line with the actual horizon visible to the right and left horizon glass. If
not, side error exists. In some sextants the telescope has to be
unshipped to be able to see the horizon directly on either side of the
horizon glass. For correcting this error the second adjustment screw
needs to be adjusted on the horizon glass until the desired objective is
achieved as described above to eliminate the error. This error is also
referred as the second adjustment.

Index error
This is defined as the error caused by both the horizon and the index
glass not being parallel to each other when at “zero”. This is also
referred as the third adjustment.
Whether you actually correct a sextant or not it would be advisable to
check the index error by observing the true and reflected horizon with
the sextant clamped at zero. If they are not in line turn the micrometer
screw to bring them in line and the reading shall be the index error. The
error shall be ON the arc if the reading is positive and OFF the arc if the
reading is negative. ON the arc errors are subtracted and OFF the arc
errors added. If the index error is less than 3’ it may left and allowed for
arithmetically as explained above. One can also correct it by adjusting
the third adjustment screw on the horizon glass.

Error of collimation
This is the error, which occurs if the axis of the telescope is not parallel
to the plane of the instrument. To check for this you need to observe

10
 two stars 90° or more apart. Bring the two stars into coincidence either
to the left or the right of the field of view. Move the sextant slightly so
that the stars move to the other side of the field of view. If they separate
there is collimation error. This error can be corrected only by a
specialist and not by the user.
Even though sextant is not used for present day normal navigation, you
are reminded that it is one of the best fall back instrument and in any
case the skill for its use is included as a competence in the STCW
Convention 1995.
The other errors, which may crop up during observations by a sextant
would be

• Errors due to improper swinging of the sextant. The sextant must be

swung in an arc perpendicular to the line of sight of the body.

• Errors due to rolling of the ship. To counter this error the altitude must
be taken from a position close to the centerline of the ship.

11
 In the figure, C represents the Centre of the earth, O the observer, Z the
zenith, and X the body.
1. The circle bounding the observer's view at sea V’V is called the visible
horizon
2. The plane which passes through the centre of the celestial sphere, and
is perpendicular to the observers vertical ZOC, is called the Rational
horizon R’R
3. A circle whose plane is parallel to the plane of rational horizon but
passes through the observer's eye is called the sensible horizon S’S.
4. The angular depression of the visible horizon below the sensible
horizon is called as the Dip S’OV or SOV.

In the fig, ∠SOV, the angle of dip, is greater as the height of the
observer's eye is bigger. Values of dip for heights of eye up to 100 feet
are given in Nautical Tables. We can work it out by formula
Dip = 1.77 h2, where h= height of observer above sea level in meters.
The navigator on the ship's bridge when observing any celestial body
brings the body down to the line of sea horizon and measures the angle
of one of its limb. This angle measured is called as the Sextant altitude
of the body.
The sextant used by the observer for the observation should indicate
the correct altitude. However, being a mechanical aid it is possible that
the sextant may not indicate the correct altitude. This zero error is
referred to as the index error and is `On the arc` if the correction is to be
12
 subtracted & `Off` the arc if the correction is to be added to the sextant
altitude.
The sextant altitude corrected for index error, if any is called is
Observed altitude.
The angular height of a celestial body above the sensible horizon is
called the apparent altitude. ∠XOS is the apparent altitude.

From figure it is evident ∠ XOV - ∠ SOV = ∠XOS

Observed Altitude – Dip = Apparent altitude.

True Altitude ∠ XCR is the angular height of the centre of a body above
the observer's rational horizon

Celestial triangle or calculations of position lines are based on ∠XCR.

The observation of any body can never be carried out from centre of
earth or the Celestial Sphere, but will always be made from Surface of
the earth.

Refraction
Light is assumed to travel in a straight line at uniform speed if the
medium in which it is travelling is uniform. However, if light enters a
medium of different density the direction of travel changes. This change
in direction of motion of light is called refraction.

Fig: A body which is actually at X is seen at X’ due to refraction thru the

different layers of the atmosphere by the observer at O on the earths surface.

13
Snell’s Law States that Sine of the angle of incidence and sine of the
angle of refraction are inversely proportionate to the indices of the
refraction of the substance in which they occur.
If the index of refraction changes suddenly then the change in direction
of travel of light is also sudden. (As when the light passes through
water) However, if a ray of light travels through a medium of gradually
changing index of refraction, the path travelled by the ray of light would
be curved. This is the situation encountered by the ray of light
emanating from the celestial body, which enters through atmosphere of
varying refractive index. The bending of a ray of light from terrestrial
body to the eye of the observer is called terrestrial refraction. (E.g.
sighting of a light at a larger distance than calculated). A ray of light,
from celestial body undergoing a similar bending is called astronomical
refraction.
The effect of astronomical bending is to make a celestial body appear
higher in the sky. If the body is at the observers Zenith, there is no
refraction, but as the Zenith distance increases, the refraction also
increases.
Because of this refraction when an observer takes a sight, he should
remember the position of the body in the sky as observed by him is not
its true location and similarly the horizon is also not true. Thus his
observations are not true. He has to apply certain corrections for the
refraction effect and these corrections are available in the nautical
almanac for standard average conditions and are termed as ‘Mean
Refraction’. Since refraction increases as the apparent altitude of the
body the corrections are always added. The nautical almanac tabulates
refraction for a standard atmosphere and a correction is also provided
when abnormal atmospheric conditions exist.

Semi diameter
The apparent disc of the Sun and Moon are approximately ½ degree in
diameter. We need the altitude of the centre of the disc. As it is difficult
to judge the position of the centre, it is a practice to take the altitude of
the lower edge / lower limb or upper edge / upper limb & apply
correction to obtain the altitude of the centre. The stars and planets

14
 however are small points as seen from earth and there fore have no
semi diameter corrections.
The size of the Sun & moon is of course, constant, but since their
distances vary, their semi diameter also changes. The values of semi
diameter SD of Sun & moon are given in the Nautical Almanac. The
value given here is calculated using the distance of the body from the
earth’s centre, which gives the SD for observer with moon on the
rational horizon. In case of the Sun the earth’s radius is negligible
compared with the earth-Sun distance & no correction is necessary.
In case of the moon, the variation in SD is significant & an additional
correction, which increases with SD, must also be applied. This
correction is called the augmentation of the SD.

Augmentation of the Moon’s semi diameter

The moon or sun’s semi diameter is tabulated as seen from the centre
of the earth. Moon being comparatively closer its semi diameter is about
the same as that of the sun. However as the observer is at the surface
of the earth the semi diameter observed by him shall be greater than
that tabulated in the almanac. When the moon is on the horizon the
distance of the observer and the moon and the centre of the earth is
about the same. However as the moon rises and reaches the nadir the
distance becomes less by about 4000 miles. This causes an apparent
increase in the moon’s semi diameter, which is called augmentation of
the moon’s semi diameter. The distance between the sun and the
observer being very large there is no need to take into account such
augmentation for the sun.

Parallax (parallax in altitude)

Horizontal parallax is the parallax when the body is on the observer’s
sensible horizon. Parallax in altitude is the angle at the centre of the
body between the centre of the earth and the observer at the surface.
The parallax like the refraction is maximum when the altitude is zero
and nil when the altitude is 90°. Parallax is also dependent on the
distance of the body from the earth. Parallax is maximum in the case of
the moon because of its proximity, less in the case of the sun and nil in
the case of the stars. The nautical almanac gives the value of horizontal
parallax from which the parallax in altitude is obtained as follows.
15
 Parallax in altitude = Horizontal parallax X Cosine apparent altitude.

From the above figure, it is clear that:

a) ∠CXO is called as the Parallax in altitude.

b) Parallax increases with the nearness of the body to the earth.

In fig above the True altitude ∠ RCX = ∠ STX (alternate angles)

But ∠ STX = ∠ SOX + ∠ TXO (ext angle of triangle XOT)

Therefore True altitude = altitude above the sensible horizon + Parallax

in altitude.
This means that the parallax in altitude is always additive.
The moon is the nearest Celestial body and hence has the largest
Parallax, varying from 58' to 60'.
The Sun is further away and has a smaller Parallax that never exceeds
9” of arc.
The planets have each a very small Parallax depending on their
distance from the earth,
Stars have no Parallax, as they are so far away, the radius of the earth
does not subtend an angle at such a great distance.
The angle of parallax is maximum when the body is on the observer’s
horizon and zero when the body is at the observer’s zenith.

16
Maximum value of parallax occurs when the body is on the sensible
horizon or rational horizon of the observer. This is called 'Horizontal
Parallax' angle CSO. The horizontal parallax depends on the radius of
the earth and the distance of the body from the earth's centre.

Radius of the earth

Horizontal parallax = Dist. of the earth from the body
The variation in the value of the Suns horizontal Parallax can be
considered negligible, and a constant figure used to calculate the
Parallax.
In case of moon, the value is variable to a certain extent. This could be
considered as obvious. The moon is closer and though smaller in real
diameter, its apparent diameter varies as its distance from the earth.
The moon also moves in an ellipse and therefore is sometimes closer
and sometimes farther away

Summarising the corrections

The corrections, which are applicable to the observations of various
Celestial bodies used in navigation, are as follows:

Sun Moon Planet Star

Dip Dip Dip Dip
Refraction Refraction Refraction Refraction
Semi Semi Diameter after parallax and N. A. N. A.
Diameter augmentation
Parallax Parallax N. A.

Once all the corrections are applied we have the true altitude. We have
seen earlier the dip / index error corrections. The others are
Back angle observations
Though rarely done. Sometimes the horizon under the celestial body
may not be clearly visible. In such cases it may be possible to observe
the altitude by a sextant in the opposite direction. Since the observer
would have his back to the heavenly body such an observation is called
back angle observations. It may be noted that the back angle
observations will always be greater than 90°; however a normal marine
sextant cannot measure angles greater than 120°. Hence back angles
will only be between 90° and 120°.

17
 When correcting the back angle observed sextant altitudes to true
altitudes all the corrections need to be applied as usual except for the
Semi diameter in case of the moon and the sun. The semi diameter
corrections need to be reversed.

For stars and planets

Index error must be applied as normally done (+ for off the arc and – for
on the arc.
Dip as usual always –ve

At this stage subtract the apparent altitude from 180°

Apply all other corrections as usual (total corrections may be applied as

usual)
Example:

Sextant back angle altitude of Mars was 118° 50’, IE 2’ off the Arc, HE
20m, on Feb 5 76. Find True Alt

Sext Alt 118 50.0

IE 000 02.0 + As usual + ve for OFF, – ve for ON
Obs Alt 118 52.0
Dip 20 m 000 07.9 - As usual – ve
App Alt 118 44.1 Subtract from 180
061 15.9
Tot corn 000 00.5 + From almanac as usual
True Alt 061 16.4

For Sun
Index error must be applied as normally done (+ for off the arc and – for
on the arc.
Dip as usual always –ve

At this stage subtract the apparent altitude from 180°

* We cannot apply the total corrections of the sun as the SD

corrections are reversed but the total correction includes the
corrections for refraction, SD and parallax
Refraction as usual – ve
SD – ve for LL and +ve for UL (this is the reverse of normal)
Parallax always + ve as usual

18
 Example:

Sextant back angle altitude of Sun’s LL was 119° 10’, IE 2’ on the arc,
HE 12m, on 20 Nov 76. Required the True Altitude.

Sext. Alt 119 10.0

IE 000 02.0 - As usual + ve for ON, - ve for Off
Obs Alt 119 08.0
Dip 12 m 000 06.1 - As usual – ve
App Alt 119 01.9 Subtract from 180
060 58.1
Refraction 060 00.5 - As usual –ve
SD (LL) 000 16.2 - Usually + for LL, – ve for UL. Now –ve for LL , + ve for
UL
059 43.8
Parallax 000 00.1 As usual +
+
True Alt 059 43.9

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 Chapter 5
CIRCUMPOLAR BODIES
Introduction
Circumpolar bodies are those bodies that, due to their location with
respect to the Earth's pole, never set.
A good example of circumpolar stars is the stars which are located near
the celestial poles of the celestial sphere. As the Earth rotates, the sky
appears to rotate around the pole star and most stars will be hidden
below the horizon at some point in their circular paths. If, from a certain
location, a star is near enough to the celestial pole that it never appears
to go "under the horizon"; it will be visible (from the said location) for the
entire night, on every day of the year for a given latitude.
Such a definition implies that different stars can be defined as
circumpolar at different latitudes. For example, to an observer placed
right at the Earth's North or South Pole, virtually all the stars are
circumpolars. For an observer exactly on the equator, no star can be
defined circumpolar, as the pole star itself is on the horizon. At different
latitudes, an intermediate situation makes some stars circumpolars and
others not. To an observer at the North Pole in summer even the sun
becomes a circumpolar body.
If the altitude of a circumpolar body is observed over the observer’s
meridian (upper transit) and again when it is on the observer’s inferior
meridian (lower transit), it is possible to determine the observer’s
latitude and the body’s declination. This is of course, if the observer
remains at the same station during both the observations.
The following figures show the two cases of circumpolar bodies for an
observer in North latitude. The elevated pole is the North celestial pole.

19
 Fig A shows the circumpolar body which bears North on both lower and
upper transits.
Fig B shows the circumpolar body, which bears north when on the lower
transit but bears south when on the upper transit.
To calculate the observer’s latitude and the body’s declination having
observed the upper and lower transit altitudes of a circumpolar body,
proceed as follows.
1. Draw an approximate figure as shown above, placing the X and X’
positions of the body when it is at its upper and lower transits
respectively, using the altitude and it’s bearing above the horizon in
each case.
2. Place the elevated pole ‘P’ a position midway between X and X’ and
draw the declination circle of the body.

3. Draw the equinoctial WQE such that PQ = 90°

4. Obtain the diameter of the declination circle as follows:

• Upper meridian altitude – Lower meridian altitude (when bearings

are same in both cases)

• 180 – (Upper meridian altitude + Lower meridian altitude) (when

bearings are different in both cases)
5. The diameter divided by 2 gives the Polar distance of the body (PX or
PX’)

6. 90° - Polar distance is the declination of the body, which is named same
as the elevated pole.
7. Polar distance + lower meridian altitude = the altitude of the pole = the
latitude of the observer and is named same as the elevated pole.

20
 Chapter 6
DEFINITIONS

In this chapter we have added a quite a few additional definitions and

explanations relating to celestial navigation and in order to explain them
some material has been duplicated with those of the first and second
year of your course.
Great circles and small circles
The shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid; i.e. it is flattened at the
poles and bulging at the equator. However, for most practical purposes
of navigation, the earth is considered a sphere.
Spherical trigonometry is concerned with properties of the spherical
triangles on the surface of a sphere
A great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which
passes through the centre of the sphere. A great circle thus divides a
sphere in two equal halves. The earth, being assumed a sphere, the
equator and all meridians are great circles.
A small circle is one whose plane does not pass through the centre of
the sphere. A parallel of latitude is thus a small circle by definition.
The pole of a great circle is that point on the surface of the sphere,
which is equidistant from all points on that circle. All great circles have
two poles.

The celestial sphere

This is a sphere of infinite radius with its centre at the centre of the
earth. All the celestial bodies the sun, the moon, the stars and planets
appear projected on the inside of the sphere, irrespective of the
distance of the bodies from the earth.
The celestial poles
These are the two points on the celestial sphere, where the axis of the
earth (the diameter of the earth about which it rotates.) produced, meets
the celestial sphere. Thus, we have the North celestial pole, vertically
above the North Pole and the south celestial pole vertically above the
South Pole of the Earth.

21
 NCP
Celestial Sphere

Earth NP

Parallel of Declination
Celestial or Declination Circle
Meridian
SP
Equator Equinoctial

SCP

Fig 1

The equinoctial
This is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same plane as the
plane of the earth’s equator. If we project the Earth’s equator outwards,
the circle formed where it meets the celestial sphere would be the
equinoctial. Every point on the equinoctial is 90 degrees from the two
celestial poles.

Parallels of declination
These are small circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which are
parallel to the plane of the equinoctial. These are similar to parallel of
latitudes on the earth.

Celestial meridians
These are semi-great-circles on the celestial sphere, joining the
celestial poles. The other half of the same great circle is another
celestial meridian, 180º away. Celestial meridians intersect the
equinoctial and parallels of declination at right angles.

22
 Fig 2

The ecliptic
This is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same plane as the
plane of the Earth’s orbit around the sun. Thus, the ecliptic is the
apparent annual path of the Sun on the celestial sphere. When the
earth is at E1 in fig 2, the sun appears to be at S1, on the celestial
sphere. As the earth move to E2, E3 and E4 the sun appears to move
to S2, S3 and S4 respectively. This apparent path of the sun on the
celestial sphere is a great circle and is called the ecliptic. In other words
the elliptical orbit of the earth, around the sun, projected on the celestial
sphere forms the ecliptic. The plane of the earth’s orbit around the sun
and therefore the plane of the ecliptic is inclined at 23 degrees 26.7-
minutes (written as 23o 26.7’) to the plane of the equinoctial. This angle
between the planes is known as the obliquity of the ecliptic.

Pole of the Ecliptic

A point 90° removed from any great circle is called its pole. Similarly
Ecliptic, being, a great circle, has its own pole, 90° removed from the
ecliptic. This point is known as the pole of the ecliptic. This point also
does not appear on the earth’s surface, since, ecliptic itself does not
appear on the earth.
23
 Any two great circles on a sphere, the planes of which are not the same
will intersect each other at two points 180 degrees apart, dividing each
of them in two halves.

Zenith

Vertical
Circle
Ecliptic
Obliquity of the
the ecliptic
Equinoctial Observers
Rational
Horizon
Nadir

Fig 3

Since the equinoctial and the ecliptic are inclined to each other, they will
also intersect each other at points 180 degrees apart. These two points
are referred to as the equinoxes. On 21st March, at vernal equinox, the
sun on its apparent path along the ecliptic crosses the equinoctial from
the south on its northern path. This point is known as the first point of
Aries, denoted by the Greek letter ϒ. Similarly on 23rd September, at
autumnal equinox, the sun appears to cross the equinoctial from the
north to south. This point is known as the first point of Libra, denoted Ω.

The observers’ Zenith

This is the point on the celestial sphere vertically above the observer.
That is the point at which a straight line from the centre of the earth,
through the observer meets the celestial sphere.

The observer’s Nadir

This is the point on the celestial sphere, vertically opposite the zenith.

The observer’s rational horizon

This is a great circle on the celestial sphere, every point on which is 90
degrees away from his zenith.

Vertical Circles
These are great circles on the celestial sphere, passing through the
observers’ zenith and the nadir.

The observer’s prime vertical

This is the vertical circle passing through the east and west points on
his rational horizon.
24
Celestial co-ordinates
A position on a sphere may be defined by stating the angles at the
centre of the sphere or the arcs of great circles contained between that
position and two reference great circles, which are at right angles to
each other.
For example, a position on the earth can be defined by stating such
angles or arcs with respect to the two great circles at right angles to
each other, viz. the equator from which latitudes are measured and the
Greenwich meridian from which longitudes are measured.

Equinoctial
Equinoctial is a great circle, on the celestial sphere in the same plane
as the equator on the earth. In other words, the equator when projected
upwards & drawn on the celestial sphere is called the “Equinoctial”.

Celestial pole
Earth’s pole when projected on to the celestial sphere is called the
celestial pole and is 90º removed from the equinoctial; just as the
earth’s pole are 90º away from the equator

Parallels of Declination
Parallels of latitudes on the earth, projected on to the celestial sphere
are called parallels of Declination. Declination in the celestial sphere
corresponds exactly to latitudes on the earth’s surface, and helps to
express the position of a heavenly body, North or South of the
Equinoctial

Obliquity of the ecliptic

The angle at which the ecliptic crosses the equinoctial is called the
obliquity of the ecliptic. This value is 23° 27’ approximately, and varies
very slightly by a few seconds of arc each year on either side of its
mean value which is assumed to be constant at 23° 27’ of arc without
producing any appreciable error.

E The first point of Aries:

This is the imaginary fixed point on the celestial sphere where the
ecliptic crosses the equinoctial when the Sun is moving from South to
North in Declination.

25
 K First point of Libra:
This is the point where the Ecliptic crosses the equinoctial when the
Sun is moving from North to South Declination. This point is
diametrically opposite to first point of Aries. These are also the two fixed
points of “Equinoxes", where the Declination of the Sun is Zero

Celestial Meridians
Any meridian on the earth when projected upwards to the celestial
sphere is a celestial meridian. In other words they are half great circles
running from celestial pole to pole and crossing the equinoctial at right
angles of the infinite number of such meridians, which can be drawn on
the celestial sphere, that specific meridian passing through the first
point of Aries has a special significance. It is a reference meridian from
which the East/ West co-ordinates on the celestial sphere are
measured, something similar to the Greenwich (prime) meridian on the
earth’s surface from which longitudes east or west is measured.

Fig 4

In fig. 4 above
QQ' is the Equinoctial.
DD' is the Parallel of Declination of X
EC LP is the Ecliptic
Cp is the Celestial pole

ϒ is the 1st point of Aries

Angle ∝=QϒEC =LPϒQ is the Obliquity of the Ecliptic

26
 CP CP' is the Celestial meridian
X is a heavenly body
Arc qX is the Declination of body X

ϒq =Angle ϒCPX is the SHA of body X

Sidereal Hour Angle

(SHA) is the angle at the celestial pole or the arc of the equinoctial
contained between the meridian of 1st point of Aries and the celestial
meridian passing through the heavenly body, always measured
westwards and expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds of arc. (Arc
ϒq or angle ϒCpq in the fig. 4)

Note that, unlike longitudes on the earth, which are measured both East
& West of the prime meridian; SHA is always measured westwards only
and will increase from zero degrees to 360°.

First point of Aries being a fixed point in space, the Declination and
SHA of heavenly body will give the fixed co-ordinates of that body at
any time, and these are given in the nautical almanac for all heavenly
bodies used for Navigational purposes. Thus by knowing the
Declination and SHA of a heavenly body, that body can be pinpointed in
the celestial sphere.

Right Ascension
(RA) is the angle at the Celestial pole or the arc of the equinoctial
contained between the meridian of 1st point of Aries and the celestial
meridian passing through the body, but always measured Eastwards
and expressed in hours, minutes and seconds of time (see fig.).

Hence SHA + RA in arc = 360° always for any body.

For purposes of navigation, however, the term RA is not commonly

used.

Celestial Latitudes
These are lines drawn parallel to the ecliptic both north & south of the
ecliptic.

Celestial Longitudes
These are similar to celestial meridians but drawn from North ecliptic
pole to South ecliptic pole and cross the Ecliptic at Right angles.
27
 Both celestial Latitudes & celestial Longitudes are parameters not used
for the purposes of Navigation.
In this system, the reference great circles are
1. The equinoctial and
2. The celestial meridians while joining the poles they pass through:
a. The first point of Aries.
b. Greenwich.
c. The observers prime vertical
Synonymous with latitude and the longitude of the earth the co-
ordinates used are Hour angle and the Declination.
Sidereal hour angle is measured from the celestial meridian of the first
point of Aries. It is called Greenwich hour angle when measured from
the celestial meridian of Greenwich and local hour angle when
measured from the observer’s celestial meridian. These hour angles are
measured westward from 0 degrees to 360 degrees from the respective
meridians. (Note this way of measurement is not the same as
longitudes on the earth.)

The declination
The declination of a celestial body is the arc of a celestial meridian or
the angle at the centre of the earth contained between the equinoctial
and the parallel of declination through the centre of that body.
Declinations are measured from 0 degrees to 90 degrees N or S from
the equinoctial.

Fig 5

28
Sidereal hour angle: (SHA)
The SHA of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at
the celestial poles contained between the celestial meridian of the first
point of Aries and the celestial meridian through the centre of the body,
measured westward from Aries.
Right accession (RA)

RA

SHA

RA
SHA
SHA

RA

RA

NCP
Celestial Meridian Celestial Meridian
through the body of

SHA

Fig 6

The RA of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at

the celestial poles contained between the celestial meridians of the first
point of Aries and the celestial meridian through the centre of the body
measured eastward from Aries. RA is measured from 0 degrees to 360
degrees from Aries.
It should be noted that since SHA is measured westwards and the RA
eastwards from the same celestial meridian, the SHA and RA of any
body will together always adds up to 360 degrees.

29
Greenwich hour angle: (GHA)
The GHA of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle of
the celestial poles contained between the celestial meridian of
Greenwich and the celestial meridian through the centre of the body,
measured westward from Greenwich.
Local hour angle: (LHA)
The LHA of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at
the celestial poles contained between the observers’ celestial meridians
and the celestial meridian through the centre of that body, measured
westward from the observer’s celestial meridian.

NCP

G HA O

LHA

Fig 7

The horizon system of celestial co-ordinates

The observer’s rational horizon has been defined earlier as a great
circle on the celestial sphere, every point of which is 90 degrees away
from his zenith.
The true altitude
The true altitude of a celestial body is the arc of the vertical circle
through the body or the angle at the centre of the earth contained
between the observer’s rational horizon and the centre of the body.

The zenith distance

The zenith distance of a celestial body is the arc of the vertical circle
through the body or the angle at the centre of the Earth contained
between the observer’s zenith and the centre of the body.
Since the observer’s rational horizon is 90 degrees from his zenith, the
zenith distance of a body = 90 - true altitude in degrees.

30
The Azimuth
The azimuth of a celestial body is the arc of the observer’s rational
horizon or the angle at his zenith contained between the observer’s
celestial meridian and the vertical circle through the centre of the body.

The amplitude
The amplitude of a celestial body is the arc of the observer’s rational
horizon. It is also the angle at his zenith contained between the
observer’s prime vertical and the vertical circle through the centre of the
body, when the body’s centre is on the observer’s rational horizon i.e. at
theoretical rising or the theoretical setting. Amplitude is therefore
measured N or S from the observer’s East Point on the horizon when
the body is rising and from the observer’s West Point on the horizon
when the body is setting. Thus "W 12 º N"
N

Amplitude
Z
W E
Q

Fig 8

Horizon system of defining the position of a body

The co-ordinates of the celestial body defined using the horizon system
i.e. its altitude or zenith distance with its azimuth or amplitude would
vary depending on the observer’s position on the earth, as its altitude
and azimuth would have different values when measured from different
positions on the earth.

Equinoctial system of defining the position of a body

The co-ordinates of a celestial body defined using the equinoctial
system is unaffected by the observer’s position on the earth. The
nautical almanac therefore lists the celestial co-ordinates of bodies
using the equinoctial system, by tabulating the value of their GHA or
SHA and declination.

31
To determine the observer’s position on the earth
We co-relate the co-ordinates of a celestial body in the equinoctial
system with those in the horizon system for the instant at which the
altitude of the body is observed.

The geographical position of a celestial body

This is the point on the earth, vertically beneath that body, that is the
point at which a straight line from the centre of the earth to the centre of
the body meets the earth’s surface. Since the geographical position of
the body is on the earth’s surface, the position is expressed in terms of
latitude and longitude.

32
 Chapter 7
MEASUREMENT OF TIME

Sidereal time
Sidereal time is defined as the hour angle of the vernal equinox. When
the meridian of the first point of Aries (vernal equinox) is directly
overhead, local sidereal time is 00:00. Greenwich Sidereal time is the
hour angle of the vernal equinox at the prime meridian at Greenwich,
England.
Sidereal time is time measured by the apparent diurnal motion of the
vernal equinox, which is very close to, but not identical with, the motion
of stars. One sidereal day is the time taken between two consecutive
transits of the first point of aries over the observer’s meridian. A mean
sidereal day is about 23h 56m 4.1s in length.

Sidereal time vs. solar time.

33
 Above left, a distant star (the small red circle) and the Sun are at
culmination, on the observer’s meridian. Centre: only the distant star is
at culmination (a mean sidereal day).
Right: few minutes later the Sun is on the local meridian again. A solar
day is complete

Solar time
Sun as the basis of measurement
Sun in our daily lives plays the role of a timekeeper. There would be no
life on Earth without the Sun keeping its daily appointment, rising from
the East, coming overhead at Noon and setting in the West. The day
and the year are the principal divisions of time, depending on
astronomical phenomenon with reference to the Earth and the Sun. Day
is sub divided into hours and hours into minutes and minutes into
seconds, which are chosen for our convenience only. Similarly the week
and the month are sub- divisions of a year.
All heavenly bodies can be treated as timekeepers, but Sun is the most
convenient timekeeper than others.
Sun however is not a perfect timekeeper because its apparent speed
along the ecliptic is not constant but still used as a time keeper for
centuries because it governs everything on earth causing a cycle of
days, nights, weeks, months and years in addition to the heat, light and
thus life.
Let us define the various “suns” to clear the concept of time
measurement by the sun.
Apparent sun (True Sun)
The actual sun as it appears in the sky. Also called true sun. Its
apparent motion is along the ecliptic and varies in speed due to the
earth’s revolution around the sun in a noncircular orbit. Obviously we
cannot use this for measuring time.

Dynamic mean sun

This is a fictitious sun conceived to move eastward along the ecliptic at
the average rate of the apparent sun (also along the ecliptic). The
dynamic mean sun and the apparent sun occupy the same position in
34
 January, when the earth is at perihelion. Though the uniformity in
movement due to the earth’s elliptical orbit is achieved by the Dynamic
mean sun concept. The projection of the Sun's motion onto the equator
will be a maximum when its motion along the Ecliptic is parallel to the
equator (at the summer and winter solstices) and will be a minimum at
the equinoxes. In view of above even the dynamic mean sun cannot be
used for measurement of time.
Mean sun
A fictitious sun conceived to move eastward along the celestial equator
at a uniform rate around the earth and to complete one (360°) revolution
in the time taken by the true sun to complete one revolution (360°) of
the true sun on the ecliptic. It provides a uniform measure of time equal
to the average rate of the apparent sun (true sun) along the ecliptic. It is
this sun which we can consider for measuring time.
As we have seen in earlier chapters the earth revolves around the sun
following an elliptical path. Following the Kepler’s laws the earth does
not revolve at a steady rate. It is maximum at perihelion, and minimum
at aphelion. At the same time the earth also rotates on its own axis. The
axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the equinoctial.

For an observer on the earth both these motions are seen as if the

• True sun is revolving round the earth at varying rates.

• True sun is moving along the ecliptic, which is at an angle of 23.5° to

the equinoctial thus giving the sun a cyclic motion north (23.5°) to south
(23.5°) of the equator.

This is the apparent motion of the true sun.

The apparent motion of the sun (true sun) across the sky has long been
used as a basis for time measurement. At any place on the surface of
the earth, when the sun reaches the highest point in the sky during any
day, it is noon. It is this point through which the observer's meridian
passes. The interval between successive passages of the sun across
the same meridian is one day. However, this interval called as the
apparent solar day is not the same and the interval between two
successive passages of the sun across the meridian may vary by as
much as ±1 minute of time. Now, this cannot be used as a uniform

35
system of measuring time since there is no clock devised to take care of
the variation of the suns true motion.
The irregular motion therefore does not allow us to use the true Sun to
calculate time. In practice, use is made of a fictitious Sun that moves
across the heavens at an even rate. This fictitious Sun is called the
Mean Sun, which is assumed to be moving along the equinoctial.

Equation of time
It is the mean sun, which is used to measure solar time and is called the
mean time. If true sun is used to measure time, it is called the apparent
time. The difference between mean time & apparent time at any instant
will obviously be the difference in positions (converted into time) of the
mean sun and the true sun. This difference indicated in minutes and
seconds is called the “Equation of Time”.
The values of equation of time are given in the Nautical Almanac for
0000 hrs & 1200 hrs GMT for each day throughout the year. By
convention, positive & negative signs are given to the equation of time.
–Ve 12 means, from apparent time subtract 12 min to get the mean
time. From this it would be obvious as to why the LMT of the meridian
passage of the Sun given in almanac is different than the noon.
The orbit of the Earth around the Sun is an ellipse. The distance
between the Earth and the Sun is a minimum (perihelion) near Dec 31
and is greatest (aphelion) near 1 July. The Sun's apparent longitude
changes fastest when the Earth is closest to the Sun. The Sun will
appear on the meridian at noon on these two dates and so the equation
of time due to unequal motion will then be zero. Between perihelion and
aphelion the Sun will be slow relative to clock time with a minimum
around 31 March. Between aphelion and perihelion the Sun will be fast
relative to clock time with a maximum around 30 September.
This is the first component responsible to cause a difference between
the mean sun and true sun. It is called the E1 component of the
equation of time.
If the Earth's rotation axis were not tilted with respect to its orbit, the
apparent motion of the Sun along the Ecliptic would fall exactly on the
equator, covering equal angles along the equator in equal time. We
measure apparent solar time, however, as a projection of the Sun's

36
motion onto the equator, and this changes through the year as the Sun
apparently moves above and below the equator.
The projection of the Sun's motion onto the equator will be a maximum
when its motion along the Ecliptic is parallel to the equator (at the
summer and winter solstices) and will be a minimum at the equinoxes.
The Sun will be on the meridian at noon at both solstices and equinoxes
and so the equation of time due to obliquity will be zero at these times.
Between the solstices and the equinoxes the Sun will be slow relative to
clock time with minima near 5th February and 5th August. Between
equinoxes and solstices the Sun will be fast relative to clocks with
maxima near 5th May and 5th November.
This is the second component responsible to cause a difference
between the mean sun and the true sun. It is called the E2 component
of the equation of time.
The total of these two effects gives the equation of time, which is
formally defined as the difference between mean solar time (mean sun)
and apparent solar time (true sun). The equation of time takes the form
of the curve sketched below. It is zero on 16th April, 15th June, 1st
September and 25th December and has maxima and minima near 12th
February, 15th May, 27th July and 4th November.

37
The diagram on the left illustrates the variation of the equation of time due to
E2 ,obliquity (purple) and the variation due E1 to unequal motion (black). The
diagram on the right shows the final equation of time, a combination of the two
effects.

The connection between the Mean Solar Time and the Apparent Solar
Time is the equation of time, which is defined as the excess of mean
time over apparent time or Local Hour Angle Mean Sun (LHAMS) -
Local Hour Angle True Sun (LHATS). O is the observer’s meridian.
Since the true Sun moves with a varying speed in the ecliptic and the
mean Sun moves at a constant speed in the equinoctial, their hour
angles will not keep in step. At certain times LHATS will be greater than
LHAMS and at other times it will be less. Equation of time therefore can
be positive or negative (see figures above). ’T’ depicts the true sun and
M the mean sun. When the mean sun is ahead of the true sun the
equation of time is negative and when True Sun is ahead of the mean
sun the equation of time is positive.
Mean Solar day: It is the interval of time between two successive
transits of the mean sun across the same meridian.
Local Mean Time or Ship’s mean time (LMT or SMT): It is the westerly
hour angle of the mean sun measured from the observer’s inferior
meridian. The observers inferior meridian or anti meridian is the
meridian 180° away from the observer’s own meridian.

Greenwich mean time (GMT): It is the westerly hour angle of the mean
sun measured from the inferior meridian of Greenwich
Local apparent TIME (LAT or ATS): It is the westerly hour angle of the
mean sun measured from the inferior meridian of Greenwich
38
Greenwich Apparent Time GAT: It is the westerly hour angle of the
mean sun measured from the inferior meridian of Greenwich
Local Sidereal time (LST): It is the westerly hour angle of the first point
of Aries measured from the observer’s meridian.
Greenwich sidereal time GST): It is the westerly hour angle of the first
point of Aries measured from the Greenwich meridian.
Note: The sidereal time is measured from the meridian itself, whereas
the solar time is measured from the inferior meridian. By measuring the
solar time from the inferior meridian we start with zero hours when the
sun is on the inferior meridian. Thus the day starts at midnight.
Measurement of time and LHA
We have said that measurement of time is an expression of the position
of the Sun relative to the observer. Measurement of time &
measurement of LHA of Sun is therefore synonymous.
Thus when:

LHA Sun is 0° or 360° the apparent time is 1200 hrs.

LHA Sun is 90° the time is 1800 hrs.

When LHA Sun is 180°, time is 0000 hrs.

When LHA Sun is 270°, time is 0600 hrs.

Relationship between Local Mean Tome (LMT), Local Apparent Time

(LAT), Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and Greenwich Apparent Time
(GAT).

LMT ± Equation of time = LAT

GMT ± Equation of time = GAT

LMT = GMT + E. Longitude = GMT − W. Longitude.

LAT = GAT + E. Longitude = GAT − W. Longitude.

Relationship between Local Sidereal Time (LST), Greenwich Sidereal

Time (GST).
LST = GST + E Longitude = GST – W Longitude.

39
Time & Longitude
Time is a measure of the rotation of the earth, and if the Sun is the
celestial reference point, solar time is the result. Let us consider the
case when the Sun is on the Greenwich meridian. By definition, it would
be noon or 12 O’clock at Greenwich. As earth rotates, one hour later
Sun would be on 15° West longitude i.e. it would be noon on 15° West
longitude one hour after noon at Greenwich & similarly at 15° East
longitude it would have been 1 hour earlier than at Greenwich. It means
that when it is 12 00 hrs at Greenwich it would be 13 00 hrs at 15° East
& 11 00 hrs at 15° West longitude.

Therefore, places to the Eastward are ahead of GMT & those to

Westward are behind GMT. The difference is exactly equal to the
difference in longitude, expressed in time units. (15° of arc = 1 hour of
time)
Since time is advanced to the east and retarded to the west, the time at
180° meridian shall both be 12 hours advanced and behind.

40
Time Signals
On ships accurate time is kept with a marine chronometer, which
always shows GMT. This chronometer however needs to be checked
for errors and a log is required to be maintained. A time signal is a
visible, audible, mechanical, or electronic signal used as a reference to
determine the time of this chronometer. A time signal can be:
Audible and visible (no longer used, for historical information
only)
One sort of public time signal is, of course, a striking clock. These
clocks, however, are only as good as the clockwork that activates them;
they have improved substantially since the first surviving clocks from
the fourteenth century. When more accurate public time signals were
desired for use in navigation, a number of traditional audible or visible
time signals were established for the purpose of allowing navigators to
set their chronometers by. These public time signals were formerly
established in many seaport cities.
As an example of such a signal, in Vancouver, British Columbia, a "9
o'clock gun" is still shot every night at 9 p.m.
In many non-seafaring communities, loud factory whistles served as
public time signals before radio made them obsolete.

Electrical and electronic (used nowadays)

The most common type of signals are the radio time signals broadcast
by select radio stations on various frequencies. One needs to tune into
the station and hear blips and beeps and match the same by visually
watching the chronometer. The errors if any noted must be recorded in
a prescribed format in a chronometer log. Detailed information and
frequencies are given in the Admiralty publication ALRS Volume 2:
Radio Navigational Aids, Electronic Position Fixing Systems & Radio
Time Signals (NP 282)

The Global Positioning System these days is the most widely used
as a time reference in lieu of listening to radio time signals.

41
 Chapter 8
MOVEMENT OF PLANETS

Orbiting around the Sun

If we could look down upon the solar system from the north, we would
see that most of the planets travel around the Sun at more or less the
same level in space. Astronomers say that the planets orbit the Sun in
the same plane. Only two planets, Mercury and Pluto, follow paths that
are inclined at significant angles to this plane. Mercury's path has an
inclination of 7° to the common orbital plane, and Pluto's has an
inclination of 17°.
From our position to the north of the solar system, we would see that all
the planets travel around the Sun in an anticlockwise direction. We
have already seen the three laws of planetary motion describing the
orbits of the planets by the German astronomer and mathematician
Johannes Kepler. The same three laws govern the motions of the
planet.

Apparent motion of the planets

An observer on the earth observes the planets in their apparent motion.
We must also bear in mind that not only the planets are moving in their
own orbit but so is the earth. This complex movement and its effect on
what we perceive to be the motion is shown in the figure below.
Let us look at Superior planets, i.e. planets that are at a larger distance
from the Sun than the earth. The projection of its positions amongst the
stars seems to indicate that Jupiter is a planet with the motion of a
camel in the chess game. However it's far from it! We need to use the
planet for celestial observation and therefore we are interested in its
apparent position at any time. Thus, it is observed that the planet is
sometimes moving in the easterly direction (direct) or sometimes
moving in westerly direction (retrograde). As the declination also
changes at the same time, the planet displays an erratic movement.

42
Inferior planets such as Venus go round the Sun at a faster rate. If we
imagine the earth to be stationary and if we plot the progress of the
planet in relation to the Sun, it would be observed that the Venus also
moves forward and backward. The same pattern of motion shall actually
be seen and the planet shall show some retrograde motion and some
advance motion.

43
 The effect of the retrograde motion shall be that while the Sun's SHA
shall decrease continuously; the SHA of the planet shall increase when
in the retrograde motion.

Elongation of the planet

This is the angle at the Centre of the earth, contained between the
Centre of the Sun and the Centre of the planet (or moon) measured
along the ecliptic.
From the figure shown below, it would be observed that the elongation
of the inferior planets could not be very large. In fact, Venus has 47°
and mercury about 26°.

It is not difficult to see that the superior planets however can have an
elongation of a maximum of 180°. Elongation is the angular distance of
the planet from the Sun. It therefore indicates whether the planet shall
set before or after the Sun.

Venus as the morning or evening star

Let us take this premise a little further and see other phenomena. It will
be seen that Venus with an elongation of 47°, shall rise at times before
the Sun and sometime set after the Sun. Elongation of 47° indicates
that this time interval shall not be more than 3 hours and 8 minutes.
Venus is therefore called the morning star when it rises before the Sun
and the evening star when it sets after the Sun.

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Conjunction
Conjunction of two heavenly bodies occurs when they are in the same
direction as the Sun and their celestial longitudes are the same.
Therefore, when the moon and the Sun are in conjunction we have a
new moon day. In inferior planets, it is possible to have two
conjunctions, viz. superior conjunction when the body is away from the
Sun and inferior conjunction when the body is on the same side as the
Sun.

Opposition
Two heavenly bodies are in opposition if their celestial longitudes are
180° apart. When the Sun and the moon are in opposition, we have the
full moon day.

Quadrature
In between the conjunction and the opposition, we have the quadrature
when the bodies are at a separation of 90° of celestial longitude.

We have seen that the major difference between the view of the planets
and the stars is that stars appear as a point of light while the planets
appear as a disc. This is due to the fact that the planets reflect the light
of the Sun. Inferior planets show their full disk to us at superior
conjunction and show no disk at all at the inferior conjunction. In
between, the planets also display the various phases similar to the
moon. However, they being at a comparatively larger distances, these
have to be seen through a telescope.

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 Chapter 9
THE EARTH MOON SYSTEM

Introduction
In addition to its nearness to Earth, the Moon is relatively larger body
compared with the distance and mass of the solar planet. The Moon
and Earth consequently exert a strong gravitational influence on each
other, forming a system having distinct properties and behaviour of its
own.

Moon – earth gravitational attraction

Although the Moon is commonly described as orbiting the Earth, it is
more accurate to say that the two bodies orbit each other about a
common centre of mass. This point lies inside Earth about 2,900 from
its centre. Also more accurately, it is the barycentre, rather than the
centre of Earth, that follows an elliptical path around the Sun in accord
with Kepler's laws of planetary motion. The orbital geometry of the
Moon, Earth, and the Sun gives rise to the Moon's phases and to the
phenomena of lunar and solar eclipses.

Phases of the moon

The Moon appears to go through phases. In other words, the amount of
the Moon that we can see changes over time in a cyclic period that
repeats itself approximately once a month. (The actual period of this
cycle is approximately 29.5 Earth days.) The cause of these phases is
the relative positions of the Sun, Earth, and Moon. As seen in the
diagram below, if the Sun is located off to the right of the picture, the
Earth and Moon are illuminated as shown (the white areas being the
lighted areas). Notice that no matter what phase the Moon is in, half of it
is always lit by the Sun. (Which half is always lit? The half that is facing
the Sun) The reason that we do not always see a Moon, which is half lit,
is because of our position relative to the Moon and the Sun. As the
Moon moves in its orbit, different portions of it appears (to us!) to be lit
up as we look at it from Earth. This is why we see lunar phases.

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 For example, if the Moon is at position 1 in the diagram, the half of it
that is lit by the sun is facing away from us, so we do not see the moon
at all. This is called a new Moon. When the Moon is at position 3, we
see half of the half of the Moon that is lit up. We call this a quarter
Moon. The important point is that the amount of the Moon which is lit by
the Sun does not change. The only thing that changes is the position of
the Moon relative to us and the Sun. This change in position causes the
phases.

Eclipses
Our ancients have known the phenomena of the eclipses to the extent
that they were in a position to calculate the event in advance. However
somewhere along the time some superstitious beliefs crept in and
various theories without any base were circulated, especially in the rural
population. However, we now know that the eclipses occur when the
centres of the Sun, moon and the earth are nearly in a line. When the
moon is in conjunction with the Sun, the moon appears directly blocking
the view of the Sun causing solar eclipse. As would be expected the
shadow of the moon creates Penumbra and Umbra. Umbra is the
shadow and the penumbra the partial shadow.

Solar Eclipse
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon blocks the light from the Sun and
causes a shadow to be cast on a small area of the Earth. There are

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three types of solar eclipses: total, partial, and annular. Due to the
relative sizes of the Moon and the Sun and their distances from us, at
times they appear to be the same size in the sky. If a solar eclipse
occurs during this time, the Moon exactly covers the Sun and a total
eclipse occurs. These are of interest because during total eclipses,
outer layers of the Sun which are not usually visible can be seen. The
alignment of the Earth, Moon and Sun has to be exact for a total eclipse
to occur. Even when the alignment is exact, not everyone will see a
total eclipse. This is because, if the alignment is correct for the northern
hemisphere, it is slightly off in the southern hemisphere (and vice
versa). During total eclipses, astronomers specify zones where the
alignment is exact (the umbra) and where it is slightly off (penumbra).
Total eclipse occurs when the Umbra covers the entire face of the Sun.
When the moon covers some part of the Sun, it is called a partial
eclipse and when a narrow ring of the Sun is seen it is termed as
annular eclipse.
If the alignment is not exact, a partial eclipse may occur. This is when
the Moon only partially overlaps the Sun and blocks only part of the Sun
from our view.

An annular eclipse occurs when the apparent size of the Moon is

smaller than that of the Sun, and the Moon does not fully block the Sun
from our view. This occurs because the Moon's orbit is elliptical, and so
the Moon's distance from the Earth varies. When the Moon is farther
away from the Earth, it appears to be smaller. Therefore, there are
times when the Moon appears to be smaller than the Sun. If an eclipse
occurs at this time, an annular eclipse results. Annular eclipses look like
a "bull's eye".

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Lunar Eclipse
A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth's
shadow. Because the Earth is much larger than the Moon, usually the
entire Moon is eclipsed. Because the full phase can be seen from
anywhere on the night side of the Earth, a lunar eclipse can be seen by
more people than a solar eclipse. Since the Moon is moving through the
Earth's shadow, and the size of the Earth is much greater than the size
of the Moon, a lunar eclipse last for about 3.5 hours (as opposed to a
solar eclipse which last on the order of about 7.5 minutes).
Here also we have Umbra, penumbra and annular eclipse. The lunar
eclipse occurs on a full moon day and the solar eclipse occurs on new
moon day.

During a total lunar eclipse the Moon takes on a dark red colour
because it is being lighted slightly by sunlight passing through the
Earth's atmosphere and this light has the blue component preferentially
scattered out (this is also why the sky appears blue from the surface of
the Earth), leaving faint reddish light to illuminate the Moon during the
eclipse.
Since the Moon goes around the Earth every 28 days, shouldn't we
expect a solar eclipse about every 28 days (when the Moon is new),
and a lunar one in the same period, (when the Moon is full)?

49
The answer is No! While the Moon is always in a new phase during a
solar eclipse, a solar eclipse does not occur every time the moon is in
the new phase. This is because the orbit of the Moon is tilted relative to
the Earth's orbit around the Sun. This tilt is only 5 degrees, but it is
enough so that the alignment of the Earth, Moon, and Sun only occurs
about once every six months. This holds true for lunar eclipses as well.
In fact, lunar and solar eclipses generally occur together; that is, if the
alignment is correct for a lunar eclipse during the full phase of the
Moon, it will also be correct for a solar eclipse during the next new
phase of the Moon.
Astronomers can predict eclipses with great accuracy. At least two solar
eclipses and as many as three lunar eclipses occur every year. The
nautical almanac shows the movement of the shadow and the time it
can be seen.
Check from the nautical almanac the time of the next solar and lunar
eclipse and determine as to where it could be observed. Determine
whether it is a partial, total or annular eclipse.

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 Chapter 10
THE YEARS

Sidereal year
It is the interval between two successive coincidences of the sun’s true
center with a fixed direction in space. It is also the time taken by the
earth to complete one revolution around the sun. It is equal to 365.2564
mean solar days.

Tropical year
It is the interval in time between two successive coincidences of the true
sun’s center with the first point of Aries. It is equal to 365.2422 mean
solar days. This is due to the fact that the first point of Aries has a
westward motion about 50” year along the ecliptic due to precession of
the equinoxes as explained earlier.

Anomalistic Year
Is the interval of time between two successive coincidences of the true
suns center with the perigee in its apparent orbit. It is equal to 365.2596
mean solar days. Since the point of perigee moves eastwards by about
11” arc annually, the anomalistic year is about 5 minutes longer than
the sidereal year.

Civil year
Life on earth is governed by seasons and the obvious choice of a year
would be a tropical year. It is also necessary that a calendar year
should contain a full number of days. In order to do so a Julian calendar
consisting of 3 civil years of 365 days followed by a 4th civil year of 366
days called then leap year was introduced. Thus according to the Julian
calendar the average length of a civil year was exactly 365.25 mean
solar days. This is 0.0078 mean solar days or about 11 minutes longer
than the tropical year. This slow accumulation over many years would
have put the calendar out of step with the seasons.
To allow for this a Georgian calendar was formed in 1582. 3 leap years
of the Julian calendar are omitted in every 400 years. The leap years
omitted are the century years in which the numbers of centuries are not
divisible by 4. For example of the 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000 which were

51
leap years in Julian calendar only the 2000 remains as a leap year in
the Georgian version. Thus in 400 years we have now 97 leap years
and 303 years of 365 days. This makes the average length of a civil
year to 365.2425 mean solar days which is quite close to the length of a
tropical year.

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 Chapter 11
PRECISION OF THE EQUINOXES & NUTATION

Precision of the equinoxes

The movement of the first point of Aries and the first point of Libra
westwards at the rate of about 50.2" of arc each year is termed the
precision of equinox.

As we are aware, the equinoctial is inclined at an angle of 23.5° to the

plane of the ecliptic. We are also aware that the earth is rotating on its
N / S axis.
The earth is shaped like a spheroid i.e. its equatorial diameter is larger
than its polar diameter. The earth rotates on its N / S axis. If you see a
top spinning on its axis, you would note that its poles make a small
circle about its axis. A similar effect is produced on the earth. The Sun
exerts an attraction force on the equatorial bulge. The rotating earth is
like a gyroscope and the pull about its equator acts at 90° to this pull
and precesses the poles about the poles of the ecliptic to make a small
circle of 23.5° around the pole of the equinoctial.

Nutation
The moon also has similar effect and the combination of the force
exerted by the Sun and the Moon produce what is called the Lunar -
Solar precession. In addition, the orbit of the moon being inclined at
5.5° to the ecliptic exerts pull at varying force, which tends to move the
poles in wavy fashion as shown in the figure. This wavy motion is called
the Nutation. The movement of the planets also contributes to these
changes. The wavy motion takes about 18.6 years to complete one
rotation.

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 This precision is slow motion and to complete the total circle around the
pole of the ecliptic it would take about 25800 years. As it happens, the
poles of the earth are now pointing in a direction, which is about 1°
away from the star Polaris. In about 13-16000 years, the poles of the
earth shall be pointing towards the star Vega.
It is interesting to note that the first point of Aries is no more in the
constellation of Aries and it has precessed into the constellation of
Pisces.
The combined effect of the precession and the Nutation are:
ƒ As the first point of Aries moves westwards the RA and SHA increases
similarly.
ƒ As the plane of the equinoctial changes with the movement of the poles
the declination of the stars shall change.
An indirect effect is that the sidereal year is about 20 minutes longer
than the tropical year.

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