NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

Introduction to Computers Module

What is a Computer?
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone
to know about computers.
A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data
input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.
The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following
five functions −
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

What is the distinction between data and Information?

Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for
the receiver. Information is the processed data that is organized, meaniningful and
useful and therefore be used as a basis upon which decisions and actions can be
made. Data on the other hand consists of raw facts, figures and symbols given to
the computer system during the input phase. Data in its raw state cannot therefore
be used to make a decision.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics −
 Timely − Information should be available when required.
 Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
 Completeness − Information should be complete.
 Relevant – It should provide meaning to those who receive it.
 Use the right channel – Information must only be supplied via the appropriate
channel.

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

Data Processing Cycle
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to
increase their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing
consists of the following basic steps - input, processing, and output. These three
steps constitute the data processing cycle.

 Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when
electronic computers are used, the input data can be recorded on any one of the
several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.
 Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more
useful form. For example, pay-checks can be calculated from the time cards, or a
summary of sales for the month can be calculated from the sales orders.
 Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected.
The particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For
example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who
will spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

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Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in
paper work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment

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  The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike humans.

Computer - Applications
In this chapter, we will discuss the application of computers in various fields.
Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility

which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −
 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making
deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.
Insurance

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Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers.
Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using
computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information
showing −
 Procedure to continue with policies
 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus
Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is
carried out on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

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 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics,
write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more
products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit
direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They
are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also
used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT
scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause
of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared
by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharmacy Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels,
expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for engineering purpose.

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −

 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.
Military

Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military
also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer
has been used are −
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is
received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant.
Some main areas in this category are −

 E-mail
 Chatting
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 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this
category are −

 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

Computer - Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was
being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying
hardware technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software,
which together make up an entire computer system.
There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following
table, approximate dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are
normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers.

S.No Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

3 Third Generation

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 The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

Computer - Types
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.
S.No. Type Specifications

Embedded Built-in other appliance/gadgets

1
computer

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately

2
Computer) powerful microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal

3 Workstation
computer however has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

4 Mini Computer
hundreds of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting

5 Main Frame hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is
different from minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute

6 Supercomputer
hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)

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A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers
for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet
and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal
computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are
normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end
models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.
Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop

publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which require
a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large
amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type
of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together
to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.

Mainframe

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Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many
programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications
that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid

dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of
geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Computer – Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the
following five basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful
to their users.
S.No. Operation Description

The process of entering data and instructions into the

1 Take Input
computer system.

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 Saving data and instructions so that they are available for
2 Store Data
processing as and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order

Processing
3 to convert them into useful information.
Data

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the

4 user, such as a printed report or visual display.
Information

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
5
workflow operations are performed.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer.
This unit creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices
translate the information into a form understandable by the computer.

Processor (Central processing unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data
processing operations. It is the part of the computer system where the manipulation
of symbols, numbers, and letters occurs, and it controls the other parts of the
computer system. The CPU consists of an arithmetic and logic unit and a control
unit. The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs the computer’s principal logical and
arithmetic operations. It adds, subtracts, multiplies, and divides. In addition to
performing arithmetic functions, an ALU must be able to determine when one quantity
is greater than or less than another and when two quantities are equal. For this, the
ALU performs logic operations on letters as well as numbers.

The processing capability of the CPU plays a large role in determining the amount of
work that a computer system can accomplish. Contemporary CPUs use semiconductor
chips called microprocessors, which integrate all of the memory, logic, and control
circuits for an entire CPU onto a single chip. The speed and performance of a
computer’s microprocessors help determine a computer’s processing power and are
based on the number of bits that can be processed at one time (word length), the
amount of data that can be moved between the CPU, primary storage and other
devices (data bus width), and cycle speed, measured in hertz. (Megahertz is
abbreviated MHz and stands for millions of cycles per second).

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).

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 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit (CU)
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Control Unit
This unit coordinates the operations of all parts of the computer but in itself does not
carry out any actual data processing operations. All it does is to give instructions to
the parts responsible in processing to carry out the assigned tasks.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other
units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.

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Data can be defined as a representation of raw facts, concepts, or instructions in a
formalized manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or
processing by human or electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits
(0-9) or special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided
into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique
address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the
computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the
CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold
those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The
parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the
operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

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Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)/ Random Access Memory

Primary memory/RAM holds only those data and instructions on which the computer
is currently working.
It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers
(Accumulators and CIR). The data and instruction required to be processed resides
in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly meaning it
is a read/write memory which stores data when the machine is working. As soon as
the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Main memory is also known as-

 Internal storage unit
 Working memory
 Main memory
 Primary storage
 Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory
are two types of memories in the computer.
Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores data as it awaits processing
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.

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 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if
there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often
used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the
amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is
being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile
nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do
not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular
basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the
same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus
used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data.
This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several
hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and
small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor
and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

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Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower
than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently.
CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-
output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main
memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Computer - Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions
that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.

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 Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys
a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an
electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for
more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge,
ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to
ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed
with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than
erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 More reliable than RAMs

Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader

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 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104
keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a
2
set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.

Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row
3
at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for
some specific purpose.

Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
4
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device
having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement
of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons
are pressed.

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Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is
present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the
cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a
monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends.
The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four
directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical
system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the
ball, the pointer can be moved.

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Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse.
A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used
when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard
disk of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital
form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are
printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers
that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a
picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and

pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

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The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques
to be processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed
on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material
that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine
readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of
light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering
the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary
scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value,
which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
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OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by
pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and
marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple
choice questions.

Computer - Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged
in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of
pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated
pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can
be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a
standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80
characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −
 Large in Size
 High power consumption

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 Heavy to carry
 Takes up a lot of space on the desk
 Very low resolution resulting in low picture quality
 Very high refresh rate which results in straining the eyes of the user.
Advantages of CRT –
 They are easy to repair.
 They are cheap to buy

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on
walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD
(Liquid-Crystal Device).
Disadvantages of LCDs
 Expensive to buy
 They are very complicated to repair when they get damaged

Advantages of LCDs
 They have very high resolution, which means high quality picture
 They are light and easy to lift from place to place.
 They take up less space on the desk when compared to cathode ray tube monitors.
 They have a lower refresh rate which means they strain the eyes less when
compared to CRT monitors.

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper (produce
printout or put simply hardcopy).
There are two types of printers based on how they operate and these include−
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

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Impact Printers
Impact printers use force to print the characters by striking them on the inked ribbon,
which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
 Very low consumable costs (inked ribbon is very cheap to buy)
 They are very noisy when printing and are therefore not ideal for places where
peace and quiet are a must e.g. library
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers
are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character
printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size
(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called
Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally
used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and
there with very nice quality.

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 Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the
drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the
paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character
set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the market are 48
character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum
printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A
standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy

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Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers do not use force to print the characters. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers (also known as Deskjet printers)

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed
to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new
technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet
printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of
printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet
printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

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 High quality printing
 More reliable
 Cheap to buy
 Can print in colour.
 Energy efficient and can therefore be used with lower wattage solar power
systems.
Disadvantages
 Expensive to run as the consumables (ink) cost a lot of money but can print very
few pages
 Slow as compared to laser printer
Computer - Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound
card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered
as the backbone of a computer.

Computer - Memory Units

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage
capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The following table explains the main memory storage units −
S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.

Byte
2 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a
data item or a character.

The following table lists some higher storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

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 Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB

Computer - Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected
to the computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which
information flows from a program to the computer or over the Internet.
Characteristics of Ports
A port has the following characteristics −
 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged
in.
 Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers, etc.

Let us now discuss a few important types of ports −

Serial Port
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse
 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
Parallel Port
 Used for scanners and printers
 Also called printer port
PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
 Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, green for mouse and purple for
keyboard

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Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.
VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
 It has 15 holes.
Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug.
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.
Firewire Port
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
Modem Port
 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.
Ethernet Port
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
 Connects the network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the
network bandwidth.
Game Port
 Connect a joystick to a PC
 Now replaced by USB
Digital Video Interface, DVI port
 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.
Sockets
 Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of the computer.

Computer - Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the
components that can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are the following −
 Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.
 Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.

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 Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
 Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must
work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is
useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded
into the hardware.
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface (go between) between the user and the hardware.
 If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'.
Both are complementary to each other.

Computer - Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function.
A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software −
 System Software
 Application Software
System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally
prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of
programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very
basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the
end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Utilities, Compilers,
Interpreters, Assemblers, etc.

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 Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −
 Close to the system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Operating System
The Operating System is a program with the following features −
 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software
and the computer hardware.
 It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources
and operations of the computer.
 It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other
system software.

Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −
 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier
for the users to access and use other resources.
 To manage the resources of a computer system.
 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and
mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
Characteristics of Operating System
Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating
Systems −

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 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of
it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when
a process or program requests it.
 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and
deallocates the processor when it is no longer required.
 Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O
controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much
time.
 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who
gets the resources.
 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of
passwords and other similar techniques.
 Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or
users.
 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for
a service and from the system.
 Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console
of the computer in the form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges
the same, does the corresponding action, and informs the operation by a display
screen.
 Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error-detecting methods.
 Coordination between Other Software and Users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.
Utility programs
These are part of the system software and are there mainly to provide additional
functionality to a computer system. They include programs such as;
 Screen dump
 Copy/cut/paste
 Disk defragmenter
 Disk checker
 Antivirus
 firewall

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
task. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for
writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often
called a software package/suit, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a
spreadsheet package.

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 Examples of Application software are the following −
 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Computer - Networking
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to
each other to share information and resources.

Characteristics of a Computer Network

 Share resources from one computer to another.
 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other
computer(s) connected over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network
and let other computers of the network use the machines available over the
network.
Following is the list of hardware's required to set up a computer network.
 Network Cables

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 Distributors
 Routers
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards
Network Devices
Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and
other electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices
transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different networks.
Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network. Some devices are installed
on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas some are part of the network,
like router, switch, etc. Let us explore some of these devices in greater detail.
Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is
Category 5 cable RJ-45.

Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to
connect many computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work.

The solution is to use a central body to which other computers, printers, scanners,
etc. can be connected and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.
Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and
other devices that are a part of the network. It is equipped with holes called ports.
Computers and other devices are connected to a router using network cables. Now-
a-days router comes in wireless modes using which computers can be connected
without any physical cable.

Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer
cannot be connected over a network. It is also known as the network adapter or

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Network Interface Card (NIC). Most branded computers have network card pre-
installed. Network cards are of two types: Internal and External Network Cards.
Internal Network Cards

External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network
card needs to be inserted into the motherboard, however no network cable is required
to connect to the network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card is easy to use and connects via USB port. Computers automatically detect
USB card and can install the drivers required to support the USB network card
automatically.

Modem

Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone
or cable lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or
cable wire can transmit only analog data.

The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice
versa. Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent
by the computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data
when it is being received by the computer.

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Gateway

Is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks.

Wi-Fi Card

Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to

achieve wireless connection to any network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to
connect any device to the local network wirelessly. The physical area of the network
which provides internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can
be set up at home, office or any public space. Hotspots themselves are connected to
the network through wires.

A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing,

downloading digital camera images, video chat, etc. to old devices. Modern
devices come with their in-built wireless network adapter.

Network Topologies
The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is called network
topology. Some of the factors that affect choice of topology for a network are −
 Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an
infrastructure. So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc.
have to be considered when designing a network.
 Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow
reconfiguration of office set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing
nodes.
 Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum
down time. Failure of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the
whole network useless.
 Scalability − Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can accommodate load
of new devices and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.
 Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware,
software and technical personnel requirements.
 Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should
be easy.

Bus Topology

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Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial,
to which many network devices and workstations are attached along the
length.

The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the destination terminal
sees the data, it copies it to the local disk.

Advantages of Bus Topology

These are the advantages of using bus topology −

 Easy to install and maintain

 Can be extended easily
 Very reliable because of single transmission line

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

These are some disadvantages of using bus topology −

 Troubleshooting is difficult as there is no single point of control

 One faulty node can bring the whole network down
 Dumb terminals cannot be connected to the bus

Ring Topology

In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the
network a circular shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.

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When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring node which
transmits it to the next one. Before further transmission data may be amplified. In
this way, data traverses the network and reaches the destination node, which
removes it from the network. If the data reaches the sender, it removes the data and
resends it later.

Advantages of Ring Topology

These are the advantages of using ring topology −

 Small cable segments are needed to connect two nodes

 Ideal for optical fibres as data travels in only one direction
 Very high transmission speeds possible

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

These are some the disadvantages of using ring topology −

 Failure of single node brings down the whole network
 Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty
one is identified
 Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact

Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is also called
the central node. Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through
the server. It is the most popular topology for information and voice networks as
central node can process data received from source node before sending it to the
destination node.

Advantages of Star Topology

These are the advantages of using star topology −
 Failure of one node does not affect the network
 Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be detected from central node
immediately
 Simple access protocols required as one of the communicating nodes is always the
central node

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

Disadvantages of Star Topology
These are the disadvantages of using star topology −
 Long cables may be required to connect each node to the server
 Failure of central node brings down the whole network

Tree Topology
Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
It incorporates features of both star and bus topologies. Tree topology is also called
hierarchical topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the advantages of using tree topology −
 Existing network can be easily expanded
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments means easier installation and
maintenance
 Well suited for temporary networks

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the disadvantages of using tree topology −
 Technical expertise required to configure and wire tree topology
 Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network
 Insecure network
 Maintenance difficult for large networks

Types of Networks
Networks can be categorized depending on size, complexity, level of security, or
geographical range. We will discuss some of the most popular topologies based on
geographical spread.

PAN
PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network. PAN is the interconnection between
devices within the range of a person’s private space, typically within a range of 10

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metres. If you have transferred images or songs from your laptop to mobile or from
mobile to your friend’s mobile using Bluetooth, you have set up and used a personal
area network.

A person can connect her laptop, smart phone, personal digital assistant and portable
printer in a network at home. This network could be fully Wi-Fi or a combination of
wired and wireless.

LAN
LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a single site like an office,
building or manufacturing unit. LAN is set up to when team members need to share
software and hardware resources with each other but not with the outside world.
Typical software resources include official documents, user manuals, employee
handbook, etc. Hardware resources that can be easily shared over the network
include printer, fax machines, modems, memory space, etc. This decreases
infrastructure costs for the organization drastically.

A LAN may be set up using wired or wireless connections. A LAN that is completely
wireless is called Wireless LAN or WLAN.

MAN
MAN is the acronym for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a network spread over a
city, college campus or a small region. MAN is larger than a LAN and typically spread
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over several kilometres. Objective of MAN is to share hardware and software
resources, thereby decreasing infrastructure costs. MAN can be built by connecting
several LANs.

The most common example of MAN is cable TV network.

WAN
WAN or Wide Area Network is spread over a country or many countries. WAN is
typically a network of many LANs, MANs and WANs. Network is set up using wired or
wireless connections, depending on availability and reliability.

The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Internet and Intranet

In this chapter, we will see what is Internet and Intranet, as well as discuss the
similarities and differences between the two.
Internet
It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses the
standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is identified by a
unique IP address. IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114)
which identifies a computer’s location.
A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to the IP
Address so that the user can locate a computer by a name. For example, a DNS
server will resolve a name https://www.nortec.edu.zm to a particular IP address to
uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.
Intranet
Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other. PCs in
intranet are not available to the world outside the intranet. Usually each organization
has its own Intranet network and members/employees of that organization can
access the computers in their intranet.

Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique among

the computers in that Intranet.
Similarities between Internet and Intranet
 Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.
 Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as websites in
the internet. However, only members of Intranet network can access intranet
hosted sites.
 In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo
messenger/gtalk over the internet.
Differences between Internet and Intranet
 Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few
PCs.
 Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large population,
whereas Intranet is restricted.
 Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as per the
need.
Connecting using an ISP

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

 • Internet Service Provider
• Extends the Internet into your computer

An ISP, or Internet Service Provider, is a company that provides you with a point of
access to the Internet. When you connect to your ISP, your computer (or your own
network) becomes an extension of the Internet itself whilst you remain connected.
Examples of ISPs in Zambia include Zamtel, Zamnet, Coppernet, Microlink, Realtime
etc.

How does the connection work from home?

• Modems and routers

• Negotiating a connection

Who governs/regulates/controls the Internet?

• A collective free-for-all?
• A collaborative technocracy?
• A commercial communications network?

This is a difficult question! The Internet grew as a collaborative network of researchers

keen to share their discoveries in a simple, accessible way. Because of this, there was
no real need to regulate or control the Internet; the information was already free and
was of interest only to other researchers, so it didn't need protection. But as the
Internet has grown, it has become a more commercial, public entity, and some who
use it now wish it to be governed and policed to prevent certain types of abuse.
However, there are various bodies that govern parts of the Internet, which we'll look
at in the next few paragraphs.

The World Wide Web

What is the World Wide Web?

• Web servers, which store the web pages
• Web documents, the pages themselves
• Web clients, browsers of many types

The Web consists of many millions of internet-connected computers, each with

information on them that their owner has decided to share. These documents can be
formed of anything from plain text to multimedia or even 3D objects. These
computers, called servers, deliver this information over the Internet to client
computers (such as your PC at home) using a protocol called HTTP (HyperText
Transfer Protocol). The HTTP protocol is very simple; essentially it just provides a
mechanism that allows a client to request a document, and a server to send that
document.

As the web has become more and more popular, its capabilities have increased to
include such things as graphics, animations, scripts and even complete computer
programs, all embedded into the pages of the documents. Essentially, the web is the

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

easiest to use of the entire internet toolkit —this is partly why it has become so
popular. Various mechanisms allow the viewer to move around (navigate) the
document easily. Clicking on a hyperlink moves you to another part of the document,
or to another document altogether.

The Web's unique features

• Universal readership – Uses the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is used to read
documents.
• Hyperlinks/hypertext/hypermedia – Combination of links, text and media in the web.
• Availability of information – Computers are interconnected, so information is readily
available.
• Flexibility to adapt media formats – HTML and HTTP enable the adaptation of new
media forms.

The web has become the most predominant of the new digital media, and has
provided the mechanism for many new forms of publishing. There are many reasons
why this is so; a few of them are discussed in the following sections.

Web Browser

Short for Web browser, a software application used to locate, retrieve and also display
content on the World Wide Web, including Web pages, images, video and other
files. Today's browsers are fully-functional software suites that can interpret and
display HTML Web pages, applications, JavaScript and other content hosted on Web
servers. Many browsers offer plug-ins which extend the capabilities of a browser so it
can display multimedia information (including sound and video), or the browser can
be used to perform tasks such as videoconferencing, to design web pages or add anti-
phishing filters and other security features to the browser.

The two most popular browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer and Firefox. Other
major browsers include Google Chrome, Apple Safari and Opera. While most
commonly use to access information on the web, a browser can also be used to access
information hosted on Web servers in private networks.

How does the web work?

• Web servers and web browsers communicate via HTTP

• HTTP ensures that all parts of the web page are delivered
• Web browser decides how these items are displayed

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is actually quite simple. The web browser (or
client) makes a request of a webpage to the server, and the web server passes the
page back to the browser. “How HTTP works: retrieving a web page”. More cleverly,
it also passes back any images, sounds or other media items back to the browser too.

The web browser is also particularly clever in the way it displays what it retrieves. Web
pages are written in HTML, and the browser knows how to display these correctly,
whether you have a huge flat screen or a tiny screen on a handheld
device or phone. The HTML language gives the browser hints on how to display
things, and the browser decides the final layout itself.

How do web addresses work?

The key to accessing all this information is the URI - the Uniform Resource Identifier.
Each web page has a unique address, specified by its URL – Universal Resource
Locator, which tells the client/browser how to access the page.

How do web addresses work?

A web search engine is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web.
The search results are generally presented in a list of results often referred to as
search engine results pages (SERPs). The information may consist of web pages,
images, information and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data
available in databases or open directories

Information on the web is searched using programs called browsers. Examples of

search browsers include Google, Yahoo, Live Search, Bing, Galaxy, MSN Search, Cuil
etc.

Emails: The Nature and Use of Email

• Email can be both interactive and asynchronous

• Email tends to be a hybrid of spoken and written language
• Email can be both transient and permanent

How Email Works

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

• More protocols:
• SMTP - distributes mail between mailservers
• POP - used to download mail to your computer
• IMAP - used to access your mail remotely on a server

Email provides a fast, efficient delivery system for text-based messages. As with all
applications on the Internet, it uses certain protocols to achieve this, “How email
works”:

 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to distribute mail between servers,
and by the mail client to send the message initially;
 POP (Post Office Protocol) is used by the mail client to download messages and
headers to a local computer from the mail server. POP is useful if you want to read
your mail offline (ie not connected to your mailserver), as it downloads and stores
your email on your own computer.
 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is used by clients to access mail directly
on the mail server. With IMAP, the mail usually stays stored on the recipient's
server until it is deleted - the mail client only views the mail, rather than
downloading it.

Parts of Email Addresses

An email address identifies an email box to which email messages are delivered.

1. User Name
o The first part of an email address is the user name, which identifies you personally
on the mail server that you use. Each user name on a server must be different and
consists of letters, numbers or special characters such as underscores or periods.
Your user name might be your first initial and last name, a business name or
anything else you want to use to identify yourself on the Internet.
2. @ Symbol

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

o The symbol "@", called the "at" symbol, connects the user name of an email
address to the mail server, or domain. It tells the Internet that your user name can
be found at that domain.
3. Domain Name
o The domain name in an email address appears after the @ symbol and identifies
the Internet domain that handles your email. It can be further broken down into
two parts: the name of the computer or server that handles the mail and the top-
level domain, often "com," "gov" or "edu," which stand for commercial business,
government agency and educational institution, respectively, according to St.
Edward's University. An example of a domain name is "ehow.com."

Using Email Attachments

• Basic email is text-only

• Other information needs to be encoded as text
E.g. a MS-Word document is binary data needs to be converted to a text
form

Email was designed to be a text-only medium, and various tricks need to be used in
order to send any other type of data. You've probably already come across
attachments, which allow you to package a file or files within the email. The file is
encoded so that it won't become corrupted when passing through the email system.

Top Tips for Effective Email

• Stick to a single subject: it's easier to organise

• Make your subject describe the contents
• Only send to directly interested people
• Keep your signature concise
• Don't send large attachments unexpectedly
• When replying, make it clear who said what

There are a few things to remember when using email that'll make it easier for you
and those you're communicating with to read and organise mail. Here are a few
suggestions:

1. Keep to a single subject will make searching for information in archives much
easier.
2. Particularly for work purposes, only discussing the topic in the email title will make
it easier to return to the information later. It's almost as easy to send several short
mails as one long one.
3. Use descriptive subjects to make it clear what the email is about. Also, make sure
that your descriptive name is set correctly; it's more useful to see “Jim Smith” on
the header that just “jim”.
4. Only add necessary recipients to the To: or CC: lists, so that only those interested
in the email will receive it. Don't send to a 20-member email list because you want

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

 five people on the list to receive it; you'll have five happy recipients but fifteen
unhappy ones.
5. Keep your signature small to reduce bandwidth and avoid taking up too much
space in people's inboxes.
6. Don't send huge attachments, as it puts a considerable load on the mail server,
and the mail may be rejected by your recipient's mail server as too large.
7. Keep quotes in replies informative and neat, making sure that replies to replies are
nested and its clear who said what!

Email Safety and Security

There are a few things you need to remember to stay safe with email:
 Don't trust the sender's name, as it can be “spoofed”.
 Never send passwords or credit card details using plain email.
 Never open unknown attachments. Viruses are most commonly spread through
attachments that install rogue programs when opened.
 Be careful of clicking links in HTML emails, or at least check where the link points
to by examining the HTML. Misdirected links are the most common form of phishing
“bait”.
 Make sure your email reader doesn't automatically open HTML mail or images.
Often, opening images on junk mail can send an indication back to the bulk-emailer
that your email address is “active”.
 Choose a sensible password for your email account (i.e. not a common name or
dictionary word, preferably a random string of numbers and letters), and use a
secure mail program if possible.
 Keep your virus checker up to date (you do use one, don't you?), and visit http://
 update.microsoft.com/ regularly and download/install any critical updates.

Email Etiquette
1. Include a clear subject matter, and don’t shout
Always include a subject matter that succinctly captures what your email is about.
If your email is urgent or requires immediate response, include this in the subject
line, but do this sparingly. If your email isn’t urgent, then you will only annoy
people by crying wolf.
Don’t capitalize all your letters, no matter how urgent your email is, as you will
look aggressive – it’s like SHOUTING OVER EMAIL.
2. Always use an appropriate greeting
Salutations are hotly debated. Many argue that you should always use a formal
greeting. This depends on the recipient. If you are writing to a close colleague
or your team, an informal ‘Hi’ will likely be sufficient.
If you are writing in a chain of emails where the context has already been
established in a prior email or even by phone, then it’s fine to write with no
greeting.
If you are writing to someone you don’t know so well, then always add a formal
salutation and an introduction.

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

3. Only use shorthand if you know your recipients
If you are writing to your own team about a project that you have been
discussing, then you can write short, instructive emails with a list of bullet points.
This means they can quickly understand the task and it’s far easier to read on a
smartphone.
However, sending a note like this to people you don’t know can make you appear
blunt, rude and even a bully. If you don’t have a pre-existing relationship with
the recipient, then you need to build one up first before writing shorthand emails.
Equally, don’t write emails that are superfluous, as this will just bore the recipient.
4. Be wary of using humour or colloquialism across cultures
Be aware that funny sayings or colloquialisms may be completely misconstrued
by your colleagues in overseas offices. At worst, you could insult them, at best;
you can make them feel confused or left out.
5. Consider the purpose of your email
Always state if your email needs an action and by when. Open-ended emails can
be confusing. Having an action or even letting the recipient know that no further
action is required is helpful.
Whatever you do, before you click send, visualize what you want to achieve and
modify your language as such.
6. Think before you smile
Emojis have crept into everyday use. With the increase of email and text
communication, it’s impossible to see facial expressions so people add smiley
faces to soften their emails. However, a 2017 study showed that this could make
the sender appear incompetent.
It depends on the norm in your organization and sector but be mindful of when
and to who you’re sending emojis to. If you’re sending them to people you know
well, and you know will understand them, then that is fine. If not, then consider
if they’re really needed.
7. Don’t hit reply all or CC everyone
Have you checked that you’re only communicating to the people you need to
communicate to? It can be annoying to be copied into every email or to see every
response in a chain if it is not relevant to your recipient.
8. Reply in a timely fashion
Always reply within 24 hours, even if it is to acknowledge an email and explain
that you will revert with an appropriate response within a defined timescale.
People don’t like to be ignored!
9. Think about where your email could end up
Never use inappropriate language in a work email. The reality is that your email
will remain on the server long after you have deleted it.
The issue may be resolved but your email will still be in existence and you would
not want to cause offence or get into trouble for something you foolishly wrote
without much thought.
10. Always spell check
Sending emails with spelling mistakes and grammatical errors can be infuriating
for colleagues. They could imply that you’re too lazy to use the spell checker
before you click send. Take the time to re-read your emails, make sure they make
sense and have the right tone before you send them.

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

It’s all about context
Ultimately, there are so many ways to write an email and each employee has a
different and unique style.
It all boils down to context. Who are your employees writing to? How well do they
know the recipient? Do they know them in person or just virtually? How will the email
be interpreted? And what are they trying to achieve through the communication?
HR and People teams can guide employees in the different internal communication
styles and set the tone for the organization – both by setting an example, but also
through things like inductions, and in training for managers.
Make sure your employees know the dos and don’ts of internal email communication
and if you’re not sure if they do, ask them. It’s better to be safe than sorry!

What is Netiquette?

“‘Netiquette’ is network etiquette, which are the do’s and don’ts of online
communication. Netiquette covers both common courtesy online and the informal
‘rules of the road’ of cyberspace.”(Shea, 1997, para 1)

Netiquette is a set of rules that encourages appropriate online behavior related to the
social and cultural norms of a community (Preece, 2004). These rules can vary
depending upon the environment/context (informal/formal), people
(familiar/unfamiliar with each other), activity, and type of technology used (Center for
Teaching, Learning and Technology, UBC, n.d.; Preece, 2004; Rinaldi, 1996).
Noncompliance of netiquette rule use can be interpreted as a sign of disrespect (Kozik
& Slivova, 2014).

Why do we Need Netiquette Rules?

The rules of etiquette that apply when communicating online are different from those
that apply when communicating in person. So we need to learn such rules so that we
don’t encounter serious barriers as we try to communicate online.

Fundamental Netiquette Rules

Rule 1: Remember the Human

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

  Remember to treat others the way they want to be treated.
 Introduce yourself and courteously respond to others; use their name.
 Use emoticons sparingly to help display tone when communicating in less formal
environments.
 Try not to hurt others feelings or cause offense
o avoid use of All CAPS, as you will appear to be shouting.
 Consider other’s gender and cultural differences; avoid gender and cultural jokes
and sarcasm.
Rule 2: Behave Ethically and Responsibly
 Think before hitting the send button — assume your message is permanent.
 Act within acceptable societal norms.
 Respect Internet laws:
o privacy issues
o intellectual property and copyright laws; credit other’s work
 Complete work on time.
Rule 3: Familiarize Yourself with the Technology and Environment
 Familiarize yourself with varying social and cultural norms.
 Recognize that some environments will expect a different level of formality than
others.
 Recognize that different technologies may require different netiquette guidelines.
 Lurk before you leap. Familiarize yourself; then join in.
Rule 4: Respect Other’s Time and Bandwidth
 Make contributions concise, relevant, and insightful.
 Don’t dominate discussions.
 Recognize that others will have different concerns and .
 Don’t expect instant responses or for all to focus on your contributions.
 Restrict emails/postings to course related materials only.
Rule 5: Present Yourself Positively
 Become knowledgeable about your topic.
 Write in a clear, organized, logical, and accurate way.
 Run a quick spell check; it demonstrates professionalism.
 Be pleasant and polite; help others when possible.
 Respect other’s differing opinions and perspectives.
Rule 6: Share Your Knowledge and Expertise
 Contribute and share online.
 Be aware that sharing knowledge online is positive:
o it increases discussion and knowledge construction.
o it helps build trust and online community.
 Cite credible sources.
Rule 7: Keep Flame Wars under Control
 Recognize that Netiquette forbids “flame wars” that dominate the tone and destroy
the camaraderie of a discussion.
o avoid using offensive and confrontational language; no bullying.
 Online exchanges should be constructive.
 Seek clarification prior, as content may have been misunderstood.
Rule 8: Be Forgiving of Other’s Mistakes
 Be forgiving – there will always be new online learners.
 Be gracious if someone makes a mistake.
 Be polite when informing someone of an etiquette error; use private email.

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

 Remember that we all make mistakes; have patience.
Things to consider when buying a Computer?
In this chapter, we will supply relevant information to help you buy a desktop on
component by component basis. As desktops are highly customizable, so it is better
to learn about the main parts and then visit the manufacturer or the retailer shop or
site, instead of just looking at some specific model directly.
Popular desktop brands are Dell, Lenovo, HP and Apple. Always compare the
desktops based on their specifications and base price.
Monitor

 Size − It is the diagonal size of the LCD screen. Larger the area, bigger the picture
screen. A bigger picture is preferable for movie watching and gaming. It will
increase the productivity as well.
 Resolution − This is the number of pixels on the screen. For example, 24inch
display is 1920x1200 (width by length) and 22-inch display is 1680x1050. High
resolution provides better picture quality and a nice gaming experience.
 Inputs − Now-a-days monitors can accept inputs from cable as well apart from
the computer. They can also have USB ports.
 Stand − Some monitors come with adjustable stands while some may not.
 Recommended − 24 Inch LCD.
Operating System
 Operating System is the main software of the computer as everything will run on
it in one form or other.
 There are primarily three choices: Windows, Linux, Apple OS X.
 Linux is free, however people generally do not use it for home purpose.
 Apple OS X works only on Apple desktops.
 Windows 7 is very popular among desktop users.
 Most of the computers come pre-equipped with Windows 7 Starter edition.
 Windows 8 is recently introduced and is available in the market.
 Windows 7 and Windows 8 come in multiple versions from starter, home basic,
home premium, professional, ultimate, and enterprise editions.
 As the edition version increases, their features list and price increases.
 Recommended − Windows 7 Home Premium.
Optical Drive (CD / DVD / Blu-ray)

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

 Optical drive is the drive on a computer, which is responsible for using CD, DVD,
and Blu-ray discs.
 Now-a-days, DVD burners are industry standards.
 DVD Burner can burn CD, DVD and play them.
 DVD Burner is cheaper than Blu-ray drives.
 Blu-ray drives can play HD movies but are costlier component.
 Recommended − DVD Burner.
Memory

 RAM is considered as Computer Memory as the performance of a computer is

directly proportional to its memory and processor.
 Today's software and operating system require high memory.
 Today commonly used RAM is DDR3, which operates at 1066Mhz.
 As per Windows 7, 1 GB is the minimum RAM required to function properly.
 Recommended − 4 GB.

Hard Drive

 Hard disk is used for storage purpose. Higher the capacity, more data you can
save in it.
 Now-a-days computers are equipped with 500GB hard drive, which can be
extended to 2TB.
 Most hard drives in desktop operate at the standard performance speed of
7200RPM.
 Recommended − 500GB.
CPU

 Frequency (GHz) − This determines the speed of the processor. More the speed,
better the CPU.

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA

 Cores − Now-a-days CPUs come with more than one core, which is like having
more than one CPU in the computer. Programs which can take advantage of multi-
core environment will run faster on such machines.
 Brand − Intel or AMD. Both are equivalent. Intel is in lead.
 Cache − Higher the L1, L2 cache, better the CPU performance.
 Recommended − Intel Core i3-3225 3.30 GHz Processor.

O’BRIAN CHINTU-BSC (HONS), MSC, MBA