DAP 1107 FARM ANIMAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

UROGENITAL SYSTEM

BY: MR. ADOKO JACOB

Tell: 0784387555/0772151218(WhatsApp)
Email: [email protected]
 Urogenital System
• The urogenital system, also called the genitourinary system,
in vertebrates, comprises the organs concerned with
reproduction and urinary excretion.

• Although their functions are unrelated, the structures

involved in excretion and reproduction are morphologically
associated and often use common ducts.
Urinary system Reproductive system
 Urogenital System

• The major urinary system • The major structures of the

reproductive system in males
structures in mammals are
are the testes, sperm ducts,
the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, and penis.
and urethra. • In females, they are the
ovaries, fallopian tubes,
uterus, and vagina.
 Waste Excretion in Animal’s Body
Separation of wastes from body fluids and eliminating them.

▪ Respiratory system: CO2 and water vapor.

▪ Integumentary system (sweat glands): water, salts, lactic acid, urea
▪ Digestive system: water, salts, CO2, lipids, bile pigments,
cholesterol.
▪ Urinary system: urea, many metabolic wastes, toxins, drugs,
hormones, salts, H+, and water.
 Urinary System
Definition
• The urinary system, is a group of organs in • Maintain Homeostasis through:
the body that filters out excess fluid and
other substances from the bloodstream. ❖ Filtration, reabsorption, secretion

❖ Fluid balance regulation

• The Function of the renal/urinary system is
to eliminate wastes from the body, regulate
❖ Acid-base balance regulation –
blood volume and pressure, control levels of
electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate pH
blood pH.
❖ Production of hormones
 EXERCISE 1

Identify the
Structures of the
Male Urinary
System
Urinary System
Gross Anatomy

•Kidneys
•Ureters
•Urinary bladder
•Urethra
 Kidneys
• Located in the dorsal abdominal area ventral to and on either
side of the first few lumbar vertebrae.
• Retroperitoneal to the abdominal cavity; between the
peritoneum and dorsal abdominal muscles.
• In most domestic animals, the right kidney is more cranial than
the left.
• A thick layer of peri-renal fat usually surrounds kidneys to
help protect them from pressure exerted by surrounding
organs.
 Renal
Anatomy

• Renal cortex
• Renal medulla
• Renal hilus
• Renal pelvis
• Renal capsule
• Renal artery
• Renal vein
Species Differences
 Nephron Structure
Nephrons: The Functional Units of the Kidney

• Glomerulus
• Bowman’s capsule
• Glomerular filtrate
• Proximal convoluted
tubule (PCT)
• Loop of Henle
• Distal convoluted tubule
(DCT)
• Collecting ducts
 Renal Corpuscle
• Located in renal cortex
• Function: filters blood in first
stage of urine production
• Composed of Glomerulus
surrounded by Bowman’s
capsule
▪ Glomerulus: “tuft” of
capillaries
• Fluid filtered out of blood is
called glomerular filtrate
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

• Filtered fluid collected by

Bowman’s capsule enters into
the PCT.
• It is called convoluted due to its
tortuous path.

• Lined with cuboidal epithelial cells

with a brush border on the lumen
side.

• Twisting path through the cortex.

• Glomerular filtrate now called the

tubular filtrate.
 Loop of Henle
• The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube
that consists of a descending limb and
an ascending limb.

• It transfers fluid from the proximal to

the distal tubule.

• The descending and ascending

portions of the loop of Henle
(sometimes referred to as the nephron
loop) are continuations of the same
tubule.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
• Continuation of the ascending
loop of Henle.

• DCT from all nephrons in the kidney

empty into collecting ducts

▪ Carry tubular filtrate through the

medulla.
▪ Empty into renal pelvis.
▪ Primary site of action of ADH and
regulation of potassium and acid-
base balance.
 Collecting duct
• The collecting duct collects urine
and transports it to the pelvis
through the ureters where it is
temporarily stored in the urinary
bladder.

• Reabsorption of excess water also

takes place in the collecting duct.
Nephron Review
 Other Organs of the Renal / Urinary System
• Ureter: Urine passes from the renal tube through tubes called ureters and
into the bladder.

• Bladder: The bladder is flexible and is used as storage until the urine is
allowed to pass through the urethra and out of the body.

• Urethra: Duct that transmits urine from the bladder to the exterior of the
body during urination. The female and male urinary system are very
similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.
 Ureters & Urinary Bladder
• Ureters
▪ Paired tubes from the
kidneys to the urinary
bladder
• Urinary bladder
▪ Urine storage
▪ Sphincter muscle
(skeletal)
▪ Joins the urethra
 Urethra
• The female urethra is shorter and straighter than the
long, curved male urethra.

• In the female the urethra opens on the ventral portion

of the vestibule of the vulva.

• In the male the urethra runs down the center of the penis
and also functions in the reproductive system.
Canine Male Urethra
Canine Female Urethra
Physiology of Urine Formation

• Steps involved in urine

formation are;
• Glomerular filtration,
• Tubular reabsorption and
• Tubular secretion
 Urine Formation
• Filtration – glomerulus
• Reabsorption – PCT
▪ Na+
▪ H2O
▪ Glucose, amino acids
▪ Other nutrients
• Secretion – DCT
▪ Ammonium
▪ H+
▪ Some antibiotics
 Glomerular Filtration
• During filtration, blood enters the afferent arteriole and flows into the glomerulus where
filterable blood components, such as water and nitrogenous waste, will move towards the
inside of the glomerulus, and nonfilterable components, such as cells and serum albumins,
proteins will exit via the efferent arteriole. These filterable components accumulate in the
glomerulus to form the glomerular filtrate.

• Glomerular filtration filters out most of the solutes due to high blood pressure and
specialized membranes in the afferent arteriole. The blood pressure in the glomerulus is
maintained independent of factors that affect systemic blood pressure. The “leaky”
connections between the endothelial cells of the glomerular capillary network allow solutes
to pass through easily. All solutes in the glomerular capillaries, except for macromolecules
like proteins, pass through by passive diffusion. There is no energy requirement at this
stage of the filtration process. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the volume of
glomerular filtrate formed per minute by the kidneys. GFR is regulated by multiple
mechanisms and is an important indicator of kidney function.
 Tubular reabsorption
• Tubular reabsorption occurs in the PCT part of the renal tubule. Almost all
nutrients are reabsorbed, and this occurs either by passive or active transport.
Reabsorption of water and some key electrolytes are regulated and can be
influenced by hormones.
• Sodium (Na ) is the most abundant ion and most of it is reabsorbed by active
transport and then transported to the peritubular capillaries. Because Na is
actively transported out of the tubule, water follows it to even out the
osmotic pressure.
• Water is also independently reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries due to
the presence of aquaporins, or water channels, in the PCT. This occurs due
to low blood pressure and high osmotic pressure in the peritubular
capillaries. However, every solute has a transport maximum and the excess
is not reabsorbed.
 Tubular secretion
• Excretion of wastes occurs due to lack of reabsorption combined with
tubular secretion.

• Undesirable products like metabolic wastes, urea, uric acid, and

certain drugs, are excreted by tubular secretion.

• Most of the tubular secretion happens in the DCT, but some occur in
the early part of the collecting duct.
 Summary of steps involved in urine production.
Process Purpose Site Direction of flow of materials Materials moved

removes a large amount of

Water, glucose, sodium, urea and
Glomerular Filtration fluid and solutes from the Glomerulus Blood → Urineglomerulus → Nephron
similar small molecules,
blood.

• Water – Mostly reabsorbed

•Glucose – Totally reabsorbed.
Tubular returns useful substances Tubules of Urine → BloodNephron → peritubular
•Aminoacid – Mostly reabsorbed.
Reabsorption to the blood nephron (PCT) capillaries
•Salt – Mostly reabsorbed
•Urea – 50 % reabsorbed.

•penicillin, cocaine, marijuana,

•regulating chemical levels
pesticides, preservatives, H ,
in body, Tubules of Blood → Urineperitubular capillaries →
Tubular Secretion ammonium, K , uric acid,
•excretion of harmful nephron (DCT) Nephron
hemoglobin breakdown products,
chemicals
and other wastes
 Urine Volume & Concentration

• Regulated a lot by hormones;

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
▪ From pituitary gland
▪ Increases reabsorption of water in PCT
▪ Concentrates the urine, decreases volume
• Aldosterone
▪ From adrenal gland
▪ Increases reabsorption of Na+ in PCT
▪ Concentrates the urine, decreases volume
 Hormones That Affect Osmoregulation and Kidney Function

Hormone Where produced Function

Can decrease kidney function
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
(Adrenaline and Noradrenaline)
Adrenal medulla temporarily by
vasoconstriction
Increases blood pressure by
Renin Kidney nephrons
acting on angiotensinogen
Angiotensin II affects multiple
Angiotensin Liver processes and increases blood
pressure
Prevents loss of sodium and
Aldosterone Adrenal cortex
water
Anti-diuretic hormone – ADH Hypothalamus (stored in the
(vasopressin)
Prevents water loss
posterior pituitary)
Putting Things in
Perspective! ☺
 Overview – Reproduction
• Survival of the species
▪ All other body systems are about the survival of the
individual animal
• Economic system for agricultural species
▪ Dairy
▪ Beef
▪ Equine (horse racing)
▪ Pork
• Sexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction
 Why Sex?
• Asexual reproduction – massive numbers of “offspring” in
short period of time, all organisms with the same DNA.
▪ Bacteria, protozoans, cloning.

• Sexual reproduction – fewer numbers of offspring, all

organisms with different DNA.
▪ Increased genetic diversity (larger gene pool).
▪ Increased survival of the species.
▪ Most multicellular organisms.
Differentiate between meiosis and mitosis
 Cellular Reproduction
• Mitosis – diploid chromosome
number (2n)
▪ Production of all cells in body
except gametes
• Meiosis – haploid chromosome
number (n)
▪ Production of gametes (sex
cells)
• Fertilization
▪ Sperm (n) + ovum (n)
• = zygote (2n)
 The
Genetics of
Sex
 Chromosomes
• Coiled masses of DNA in the nuclei of cells
• Each cell in an animal's body (except spermatozoa or
ova) contains paired, identical chromosomes
• Diploid chromosome number
▪ The total number of chromosomes in the nucleus of
each body cell is the same (except for reproductive
cells)
▪ Always an even number – chromosomes occur in
pairs
 Sex Chromosomes
• Designated as either "X" chromosomes or "Y"
chromosomes.

• If both of the sex chromosomes are X chromosomes

(XX), the individual is genetically female.

• If one is an X and the other is a Y (XY), the

individual is genetically male.
 Mitosis
• Most body cells divide after the cell first makes a
duplicate copy of its chromosomes.

• Half the chromosomes go to one daughter cell and half

go to the other.

• The genetic makeup of the two daughter cells is

exactly the same as each other and as the parent
cell.
 Meiosis
• Chromosomes do not produce duplicate copies of themselves
before daughter cells divide.
• Half of the total chromosomes (one from each diploid
chromosome pair and one sex chromosome) go to each
daughter cell.
• Which chromosomes go to which daughter cell is entirely
random.
 Haploid Chromosome Number
• Reduction division – the total number of chromosomes in each
of the daughter cells is reduced to half the number of the
parent cell.

• Ensures that the fertilized ovum from the union of spermatozoa

and the ova has a diploid number.

• Haploid chromosome number in the reproductive cells

results from meiosis.
 Meiosis – Gamete Formation

• Diploid number → haploid number of

chromosomes
• Spermatogenesis in male animal
▪ 1 spermatogonium → 4 mature sperm
• Oogenesis in female animal
▪ 1 oogonium → 1 mature egg (ovum) + 3 polar bodies
 Compare the
processes of
spermatogenesis
and oogenesis
 Spermatogenesis

• Production of male sex

cells
• Occurs in
seminiferous tubules
of testes
• Produced continuously
and in very large
numbers
 Spermatogenesis
• Primary spermatocyte divides by meiosis into secondary
spermatocytes – haploid number.
• The secondary spermatocytes divide by mitosis into four spermatids.
• Spermatids grow tails and undergo other physical changes that
convert them to spermatozoa.
• When the spermatozoa are fully developed, they detach and
are carried to the epididymis for storage before ejaculation
• Half of the spermatozoa produced have an X sex
chromosome, and half have a Y sex chromosome
 Oogenesis
• Production of female sex
cells
• Occurs in ovarian follicles
• Female has a fixed number of
primary oocytes at or soon
after birth
• Oogenesis produces small
numbers of ova at a time
 Oogenesis
• Primary oocyte divides by
meiosis into a large
secondary oocyte and a small
"polar body"
• Each has the haploid
chromosome number
• Secondary oocyte and the
first polar body divide by
mitosis into an ovum and
three polar bodies
 Comparative
Anatomy –
Male Dog & Cat
Comparative
Anatomy
(Canine)
 Male Reproductive System Functions
• Produces male sex hormones.

• Produces and develops

spermatozoa.

• Deliver the spermatozoa to the

female system at the appropriate
time.
 Scrotum
• A pouch of skin that houses the testes
outside the abdominal cavity.
• Function:
o Temperature regulation: The scrotum
helps maintain the testes at a slightly
lower temperature than the body's core
temperature, which is essential for
optimal sperm production.
 The testes (singular: testis)
Location: The testes are located within the
scrotum, which is a pouch of skin and muscle that
hangs below the penis.
Function: The testes have two primary functions:
1. Sperm Production (Spermatogenesis):
The testes produce sperm, which are the male
reproductive cells responsible for fertilizing
female eggs during sexual reproduction.
2. Hormone Production:
The testes also produce and release hormones,
primarily testosterone.
 Epididymis

• Located on the surface of each

testis.

• Function: - Storage and maturation

of sperm: Sperm produced in the
testes mature and gain motility as
they pass through the epididymis.
 Vas Deferens
• A muscular duct that connects the
epididymis to the urethra.

• Function: - Transport of sperm: The

vas deferens carries mature sperm
from the epididymis to the urethra
during ejaculation.
 Urethra

• The urethra is a duct that runs through the

penis and carries both urine and semen

(sperm and seminal fluid) out of the body.

However, these functions are separate and

do not occur simultaneously.

 Penis

• The external reproductive organ

in males.
• Function:
Copulation: The penis becomes
erect during sexual arousal and
allows for the insertion of the organ
into the female's reproductive tract
for the delivery of sperm.
 Parts of the penis
• Root: The root of the penis is the internal, attached portion that is located
within the pelvis. It anchors the penis within the pelvis and connects it to
various supporting structures.
• Body (or Shaft): This is the elongated, cylindrical portion of the penis that
extends outward from the body. It is composed of three columns of erectile
tissue: two larger corpora cavernosa on the top side (dorsal) and one smaller
corpus spongiosum on the underside (ventral). These erectile tissues are
responsible for engorging with blood during sexual arousal, leading to the
erection of the penis.
• Glans Penis: The glans penis, often simply referred to as the glans, is the
bulbous, sensitive tip of the penis. It is at the distal (outer) end of the shaft and
is highly sensitive due to its dense nerve endings. The glans is typically
partially covered by a fold of skin called the prepuce or foreskin.
 Prepuce
• Sheath of skin
• Protects penis
• Pouch on boar (smegma)
• Diverticulum on horse (the “bean”)

183
Penis – Comparative Anatomy
 Canine Penis

• Os penis bone
▪ Ossified in dog
▪ Cartilage in cat
• Bulbus glandis
▪ Erectile tissue
▪ Full size after ejaculation
▪ “The Tie”
 Glans Penis Morphology
• Bull – slightly spiral end
• Boar – corkscrew shaped with a left-hand thread
• Ram – large extension of the urethral process
• Stallion – Mushroom-shaped with slight protrusion of the
urethral process
• Dog – substantial glans penis which is divided into the bulbus
glandis found proximally and the pars longa glandis found
distally
 Types of Penis
• Fibroelastic
• Found in:
• Bull, Boar, Ram, Deer etc
• Contain large amounts of connective tissue and elastic fibres
but limited erectile tissue.
• Contain a sigmoid flexure.
• They are encased by a non-expandable connective tissue
sheath called the tunica albuginea. Therefore, erection only
results in increased length of the penis and no increase in the
diameter of the penis. However, most of the increase in penile
length is actually due to the straightening of the sigmoid
flexure.
• The cavernous tissue contains small blood spaces which means
that only a small increase in blood to the penis is required to
achieve erection.
 Musculovascular
• Found in:
• Man, Stallion, Dog, Tom Cat etc.
• This penis structure contains a lot of
erectile tissue and little connective tissue
so during erection there is both an
increase in length and diameter of the
penis.
• The cavernous tissue contains large blood
spaces divided by thin septa. Therefore, a
relatively larger volume of blood is
required to achieve erection.
 Prostate Gland
Location:
The prostate gland is situated just below the
bladder and surrounds the urethra.
Function:
❖ Produces a milky, alkaline fluid that makes

up a significant portion of seminal fluid.

❖ This fluid helps neutralize the acidity of the

female reproductive tract, providing a more

suitable environment for sperm survival.
❖ Contains enzymes that help liquefy
coagulated semen following ejaculation,
aiding in sperm mobility.
 Seminal Vesicle
o Location:
The seminal vesicles are located near the base of
the bladder, behind the prostate gland.
o Function:
▪ Produces a viscous, sugary fluid rich in

fructose, which serves as an energy source

for sperm.
▪ Contributes to the bulk of seminal fluid,

providing a nourishing and protective

medium for sperm.
▪ Enhances sperm motility, allowing them to

swim more effectively.

 Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper's Glands):
o Location:
These glands are found below the prostate
gland.
o Function:
▪ Produces a clear, slippery fluid known as
pre-ejaculate or pre-ejaculatory fluid.
▪ This fluid serves to neutralize any residual
acidity in the urethra, which can be
harmful to sperm, and provides lubrication
during sexual intercourse.
 Male Reproductive Physiology
• Erection – inflow of blood into erectile tissues of penis.

• Ejaculation – reflex emptying of semen from epididymis,

urethra, and accessory sex glands through the penis.

• Testosterone
▪ Increased body size.
▪ Larger, thicker bones.
▪ Secondary sex characteristics.
Erection; The Tie in Dogs Erection; In Man
 Female Reproductive System Functions
• Produces female sex
hormones
• Develops ova
• Fertilization
• Pregnancy
• Parturition
• Nursing of newborn
Comparative Female Reproductive Anatomy
Mare (A), Cow (B), Sow (C), Bitch (D)
Parts of the Female Reproductive System

• Ligaments
• Ovaries
• Oviducts
• Uterus
• Cervix
• Vagina
• Vulva
 Ligaments
• Broad Ligament:
• The broad ligament is a wide, double-layered fold of
peritoneum (a membrane that lines the abdominal
cavity) that attaches to the sides of the uterus and
extends to the walls of the pelvis.
• It provides support and stability to the uterus,
holding it in place within the pelvis.
• The broad ligament also contains blood vessels,
nerves, and lymphatics that supply and innervate the
uterus and ovaries.
• Within the broad ligament, you can find several
structures, including the fallopian tubes and the
ligament of the ovary.
 Round Ligament:
• The round ligaments are a pair of ligaments
that extend from the uterine horns (where
the uterus meets the fallopian tubes) to the
labia majora in the pelvic region.
• They are responsible for maintaining the
anteverted (forward-tilted) position of the
uterus within the pelvis.
• The round ligaments are made up of muscle
and connective tissue, allowing them to
stretch and contract as needed.
 Ovaries
• Location: Paired almond-shaped organs in the
lower abdominal cavity.
• Function:
o Ovaries produce eggs (ova) through a
process called oogenesis.
o They secrete female sex hormones, primarily
estrogen and progesterone, which regulate
the menstrual cycle and influence secondary
sexual characteristics.
Oviducts
Infundibulum: The infundibulum is the distal end of the fallopian
tube. It has finger-like projections called fimbriae that help capture the
egg when it is released from the ovary during ovulation. The
infundibulum guides the egg into the fallopian tube, where it may
encounter sperm for fertilization.
Ampulla: This is the middle portion of the fallopian tube in cattle,
similar to humans. It is wider than the isthmus and provides a potential
site for fertilization. After ovulation, when the egg is released from the
ovary, it enters the fallopian tube and may meet sperm in the ampulla
if mating or artificial insemination occurs. Fertilization typically takes
place in the ampulla.
Isthmus: The is the portion closest to the uterus. It is a narrow section
of the tube that connects the fallopian tube to the uterine horn. It plays
a role in the transport of the fertilized egg (zygote) from the site of
fertilization in the ampulla to the uterus, where implantation can occur.
 Uterus
• Hollow muscular organ.
• Usually Y-shaped.
▪ Uterine body forms the base of the Y
▪ Uterine horns form the arms.
• Where the zygote implants and grows
• “Litter species” have more horns than body
▪ Dogs, cats, pigs
• Uniparous species
▪ One mature ovum produced per cycle
▪ Horse, cow, and human
• Multiparous species
▪ Multiple ova produced per cycle
▪ Cat, dog, and sow
 3 Layers of Uterine Wall

• Endometrium: lining composed of

simple columnar epithelium and
simple tubular glands.
▪ Secrete mucus and other
substances
• Myometrium: thick layers of
smooth muscle.
• Perimetrium: outermost layer
covered by the visceral layer of
the peritoneum.
 Cervix:
• Location: The lower part of the
uterus that connects to the vagina.
• Function:
o The cervix acts as a barrier
between the uterus and the
vagina.
o It produces mucus that changes
in consistency throughout the
menstrual cycle to facilitate or
inhibit the passage of sperm.
 Vagina
• Location: The muscular canal that
connects the cervix to the external
body.
• Function:
o The vagina serves as the birth
canal during childbirth.
o It also receives the penis during
sexual intercourse.
o The vagina's acidic environment
helps protect against infections.
 Vulva

• The external genitalia of the

female reproductive system.

• Components include the mons

pubis, labia majora, labia minora,
clitoris, and vaginal opening.
Swollen Vulva of Bitch in Heat
Breeding, Parturition
 Names for Female Animals
Species Name
Dog Bitch
Cat Queen
Horse Mare
Cattle (after 1st calf) Cow
Cattle (before 1st calf) Heifer
Pig Sow
Sheep Ewe
Describe the events that occur during the ovarian
cycle of female animals
 Ovarian Physiology
• Follicle
▪ 1 egg (ovum)
▪ Estrogen production
• Prepares animal for
• breeding & pregnancy
• Graafian follicle (mature)
• Ovulation – follicle rupture
▪ Egg “caught” by oviduct
▪ Ruptured follicle become corpus
luteum
• Corpus luteum produces
progesterone
▪ Maintains pregnancy
 Corpus Luteum
• If pregnancy occurs,
remains for entire
pregnancy.
• If pregnancy does not
occur, degenerates after a
short period.
• False pregnancy
(pseudocyesis)
▪ Common in dogs
 Ovarian Cycle

• Development of ovum,
ovulation, formation of
corpus luteum, and
degeneration of unripened
follicles and corpus luteum

• Influenced by follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH)
and luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Ovulation
• Rupture of the mature follicle and
release of the secondary oocyte
into the oviduct.
▪ Becomes ovum if fertilization occurs
• Surface of mature follicle weakens,
ruptures
• Fluid released from antrum along with
oocyte (still surrounded by corona
radiata)
• Empty follicle fills with blood
(corpus hemorrhagicum)
 Ovulation Corpus Luteum
• Occurs spontaneously in • Formed by divisions of granulosa
cells that line the blood-filled follicle
most species as a result
• Influenced by continued stimulation of
of rising levels of LH. LH.
• Induced ovulators: ovulation • Produces progestins (primarily
progesterone)
occurs after breeding.
▪ Necessary for maintenance of
▪ Cat pregnancy.
▪ Rabbit • Endocrine signal to ovary causes
▪ Ferret corpus luteum to be maintained if
ovum implants in the uterus.
Female Reproductive Physiology
• Puberty – age at which
reproductive organs become
functional.
• Males;
▪ Quite often
mature later
than female
▪ Always ready for breeding
• Females;
▪ Usually mature first
▪ Are only fertile and receptive for a
brief time
 Estrous Cycle
• Time from the beginning of one heat period to
the beginning of the next
• Controlled by 2 anterior pituitary hormones
▪ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
•Oogenesis
▪ Luteinizing hormone (LH)
•Ovulation, corpus luteum production
Estrous Cycle Stages

Proestrus
Estrus
Metestrus
Diestrus
Anestrus (in some species)
 Proestrus
• The “building up” phase
(7 days)..
• Blood spotting starts
(Day 1)
• Follicles begin
developing.
• Estrogen output
increases.
• Blood supply to ovaries
increases.
 Estrus
• “True heat” (7 days)
• Estrogen level production peaks.
• Female sexually receptive.
• Bloody discharge lighter (straw
colored?).
• Ovulation! (one or multiple ova).
▪ Ovulation occurs near the end
of estrus in some species.
• Induced ovulator species (e.g.,
cat, rabbit) remain in a prolonged
state of estrus if not bred.
 Metestrus
• 7 days.
• Time when corpus luteum
develops.
• Lining of uterus thickens for
implantation.
• Progesterone produced by
corpus luteum temporarily
inhibits follicular development in
the ovary.
• Cornified epithelial lining that
developed in the vagina during
proestrus and estrus is lost.
 Diestrus
• Corpus luteum at maximum size and exerting maximum effect.
• If the fertilized ovum implants, the corpus luteum is retained
well into the pregnancy.
• If no pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum degenerates at
the end of diestrus.
▪ The animal then either goes back into proestrus or the ovary
shuts down and the animal goes into anestrus.
• Seen in seasonally polyestrus animals (cat, horse, cattle,
swine)
 Anestrus
• Period of temporary ovarian
inactivity.
• Seen in seasonally polyestrus,
diestrous, and monoestrous
animals.
• Ovary temporarily shuts down
• Ovarian inactivity (5+ months in
dogs).
• Period between breeding cycles.
 Types of Estrous Cycles
• Polyestrous: animals that cycle continuously throughout
the year if they are not pregnant (cattle and swine).

• Seasonally polyestrous: animals with seasonal variations

in estrous cycles (horse, sheep, cat).

• Diestrous: animals with two cycles per year, usually

spring and fall (dog).

• Monoestrous: animals with one cycle per year (fox and

mink)
Why Are There Soooo Many Rabbit & Cats?

• Seasonally polyestrus (10 months)

• Anestrus (2 months)
• Induced ovulators
▪ Need 2 stimuli
• Post-partum estrus
▪ Can have many litters per year!
• Female cats/rabbits left alone for 30 minutes
outside…………………… pregnant!
 The Numbers!
Length of Length of
Female Gestation
Cycle Estrus

Bitch 21 days 7 days 2 months

Induced
Queen 18-21 days 2 months
Ovulator

Mare ~21 days 5 days 11 months

Cow 21 days 18 hours! 9 months

 Fertilization & Implantation

• Copulation – the act of breeding

• Fertilization – in oviduct
• Capacitation
▪ Sperm must arrive first in order to mature
▪ Acrosome becomes “armed”
• Cleavage – cell division of zygote
• Implantation – zygote attaches to endometrium
 Fertilization
• Copulation: act of breeding; intromission,
thrusting, and ejaculation.
▪ Copulation triggers oxytocin release from posterior
pituitary gland of the female.
▪ Oxytocin causes contraction of smooth muscle of the
female reproductive organs.
• Semen is usually deposited in the upper portion
of the vagina.
▪ Spermatozoa transported by swimming, by
contractions of uterus and oviducts, and by action of
cilia in oviducts.
 Fertilization
• Capacitation: series of changes spermatozoa
undergo in the female reproductive tract.

▪ Changes in ion movement through the cell

membranes; increase in cells' metabolic rates.

▪ Release of digestive enzymes from acrosome.

•Help the spermatozoa penetrate through
layers surrounding the ovum to accomplish
fertilization.
 Fertilization
• Large number of spermatozoa find and swarm around the
ovum in the oviduct.

• Some begin tunneling through the layers surrounding

the ovum.

▪ Aided by the digestive enzymes of their acrosomes.

• Once a single spermatozoon penetrates cell membrane

of the ovum, a change in the membrane blocks other
sperm from entering
 Cleavage

• Rapid mitosis of zygote.

• Overall size of zygote
does not change.
• Morula: solid mass of cells
• Blastocyst: hollow ball of
cells
 Implantation

• Enzymes produced by the

blastocyst dissolve away a
small pit in the endometrium
• Blastocyst attaches to
endometrium in this pit
 Implantation

•In multiparous (litter) species, the multiple

blastocysts randomly space along the horns
and body of the uterus.

•Placenta begins to form as soon as the

blastocyst implants in the uterus
 The Placenta

• Multi-layered fluid-filled sac around

embryo
• Connected to embryo by umbilical
cord
• Where attached to uterus lining,
exchange of nutrients & waste takes
place
• 2 sacs
▪ Amniotic sac
▪ Allantoic sac
 Placenta
• Multilayered, fluid-filled, membranous sac.
• Outermost layer of placenta attaches to uterine lining
in some areas.
▪ Fetal and maternal blood vessels are in close
proximity to each other in this area.
▪ Site of exchange of blood nutrients and
wastes.
 Placenta

• Amnion: membranous layer immediately

surrounding the fetus.
▪ Forms the amniotic sac.
▪ Fetus floats in amniotic fluid inside the
amniotic sac.
• Allantois: layer surrounding amniotic sac; forms
the allantoic sac, which accumulates wastes.
 Placental Attachments
(A)Diffuse attachment –
horse and pig.
(B)Cotyledonary
attachment – ruminants.
(C)Zonary attachment –
dog & cat
(D)Discoid attachment –
primates, rodents
 Pregnancy
• Gestation period: time from fertilization of ovum
to delivery of newborn
• Divided into three segments (trimesters):
▪ First trimester – embryonic period
•Placenta develops
▪ Second trimester – fetal period
•Body tissues, organs, & systems develop
▪ Third trimester – fetal growth period
 Average Gestation Periods
Gestation
Average No. of
Species Period
Young
(Months)

Bovine 9 months 1

Canine 2 months 4–10

Equine 11 months 1

Feline 2 months 4-6

Ovine 5 months 1–2

 Pregnancy Diagnosis
• Rectal palpation
▪ Horses, cows.
 Dogs & Cats
• Absence of heat (cats)
• Abdominal palpation – ~28 days after breeding
• Xrays in last 8-10 days
• Blood tests?
 Parturition (Labor)
• The birthing process.
• Multiple factors trigger parturition;
▪ Size and weight of uterus.
▪ Hormonal changes.
• Fetal changes at birth;
▪ Lungs expand and start functioning.
▪ Foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus close.
• 2 hormones;
▪ Estrogen – increases myometrium sensitivity to oxytocin.
▪ Oxytocin
•Myometrium contractions.
•Milk letdown.
 Stages of Labor
First stage – uterine contractions
Second stage – delivery of the newborn
Third stage – delivery of the placenta
 Stages of Labor
1. Uterine Contractions
• Myometrium contracts and presses fetus down against the cervix.
• Sustained contractions cause the cervix to gradually dilate.
2. Delivery of the Newborn
• Results from combination of strong uterine and abdominal muscle
contractions.
• Rupture of amniotic and allantoic sacs of the placenta usually
precedes actual delivery of the newborn.
3. Delivery of the Placenta
• Placenta separates from wall of the uterus and is expelled by weaker
uterine contractions.
• Post-partum examination – very important!
 Involution of the Uterus
• Uterus gradually returns to its non-pregnant
size
• Endometrium sloughs into lumen of uterus at
sites of placental attachment
• Myometrium continues mild contractions to
move remaining uterine contents out through
birth canal
• May take from a few weeks to a month or more
for involution to be complete
 Mammary Glands & Lactation
• Specialized skin glands
▪ Colostrum – passive immunity.
▪ Milk
• Present in both males & females.
• Undeveloped until puberty.
• Lactation
▪ Milk production.
▪ Begins towards the end of pregnancy.
▪ Continues as long as the gland is emptied.
Mammary Glands – Comparative Anatomy
 Udder of Cow

• Four mammary glands

(quarters)
• Quarters are completely
separate units from each other
• Each quarter has its own milk-
secreting systems and ducts
leading down to separate teats
 Cow Udder
• 4 separate mammary glands (quarters)
• Nipples are called “teats”
 Mares, Ewes, Goats

• 2 mammary glands in one udder

 Mammary Gland Development
• Mammary glands develop in response to
hormones produced at puberty.
• Prolactin and growth hormone directly
encourage mammary gland development.
• Estrogen and progesterone encourage the
mammary alveoli and duct systems to
develop.
 Colostrum
• Pre-milk secretion

• Contains large amounts of proteins, lipids, amino acids,

and vitamins
• Supplies important nutrients to newborn

• Imparts "passive immunity" – transfer of preformed

antibodies from dam to newborn
 Lactation
• Physical stimulation of teat or nipple and regular removal of
milk from the gland stimulates anterior pituitary to continue
production of hormones that keep lactation going.

• Lack of hormonal stimulation combined with increased

pressure in the mammary gland gradually causes
lactation to cease.
Milk Let down
 Milk Letdown
• Milk accumulates high up in the mammary gland in
mammary alveoli and small ducts.

• Physical stimulation of the nipple or teat sends sensory

nerve impulses that cause release of oxytocin from
posterior pituitary.
THE END
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