Module-4

Embedded Systems

MODULE IV
• Embedded Systems – Definition, Embedded systems vs general computing
systems, Classification of Embedded Systems, Major application areas of
Embedded Systems, Elements of an Embedded System, Core of the
Embedded System, Microprocessor vs Microcontroller, RISC vs CISC
• Sensors and Interfacing – Instrumentation and control systems,
Transducers, Sensors, Actuators, LED, 7-Segment LED Display.
 Embedded Systems
• An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a
specific function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware
(Software).
• E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners,
Automotive Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player

Embedded Systems vs. General Computing Systems

General Purpose Computing System Embedded Systems
A system which is a combination of generic hardware A system which is a combination of special purpose
and General Purpose Operating System for executing a hardware and embedded Operating System for
variety of applications. executing a specific set of applications.

Contain a General Purpose Operating System (GPOS). May or may not contain an operating system for
functioning.
Applications are alterable (programmable) by user. (The The firmware of the embedded system is
end user can re-install the OS, and add or remove user pre-programmed and it is non-alterable by end-user.
applications).
Performance is the key deciding factor on the selection Application specific requirements (like performance,
of the system. Always “Faster is Better”. power requirements, memory etc) are the key deciding
factors.
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating power Highly tailored to take advantage of the power saving
requirements, options for different levels of power modes supported by hardware and Operating System.
management.
Response requirements are not time critical. For certain category of ES, the response time
requirement is highly critical.
Need not be deterministic in execution behavior. Execution behavior is deterministic for few ES like “Hard
Real Time‟ systems.
 Classification of Embedded Systems
The criteria used in the classification of embedded systems are:
1. Based on generation.
2. Complexity and performance requirements.
3. Based on deterministic behaviour.
4. Based on triggering.
 Classification Based on Generation
• First Generation:
• The early embedded systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors like
8085 and Z80, and 4-bit microcontrollers.
• Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed in Assembly code.
– Eg: Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units etc.

• Second Generation:
• Embedded systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8 or 16-bit
microcontrollers.
• The instruction set became much more complex and powerful than the first
generation processors/controllers.
– Eg: Data Acquisition Systems, SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition)
systems etc.

• Third Generation:
• ES built around powerful 32-bit processors and 16-bit microcontrollers.
• Application and domain specific processors /controllers like Digital Signal
Processors (DSP) and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) came
into the picture.
• The instruction set is more complex and powerful.
– Eg: Robotics, media, industrial process control, networking, etc.

• Fourth Generation:
• Embedded system built around System on Chips (SOC), reconfigurable
processors and multicore processors.
• The fourth generation embedded systems are making use of high
performance real time embedded operating systems for their functioning.
– Eg: Smart phone devices, mobile internet devices (MIDs), etc.
 Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems:
• Small-scale ES are usually built around low performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit
microprocessors / microcontrollers.
• These ES are suitable for simple applications and where performance is not time critical.
• It may or may not contain an operating system (OS) for functioning.
– Eg: Electronic toy.

• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems:

• Embedded systems built around medium performance, low cost 16 or 32 bit
microprocessors/microcontrollers or DSPs.
• These embedded systems which are slightly complex in hardware and firmware (software)
requirements.
• It usually contains an Embedded OS for functioning.
– Eg: ATM

• Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems:

• ES built around 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers or Reconfigurable
System on Chip (RSoC) or multicore processors and programmable logic
devices.
• These embedded systems involve highly complex hardware and firmware.
They may contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware
accelerators.
• Complex embedded systems usually contain a high performance Real Time
Operating System (RTOS).
– Ex: In automotives
 Classification based on deterministic system
behaviour
• It is applicable for Real Time systems. The application/task execution behavior
for an embedded system can be either deterministic or non-deterministic.
• Soft Real Time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be critical and can be
tolerated to a certain degree. Eg: ATM.
• Hard Real Time Systems: Missing any deadline may produce disastrous results
(financial, human loss of life, etc.). Eg: ABS, Air bags etc.

Classification based on triggering

• Embedded Systems which are 'Reactive' in nature can be
classified based on the trigger.
• Reactive systems can be classified as event triggered or time
triggered.
• event triggered – event initiates activities in system
immediately
• time triggered – activities initiated at predefined points in
time
 Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems
• Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.
• Household Appliances: TV, Washing Machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven etc.
• Home Automation & Security Systems: Air conditioners, CCTVs, Fire alarms etc.
• Automotive Industry: Anti-lock Breaking Systems (ABS), Engine Control, Automatic
Navigation Systems etc.
• Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset etc.
• Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
• Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.
• Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.
• Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multimeters, Digital CRO, PLC systems etc.
• Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM), Currency counters etc.
• Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

Elements of Embedded Systems

• An embedded system is a combination of 3 things to do one specific task only:
Hardware, Software and Mechanical Components.
• A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller which acts as the
master brain of the system.
• ESs are designed to regulate a physical variable or to manipulate the state of
some devices by sending signals to the actuators or devices connected to the
output system, in response to the input signal provided by the end users or
sensors which are connected to the input ports.

• The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the

sensors and user interfaces, and controlling some actuators that regulate the
physical variable.
• Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are examples of input devices and
LEDs, LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc. are examples for output devices for a
typical ES.
• Some ES can automatically sense input parameters from real world through
sensors. Sensor information is passed to the processor after signal
conditioning and digitization.
• The core of the system performs some predefined operations on input data
with the help of embedded firmware and sends some actuating signals to the
actuator.
 • The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code.
There are two types:
• Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user cannot do
any modifications in this type of memory. Common types used are OTP,
PROM, EPROM, EEPROM & Flash memory.
• Temporary memory (RAM) is used for performing arithmetic operations or
control algorithm executions. Common types used are SRAM, DRAM and
NVRAM.
• Memory for implementing the code may be present on the processor or may
be implemented as a separate chip interfacing the processor.
• In a controller based ES, the controller may contain internal memory for
storing code and such controllers are called Micro-controllers with on-chip
ROM, eg. Atmel AT89C51

Core of the Embedded System

The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories.
1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
– Microprocessors
– Microcontrollers
– Digital Signal Processors
2. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
3. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
4. Commercial off-the-shelf Components (COTS)
 Microprocessors vs. Microcontrollers
Microprocessors Microcontrollers
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that
Unit(CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as contains a CPU, RAM, Special and General purpose
well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for
of Instructions. program storage, Timer and Interrupt control units and
dedicated I/O ports

It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of It is a self contained unit and d o e s n ’ t require
other chips like Timers, Program and data memory external Interrupt Controller, Timer, and UART etc. for
chips, Interrupt controllers etc. for functioning. its functioning.

Most of the time general purpose in design and Mostly application oriented or domain specific.
operation.
Doesn’t contain a built in I/O port. The I/O Port Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O
functionality needs to be implemented with the help of ports which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32 bit
external Programmable Peripheral Interface Chips Port or as individual port pins.

Targeted for high end market where performance is Targeted for embedded market where performance is
important. not so critical.
Limited power saving options. Includes lot of power saving features

RISC V/S CISC Processors/Controllers:

RISC Processors/Controllers CISC Processors/Controllers
Lesser no. of instructions. Greater no. of Instructions.
Instruction Pipelining and increased execution speed. Generally no instruction pipelining feature.

Orthogonal Instruction Set. Non Orthogonal Instruction Set.

Operations are performed on registers only, the only Operations are performed on registers or memory
memory operations are load and store depending on the instruction

Large number of registers are available Limited no. of general purpose registers
Programmer needs to write more code to execute a task A programmer can achieve the desired functionality
since the instructions are simpler ones. with a single instruction.

Single, Fixed length Instructions. Variable length Instructions.

Less Silicon usage and pin count. More silicon usage.
With Harvard Architecture Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture
Instruction pipelining
 Harvard V/s Von-Neumann
Processor/Controller Architecture
Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture
Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard Microprocessors/controllers based on the
architecture will have separate data bus and instruction Von-Neumann architecture shares a single bus for
bus. This allows the data transfer and program fetching fetching both instructions and data. Program
to occur simultaneously on both buses. instructions & data are stored in a common main
memory.
Separate buses for Instruction and Data fetching. Single shared bus for Instruction and Data fetching.

Easier to Pipeline, so high performance can be Low performance Compared to Harvard Architecture.
achieved.
Comparatively high cost. Cheaper.
No memory alignment problems Allows self modifying codes

Sensors and Interfacing

 Instrumentation and Control system

Fig. shows the arrangement of an instrumentation system.

• Figure shows the arrangement of an instrumentation system. The physical

quantity to be measured (e.g. temperature) acts upon a sensor that produces an
electrical output signal.
• This signal is an electrical analogue of the physical input but note that there
may not be a linear relationship between the physical quantity and its electrical
equivalent.
• Because of this and since the output produced by the sensor may be small or
may suffer from the presence of noise (i.e. unwanted signals) further signal
conditioning will be required before the signal will be at an acceptable level
and in an acceptable form for signal processing, display and recording.
• Furthermore, because the signal processing may use digital rather than
analogue signals an additional stage of analogue-to-digital conversion may be
required.
 Control System

• Figure (b) shows the arrangement of a control system. This uses negative
feedback in order to regulate and stabilize the output. It thus becomes possible
to set the input or demand (i.e. what we desire the output to be) and leave the
system to regulate itself by comparing it with a signal derived from the output
(via a sensor and appropriate signal conditioning).
• A comparator is used to sense the difference in these two signals and where any
discrepancy is detected the input to the power amplifier is adjusted accordingly.
This signal is referred to as an error signal (it should be zero when the output
exactly matches the demand). The input (demand) is often derived from a
simple potentiometer connected across a stable d.c. voltage source while the
controlled device can take many forms (e.g. a d.c. motor, linear actuator, heater,
etc.).
 TRANSDUCERS
• Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form of sound, light, heat, etc.,
into an equivalent electrical signal, or vice versa.
• A loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low frequency electric current into
audible sounds.
• A microphone, on the other hand, is a transducer that performs the reverse
function, i.e. that of converting sound pressure variations into voltage or current.
• Transducers may be used both as inputs to electronic circuits and outputs from
them.
• From the two previous examples, it should be obvious that a loudspeaker is an
output transducer designed for use in conjunction with an audio system.
• A microphone is an input transducer designed for use with a recording or sound
reinforcing system.
 SENSORS
• A sensor is a special kind of transducer that is used to generate an input signal to a
measurement, instrumentation or control system. The signal produced by a sensor is
an electrical analogy of a physical quantity, such as distance, velocity,
acceleration, temperature, pressure, light level, etc. The signals returned from a
sensor, together with control inputs from the user or controller (as appropriate) will
subsequently be used to determine the output from the system.
• The choice of sensor is governed by a number of factors including accuracy,
resolution, cost and physical size.
 SENSORS
• Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive.
• An active sensor generates a current or voltage output.
• A passive transducer requires a source of current or voltage and it modifies this in
some way (e.g. by virtue of a change in the sensor’s resistance). The result may still
be a voltage or current but it is not generated by the sensor on its own. Sensors can
also be classed as either digital or analogue.
• The output of a digital sensor can exist in only two discrete states, either ‘on’ or
‘off’, ‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic 1 or ‘logic 0’, etc.
• The output of an analogue sensor can take any one of an infinite number of voltage
or current levels.

ACTUATORS
1. LED
2. 7-Segment LED Display
Actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts
signals to corresponding physical action (motion). Actuator acts as an output
device.
Eg. Micro motor actuator which adjusts the position of the cushioning element in
the Smart Running shoes from adidas
Wearable Devices – certain smart watches use Ambient Light sensors to detect
surrounding light intensity and adjust the screen brightness for better
readability using electrical / electronic actuators.

INTERFACING A LED

฀ Light Emitting Diode (LED) emits light when forward biased.

฀ When the port pin P1.2 goes high in Fig., the LED is forward biased and emits
light.
฀ When the pin P1.2 goes low, LED is off.
 7-SEGMENT LED DISPLAY
The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric
characters
• It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special l form.
• Out of the 8 LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric characters
and 1 is used for representing decimal point.
• The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is
named as DP
• The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers
and characters
• The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations,
namely; Common anode and Common cathode

7segment display arrangement

• An array of LEDs arranged in a two-dimensional plane to display numbers
(0–9 and A–F) is the 7-segment display.
• The array of LEDs with all the anodes connected together, is called
common-anode display.
• Similarly, with all the cathodes connected together, it is called a
common-cathode display.
• In the Common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are
connected commonly To display ‘0’, the inputs a, b, c, d, e, f should be made
“low” to forward bias the corresponding LEDs, as the anodes are already
connected to Vcc.
• In the Common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a common
cathode line (connected to ground). To display the number 0 (zero), LEDs A,
B, C, D, E, F should be switched “on” and LEDs G and DP should be made
“off” in the 7-segment display.

• Display numbers 0–9

on a common-anode
7-segment display