DIVINE WISDOM INTERNATIONAL

SCHOOL
CHEMISTRY NOTE OF LESSON FOR EMMANUEL’S
TERM FOR SS III STUDENTS

TOPIC: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1. DEFINITION

Organic Chemistry is the chemistry of Carbon compounds with the exception of

oxides of carbon, trioxocarbonate (iv) and metallic carbides.

2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

(a) Some organic compounds are said to be polar compounds while others are
regarded as non - polar. Polar organic compounds have partial positive and
partial negative charges which are absent in the non polar organic
compounds;
(b) Common examples of polar organic compounds are Alkanols, Haloalkanes
and Alkanoic acids while other homologous series are non polar;
(c) Polar organic compounds are only soluble in polar solvents while non polar
organic compounds are only soluble in non polar solvents;
(d) Organic compounds are thermally unstable as they easily decompose in the
presence of heat of high temperature of about 500 C. This is due to the
presence covalent bond whose thermal resistivity is not as high as that of
ionic/electrovalent bond;
(e) Reactions involving organic compounds are always slow and are usually
hasten up by specific catalysts;
(f) Organic compounds burn in the presence of air or oxygen and break down to
release carbon (iv) oxide and water;
(g) All organic compounds are covalent in nature;
(h) Organic compounds are usually non electrolytes as they do not conduct
electric currents in molten form. Few exceptions are members of Alkanoic
acid homologous series which are weak electrolytes;

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 (i) Organic compounds have low boiling/melting points due to their covalent
natures.
3. UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF CARBON ATOM

Carbon is unique in three properties among other elements known and even
among elements in the same group IV as carbon. The uniqueness of carbon
accounts for its presence in all organic compounds and the diversity as well as
abundance of organic compounds in number. The unique properties of carbon
are:

i) Covalent nature;
ii) Catenation;
iii) Hybridization.
i) COVALENT NATURE OF CARBON ATOM

Carbon is covalent in nature as its atom can easily form:

(a) Single covalent bond with other carbon atoms and with hydrogen and
halogens which are all monovalent atomic elements;
(b) Double covalent bonds with other carbon atoms and with oxygen, which is a
divalent atomic element as in carbonyl compounds;
(c) Triple covalent bonds with other carbon atoms and with nitrogen which is a
trivalent atomic element.
ii) CATENATION

This is the exceptional ability of carbon atom to covalently bond with other carbon
atoms in other to form straight continuous chains, branched chains and cyclic
structures.

iii) HYBRIDIZATION

Hybridization is the combination of two or more orbitals of different energy level

to form a new set of orbitals called hybrid orbitals with equal energy level.

Carbon atom at ground state has six electrons and its electronic structure is 1s2 2s2
2p2. As there are three degenerate orbitals in P-orbital, the electronic configuration

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of carbon atom can also be written according to Hund‟s rule of
maximum multiplicity as 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz0. This means that 1s2
occupies K-shell which is capable of holding the maximum of 2 electrons; 2s2 and
2p2 occupy the L-Shell that can only hold the maximum of eight (8) electrons.
This is why the electronic structure of carbon is also written as 2:4.
Carbon has 4
valence/outermost electron and therefore it needs additional 4 electrons to fill its
outermost shell called K-shell so as for it to attain its octet/stable electronic
configuration of its closest noble gas which is Neon [Ne]. The difference in the
number of electron in 2s2, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz0 makes it impossible for carbon atom to
react covalently and attain its octet electronic structure. In preparation of carbon
atom to react chemically and attain its octet electronic structure, it undergoes
hybridization.

There are three common types of hybridization and these are:

1. Sp3- Hybridization;
2. Sp2- Hybridization and
3. Sp – Hybridization.

1. Sp3- Hybridization
This is the type of hybridization in which only one S-orbital combines with three
P-obitals in the same atom.

The type of covalent bond that connects the single S-orbital to three P-orbitals is
called sigma bond [ ]. Sp3 – hybridization is usually common to compounds with
tetrahedral shape like Methane (CH4) and all other members of homologous series
with carbon to carbon single covalent bond like Alkane, Haloalkane etc.

The tetrahedral molecule of methane (CH4) comprises only one central carbon
atom that is covalently combined with four hydrogen atoms. The bond angle of a
tetrahedral molecule is 109 28‟‟. This can be determined mathematically by
using
a formula, where 3 and it is the number
of p-orbital that takes part in hybridization and it is also known as hybridization
index.

The outermost shell (valence shell) of carbon atom after Sp3 hybridization is then
made of four Sp3 hybrid orbitals with equal number of electrons of one each. With
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this new electric configuration of carbon atom, carbon atom is said to be in excited
state and it is ready to form single covalent bond with another carbon atom,
hydrogen or any member of halogen except Astatine (At). [1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1,
2pz0 is hybridized to form 1s2, (Sp3)1, (Sp3)1, (Sp3)1, (Sp3)1]. 1s2 does not take part
in the hybridization and hence, it oppresses the four (Sp 3)1 hybrid orbitals with
shared pared electrons with its stronger repulsive force due to the lone paired
electron it has. This accounts for the bond angle that is rather 109 instead of
90 .

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 Sp2- Hybridization

This is the type of hybridization in which only one S-orbital combines with two P-
obitals in the same atom. In carbon atom with the electronic configuration at
ground state, 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz0; 1s2 and 2Pz0 are left behind after Sp2-
Hybridization. Sp2 – hybridization is usually common to compounds with Planar
shape like ethene (C2H4) and all other members of homologous series with carbon
to carbon double covalent bond like Alkene, Haloalkene, Aromatic compounds etc.

Each of the two adjacent carbon atoms bearing the double bond undergoes Sp 2 –
hybridization and they both leave behind one P-orbital which overlap and form
only one pi ( ) - bond. The type of covalent bond that connects the single S-
orbital to two P-orbitals in Sp2 – hybrid orbital is called sigma bond [ ]. The
double bond in the planar structure of ethene therefore contains one pi ( ) bond
and one sigma ( ) – bond. Each of the two adjacent carbon atoms bearing the

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double bond contains three Sp2- hybrid orbitals, each of which carries one electron
and only one uncombined p-orbital that also carries only one electron in the
valence shell (Outermost shell). One of the three Sp 2- hybrid orbitals around a
carbon atom covalently combine with Sp2 – hybrid orbital around the other carbon
atom in the planar structure of ethene, forming a sigma bond and the unhybridized
p-orbital of the two adjacent carbon atoms overlap and form one pi-bond. The
remaining two Sp2 – hybrid orbitals in each of the two adjacent carbon atoms
thereafter form single bond with hydrogen, halogen or any other carbon atom.

The bond angle of a planar molecule containing carbon to carbon double covalent
bond is 120 . This can be determined mathematically by using a formula,
where 2 and it is the number of p-orbital that
takes part in hybridization and it is also known as hybridization index.

The outermost shell (valence shell) of carbon atom after Sp2 hybridization is
then made of three Sp2 - hybrid orbitals with equal number of electron of one
each and one unhybridized p-orbital carrying only one electron. [1s2, 2s2, 2px1,
2py1, 2pz0 is hybridized to form 1s2, (Sp2)1, (Sp2)1, (Sp2)1, (2P)1]. With this
new electric configuration of carbon atom, carbon atom is said to be in excited
state and it is ready to form a double covalent bond with another carbon
atom, and single covalent bond with any two atoms of hydrogen or any member
of halogen except Astatine (At). 1s2 does not take part in the hybridization and
hence, it oppresses the three (Sp3)1 hybrid orbitals with shared pared electrons
with its stronger repulsive force due to the lone paired electron it has. This
accounts for the bond angle that is
rather 120 instead of 90 .

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Sp- Hybridization

This is the type of hybridization in which only one S-orbital combines with one P-
obital in the same atom. In carbon atom with the electronic configuration at ground
state, 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz0; 1s2 and 2Pz0 are left behind after Sp-
Hybridization. Sp – hybridization is usually common to compounds with Linear
shape like ethyne (C2H4) and all other members of homologous series with carbon
to carbon triple covalent bond like Alkyne, Haloalkyne, etc.

Each of the two adjacent carbon atoms bearing the triple bond undergoes Sp –
hybridization and they both leave behind two P-orbital which overlap and form
two pi ( ) - bonds. The type of covalent bond that connects the single S-orbital to
one P-orbital in Sp – hybrid orbital is called sigma bond [ ]. The triple bond in the
planar structure of ethyne therefore contains two pi ( ) bonds and one sigma ( ) –
bond.

Each of the two adjacent carbon atoms bearing the double bond contains two Sp-
hybrid orbitals, each of which carries one electron and two uncombined p-orbitals
that also carries only one electron each in the valence shell (Outermost shell). One
of the two Sp- hybrid orbitals around a carbon atom covalently combine with one

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Sp – hybrid orbital around the other carbon atom in the linear structure of ethyne,
forming a sigma bond and the two uncombined p-orbitals of the two adjacent
carbon atoms overlap and form two pi-bonds. The remaining one Sp – hybrid
orbitals in each of the two adjacent carbon atoms thereafter form single bond with
hydrogen, halogen or any other carbon atom.

The bond angle of a linear molecule containing carbon to carbon triple covalent
bond is 180 . This can be determined mathematically by using a formula,
where 1 and it is the number of p-orbital that
takes part in hybridization and it is also known as hybridization index.

The outermost shell (valence shell) of carbon atom after Sp- hybridization is then
made of two Sp - hybrid orbitals with equal number of electron of one each and two
unhybridized p-orbital carrying only one electron each. [1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz0 is
hybridized to form 1s2, (Sp2)1, (Sp2)1, (2p)1, (2P)1]. With this new electric
configuration of carbon atom, carbon atom is said to be in excited state and it is
ready to form a tripe covalent bond with another carbon atom, and single covalent
bond with any one atoms of hydrogen or any member of halogen except Astatine
(At). 1s2 does not take part in the hybridization and hence, it oppresses the two
(Sp)1 hybrid orbitals with shared pared electrons with its stronger repulsive force
due to the lone paired electron it has. This accounts for the bond angle that is rather
180 instead of 90 .

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COMMON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY TERMINOLOGIES

Common terms that cannot but be mentioned in organic chemistry are as

follow:

1. Homologous series;
2. Alkyl group;
3. Functional group;
4. Formulae of organic compounds;
5. IUPAC nomenclature;
6. Isomerism;
(i) HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

Homologous series is the family of organic compounds which follow a regular

pattern in which successive members differ by –CH2 group /Methylene group or
relative molecular mass of 14 grams. All members of one homologous series are
called homologues.Common examples of homologous series are:

1. Alkane;
2. Alkene;
3. Alkyne;
4. Alkanol;
5. Alkanoic Acid/Carboxylic Acid;

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 6. Alkanoate/Ester;
7. Ether;
8. Alkanone/Ketone;
9. Alkanal/Aldehyde;
10. Amide;
11. Primary Amine;
12. Secondary Amine;
13. Tertiary Amine;
14. Quaternary Amine;
15. Carbon Nitril;
16. Cyanide;
17. Haloalkane etc.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

1. All successive members of a homologous series differ by CH 2 –

group/methylene group or relative molecular mass of 14 grams;
2. All members of a homologous series have the same general molecular
formula;
3. All members of a homologous series have similar functional group;
4. All members of a homologous series have similar method of preparation;
5. All members of a homologous series have similar chemical properties;
6. All members of a homologous series have similar physical properties which
show slight gradation going down the group. For instance:
7. Density of members of a homologous series increases down the group;
8. Boiling point/melting point increases down the group of a homologous
series;
9. Solubility in water decreases down the group of a homologous series.

ALKYL GROUP

Alkyl group is an hydrocarbon fragment that is derived when a corresponding

member of Alkane homologous series losses one hydrogen atom. Members of
alkyl group get their names derived by replacing the suffix „-ane‟ ending
the names of corresponding members of Alkane with suffix “-yl”. Alkyl group
has a general molecular formula CnH2n+1 where „n‟ is a positive whole number
that is

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equal to or greater than 1. Alkyl group is usually represented by a symbol letter
“R” although “R” may also mean non Alkyl group such as metallic ion, halogen or
ammonium ion [NH4]. Alkyl group generally determine the physical properties of
an organic compound. Such physical properties among others include
boiling/melting point, solubility in water and density. The table below shows the
first seven members of Alkane and their corresponding Alkyl derived members.

S/N NAME OF MOLECULAR NAME OF MOLECULAR

ALKANE FORMULA [CnH2n+2] ALKYL FORMULA
MEMBERS GROUP CnH2n+1
MEMBERS
1. Methane CH4 Methyl -CH3
2. Ethane C2H6 Ethyl -C2H5
3. Propane C3H8 Propyl -C3H7
4. Butane C4H10 Butyl -C4H9
5. Pentane C5H12 Pentyl -C5H11
6. Hexane C6H14 Hexyl -C6H13
7. Heptane Heptyl
C7H16 -C7H15
Assignment 1 (Save your assignment with your surname in Mr. Johnson‟s folder
in your desktop).

1. Write the structural, condensed and bond line notation of the examples of
Alkane members given in the table .
2. Write the structural and condensed formula of the Alkyl group members in
the table above.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP

Functional group is an atom, radical (group of atoms) or number of carbon to

carbon covalent bond common to a homologous series and which determines the
main chemical properties of the series.

The table below illustrates the general formula and functional group, of common
homologous series.

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S/N HOMOLOGOUS GNERAL FORMULA FUNCTIONAL GROUP
SERIES
1. Alkane R-H _

2. Alkene R2-C=C-R2 =
3. Alkyne R-C C-R
4. Alkanol R-OH -OH
5. Alkanoic R-COOH or O -COOH or O
Acid/Carboxylic R C C
Acid OH OH

6. Alkanoate/Ester R-COOR‟ O -COOR‟ or O

R C C
O-R’ O-R’

7. Ether R-O-R‟ -O -
8. Alkanone/Ketone R-CO-R‟ or R - CO - or
C o C o
R’

R
9. Alkanal/Aldehyde -CHO or
R-CHO or C o C o
H H

10. Amide R-CONH2 or O -CONH2 or O

R C C
NH2 NH2

11. Primary Amine R-NH2 or H -NH2 or H

R N H N H

12. Secondary Amine R2NH or H

-NH or
N
HR N R

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13. Tertiary Amine R3N or R - N or
R N R N
R
14. Quaternary Amine R4N+ or -N+ or
R N+ R +
N

15. Carbon Nitril R-C N -C N

16. Cyanide R - CN -CN
17. Haloalkane/Alkyl R- X - X where X= F, Cl, Br, I
Halide
FORMULAE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Common formulae of organic and some inorganic compounds are as follow:

1. Empirical formula;
2. Molecular formula;
3. Structural formula;
4. Condensed formula;
5. Bond-line notation;
6. Lewis structure.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound and it shows the relative
numbers of each kind of atom in a molecule of a substance. It is found by
determining the percentage composition of the substance by quantitative analysis.

Important steps taken to solve problems on empirical formula are as follow:

1. Identify the relative atomic mass of the elements in the given compound;
2. Find the mole of the individual elements by dividing their respective given
mass in gram (g) or in percentage by mass (%) by their corresponding molar
masses;
3. Divide through the moles by the smallest mole;

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 4. Combine symbol of elements involved by their respective mole gotten at the
very step before this.

Example 1:

Determine the empirical formula of a compound which by analysis contains

39.9% carbon, 6.9% hydrogen and 53.2% oxygen.

Solution
C H O
Percentage by mass 39.9 6.9 53.2
Relative atomic mass 12 1 16
Mole ratio = 6.9 = 3.3
= 3.3

Divide through by the =2 =1

smallest =1

The empirical formula of the compound is CH2O.

Example 2:

A sample of gas X contain 2.3g of Nitrogen and 5.3g of Oxygen. Find the
empirical formula of the compound. [Answer = NO2]. (N= 14, O = 16)

Example 3:

A compound consists of 46.5% of X and 54.0% of Y by weight. Find the Empirical

formula. (X= 31, Y=16) [Answer = XY2]. UTME

Example 4:

A metallic Oxide of metal M contains 28% of Oxygen. Deduce the formula of the
oxide. [M =40, O = 16]

Solve it and get MO.

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MOLECULAR FORMULA

Molecular formula is a more useful formula than the empirical formula. Molecular
formula shows the actual number of each kind of atom present in the molecule of
the substance. The molecular formula is deduced from the relative molecular mass
of the substance and its empirical formula, knowing the vapour density or relative
molecular mass of the substance. [2 x Vapour density = Relative Molecular mass].

Molecular mass = [Empirical formula]n = Relative molecular mass.

Molecular mass = [Empirical formula]n = 2 x Vapour density.

Example 5:

A hydrocarbon consists of 92.3% of carbon. If the Vapour density of the

compound is 39, determine its molecular formula. [H = 1, C = 12] [SSCE].

Solution

The Empirical formula = CH

[CH]n = 39 x 2

[12 + 1]n = 78

13n = 78

n= =6

If n = 6, the molecular formula will be = [CH]n = [CH]6 = C6H6

Example 6:

An organic compound which is one of the main product obtained during cracking
of gas oil fraction of petroleum whose empirical formula is CH2 has a molecular
mass of 28. What is the molecular formula of the organic compound? [Answer =
C2H4]

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 STRUCTURAL FORMULA

This is a more informative formula that shows the carbon skeleton in a molecule of
an organic compound. It shows how atoms are arranged within the molecule of the
substance.

Common structural formulae of organic compounds are as follow:

H H H H H H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H C C H
H C C C

H H H H H H H H H
HH C H

n- Hexane
H

2-methylpentane (Isohexane)
H

C
H C C H

H C C H

H
Benzene Structural formula (C6H6)

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 CONDENSED FORMULA

This a type of structural formula with reduced number of bond. The condensed
formula for:

1. Hexane and its isomers are:

CH3(CH2)4CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CH3 CH3CH2CH(CH3)2CH3
n-Hexane 2- methylpentane 2,2-dimethylbutane
CH3CH(CH3)CH(CH3)CH3
2,3-dimethylbutane

CH
2. Benzene is: HC
CH

HC CH
CH
BOND-LINE NOTATION

This is a type of structural formula that shows no carbon and hydrogen but
shows only zig-zag structure such that carbon is believed to be in any of the tips
and corners of the zig-zag. Common examples of compounds with bond-line
notation are as follow:

ree Benzene Bond-Line Notations Naphthalene

Th Anthracine
OH NH2 COOH
N O2

Phenol Aniline Benzoic acid Nitrobenzen

2-methylpentane
n-Hexane 3-methylpentane

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IUPAC NOMENCLATURE

The term IUPAC is an acronym, which means International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry. The aim of IUPAC is to establish a set of rules that makes
it easy to call the name of a compound from its molecular structure and to be
able to write the molecular structure of a compound from its name. In order to
achieve this, IUPAC classified the name of organic compounds into three
names which are Root name, Suffix name and Prefix name.

ROOT NAME OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Root name is the name of the longest hydrocarbon chain that bears the major
functional group. It is given according to the number of carbon that is present in
the molecule of the hydrocarbon chain chosen to the longest. The root names
of:

1. Members of Alkane, Akene and Alkyne is derived from the Prefix “ALK”
which is gotten when the suffix “ane” of a corresponding member of Alkane
name is removed, depending on the number (n) of carbon atoms of the
longest hydrocarbon chain as shown in the table below.
NUMBER (N) OF CARBON IN THE CORRESPONDING ROOT
LONGEST CHAIN OF NAME
HYDROCSRBON
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
6 Hept-
8 Oct-
9 Non-
10 Dec-
11 Undec
12 -
13 Dodec
14 -
15 Tridec
16 -
Tetradec-
Pentadec
-
Hexadec-
 17

Heptadec-18 Octadec-
19 Nonadec-
20 Eicos-
21 Uncos-22
Docos-23
Tricos-24
Tetracos-
25

Pentacos-26 Hexacos-

2. Members of Alkanol, Alkanoic Acid, Alkanal/Aldehyde, Amide,

Alkanoate/Ester, Cyanide, Alkanone/Ketone, Carbon Nitril is derived by
removing only letter “e” that ends the suffix “ane” of the name of a
corresponding alkane member. Common useful examples are illustrated
below.
NUMBER (N) OF CARBON IN THE CORRESPONDING ROOT
LONGEST CHAIN OF NAME
HYDROCARBON
1 Methan-
2 Ethan-
3 Propan-
4 Butan-
5 Pentan-
6 Hexan-
6 Heptan-
8 Octan-
9 Nonan-
10 Decan-
11 Undecan-
12 Dodecan-
13 Tridecan-
14 Tetradecan-
15 Pentadecan-
16 Hexadecan-
17 Heptadecan
18 -Octadecan-
19 Nonadecan-
 3. Members of Amine and Haloalkanes is the name of their corresponding
members of Alkyl which is derived by replacing the suffix “ane” of the
name of corresponding member of Alkane with suffix “yl”.
NUMBER (N) OF CARBON IN THE CORRESPONDING ROOT
LONGEST CHAIN OF NAME
HYDROCSRBON
1 Methyl-
2 Ethyl-
3 Propyl-
4 Butyl-
5 Pentyl-
6 Hexyl-
6 Heptyl-
8 Octyl-
9 Nonyl-
10 Decyl-
11 Undecyl-
12 Dodecyl-
13 Tridecyl-
14 Tetradecyl-
15 Pentadecyl-
16 Hexadecyl-
17 Heptadecyl
18 -Octadecyl-
19 Nonadecyl-
20 Eicosyl-
21 Uncosyl-
22 Docosyl-
23 Tricosyl-
24 Tetracosyl-
25 Pentacosyl-
26 Hexacosyl-

21
SUFFIX NAMES OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

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The table below shows Functional group of common homologous series and their
prefix and suffix names.

S/ HOMOLOGOU GNERAL FUNCTIONAL Suffix Preffix

N S SERIES FORMULA GROUP name name
1. Alkane R-H _ -ane -

2. Alkene R2-C=C-R2 = -ene -

3. Alkyne R-C C-R -yne -
4. Alkanol R-OH -OH -ol Hydroxy
l-
5. Alkanoic R-COOH or O -COOH or O -oic Carboxyl
Acid/Carboxylic R C C acid -
Acid OH OH

6. Alkanoate/Ester R-COOR‟ O -COOR‟ or O oate -

R C C
O-R’ O-R’

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 7. Ether R-O-R‟ -O - - -
8. R-CO-R‟ or - CO - or -one Oxo-
Alkanone/Ketone R C o
C o
R’
R
9. Alkanal/Aldehyde -CHO or -al Oxo-
R-CHO or C o C o
H H

10. Amide R-CONH2 or O -CONH2 or O -amide -

R C C
NH2 NH2

11. Primary Amine R-NH2 or H -NH2 or H Amino-

-amine
R N H N H

12. Secondary Amine R2NH or H

-NH or H -amine -
R N R N

13. Tertiary Amine R3NH or R - N or -amine -

R N R N
R
14. Quaternary R4N+ or -N+ or -amine -
+
Amine R N R
N+

15. Carbon Nitril R-C N -C N -onitril -

16. Cyanide R - CN -CN - Cyano-
cyanid
e
17. Haloalkane/Alkyl R- X - X where X= F, Cl= Chloro-
Halide Cl, Br, I Chlorid

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 e;
Br= Bromo-
Bromid
e Fluoro-
F=Fluo Iodo-
ride
I
=Iodid
e

RULES OF IUPAC NOMENCLATURE

1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain as the root hydrocarbon and
name it according to the number of carbon atoms it contains.
2. Add appropriate suffix to indicate the principal or major substituent group.
3. Number the carbon atoms in the root hydrocarbon from the end that will
give the lowest possible number to the carbon atom that bears the suffix and
then the prefix (s).
4. Indicate the name (s) and the position of the other substituents by prefix
coming before the root names by number of carbon they are attached.
5. In the presence of two similar Alkyl group in the same longest continuous
carbon chain, they should be named based on the one that comes first
alphabetically.
6. When more than one of the same substituent group is present, use di- for
two, tri- for three, tetra- for four, penta- for five and so on.

Use your initiative to name the following compounds.

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 CH3 – CH2 – CH- CH3 CH3 – CH2 – CH CH ClCH2 – CH2 – CH2OH

CH3

H H H H H H CH3 – CH2 - CH2 – CH= CH2

CNCH2C C – CH3
H C C C C C C
H CH3

H H H H HCOOC8H17
CH3 C2H5
CH2 - COOH
CH2=CHCH=CH2
OH
HO – C – COOH
CH3 – CH – CHO CH3CH2CCH2NH2
O
CH2CH3
HOC - COH NH2
CH3COO(CH2)3CHCH3 CH3(CH2)3 CHC2H5
O O CH3CH2CCHCH3
Cl C O
Cl Cl 3H7

CH Cl Cl
HC - H2C
CH 2

CH C Cl
Cl Cl H2C HC
2

CH2 H2C CH2

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 ISOMERISM

Isomerism is the occurrence of two or more organic compounds with the same molecular
formula but different molecular structures.

Isomerism is a useful branch of chemistry called Stereochemistry. Isomerism is broadly sub-

divided into two major types which are:

1. Structural Isomerism and

2. Optical Isomerism.

STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM

Structural Isomerism is the occurrence of two or more organic compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structural formula. The difference in the structural formula may
be due to difference in the:

i) number or location of branched Alkyl group as in Chain Isomerism and Mesomerism;

ii) position of similar functional groups as in position isomerism and Tautomerism;
iii) functional groups as in functional group isomerism;

ISOMERS are therefore two or more organic compounds with similar molecular formula but
different molecular structures.

Structural isomerism is further sub-divided into five groups which are:

i) Chain Isomerism;
ii) Position Isomerism;
iii) Mesomerism;
iv) Functional group Isomerism and
v) Tautomerism.

CHAIN ISOMERISM

Chain Isomerism is the occurrence of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula
but different structural formula in terms of difference in the number of branched hydrocarbon
chain.

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S/N ALKANE Molec Structural Formula CHAIN ISOMER
MEMBER ular
Form
ula
1. Butane C4H10 H H H H H H H

H C C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H CH3 H
2-ethylpropane
2. Pentane C5H12
3. Hexane C6H14
4. Heptane C7H16
POSITION ISOMERISM

Position isomerism is the occurrence of two or more organic compounds with the same
molecular formula but different location of a non-hydrocarbon substituent group. Take for
example:

i) Propylamine and 2-Aminopropane are position isomers: CH3CH2CH2NH2 CH3CHCH3

NH2
ii) Propanol and Propan – 2- ol are position isomers: CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CHCH3

OH

iii) Butanoic acid and 2-Carboxylpropane are position isomers: CH3CH2CH2COOH CH3CHCH3

MESOMERISM COOH

Mesomerism is the occurrence of two or more organic compounds with similar molecular
formula but different position of Alkyl groups which are bonded to the same type of functional
group. For instance:

i) Methoxyethane (CH3CH2-O-CH3) and Ethoxyethane (CH3 -O-CH2CH3) are

Mesomeric Isomers;
ii) Methylpropanoate (CH3CH2COOCH3) and Ethylethanoate (CH3COOCH2CH3) are
Mesomeric isomers.

30 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

FUNCTIONAL GROUP ISOMERISM

Functional group isomerism is the occurrence of two or more organic compounds with similar
molecular formula but different functional groups. This type of structural isomerism is common
to:

i) Members of Alkanol and corresponding members of Ether. For example:

(a) Ethanol (C2H5OH) and Dimethylether (CH3-O-CH3) are functional group isomers;
(b) Propanol (C3H7OH), Ethoxymethane (CH3-O-C2H5) and Methoxyerhane are
functional group isomers etc.;
ii) A ketose sugar and a corresponding Aldose sugar. E.g. Fructose and Glucose etc.

TAUTOMERISM

Tautomerism is the occurrence of two or more compounds in dynamic equilibrium with similar molecular
formula but different functional groups. For example Ethenol
O
H H H

C C C C

OH H H
H
Ethenol Ethanal

STEREOISOMERISM

This is the occurrence of two or more organic compounds with similar molecular formula and
similar structural formula but different spatial configuration of atoms in their molecular structures. For
example, Glucose and Galactose have the same molecular formular, C6H12O6 and even the same
structural formula that makes them bear the same IUPAC name which is 2,3,4,5,6-
pentaahydroxyhexanal but they differ in the arrangement (spartial configuration) of OH-group around
carbon number 4 of their molecular formula.

31 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

 There are two basic types of Stereoisomerism. These are:

1. OPTICAL ISOMERISM AND

2. GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

Optical isomerism is the occurrence of two or more organic compounds with the same molecular and
structural formula but different mirror images. Optically active compounds have the following properties:

(i) They have one or more than one Chiral centre or asymmetric carbon. An
Asymmetric carbon is the one that is covalently attached to four different substituent
groups around it..
(ii) They rotate a plane polarized light to the right or to the left.
(iii) They are either called Dextro – rotatory compounds if they rotate a plane polarized
light to the right or Laevo – rotatory compounds, if they rotate a plane polarized light
to the left;
(iv) A Dextro – rotatory compound usually has its name written with a prefix letter “D-“
or plus sign (+). E.g. D-Glucose while a Laevo – rotatory compound usually has its
name written with a prefix letter “L-“ or minus sign (-). E.g. L- Glucose.
(v) They have mirror images which are not superimposable on each other.

It should be noted that a nicolprism is usually used propagate light rays and make them move in a straight
light. A light beam that moves in a straight path is said to be plane polarized.
H H

H3C - C - COOH HOOC - C - CH3

OH OH
D-Lactic acid Mirror L-Lactic acid

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 GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM

Geometric isomerism is the occurrence of two organic compounds with similar molecular and
structural formula but different spatial arrangement of two higher groups around two adjacent
carbon atoms between which a double covalent bond exists. There are two forms of Geometric
isomerism. These are:

(i) Cis- Geometric isomerism and

(ii) Trans- Geometric isomerism.

Cis- Geometric isomerism is said to have occurred, if the two higher groups are found on the same side
of the two adjacent carbon atoms bearing the double covalent bond but in Tran- geometric isomer, the
two higher groups are located on opposite sides of the two adjacent carbon atoms bearing the double
covalent bond. Geometric isomerism is common to most of the unsaturated fatty acids and some
other organic compounds like:

(i) Cis-dichloroethene and Trance-chloroethene;

(ii) Cis – But-2-ene and Trans-But-2-ene;
(iii) Cis – Butenedioic acid and Trans- Butenedioic acid etc.

CH3
Cl Cl
H
H CH3 H
H

C C C C C C or
or C C

H H Cl Cl H H
Cis-dichloroethene CH3 CH3
Cis-dichloroethene Cis- But -2 -ene
Cis- But -2 -ene

H C COOH HOOC C H
Or

H C COOH HOOC C H
Cis- Butenedioic acid

H C COOH HOOC C H
Or

HOOC C H H C COOH
Trans- Butenedioic acid

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ALKANE

Alkane is an homologous series with carbon to carbon single covalent bond. The general
molecular formula for determining the molecular formula of members is given as CnH2n+2 where n =
number of carbon atoms per molecule of Alkane member.

S/N Name of Alkane Number Molecular Bond-line notation Condensed formula

Member of formula
Carbon [CnH2n+2]
atom [n]
per
molecule
1 Methane 1 CH 4
2 Ethane 2 C2H6 CH3CH3
3 Propane 3 C3H8 CH3CH2CH3

4 Butane 4 C4H10 CH3(CH2)2CH3

5 Pentane 5 C5H12 CH3(CH2)3CH3

6 Hexane 6 C6H14

7 Heptane 7 C7H16
8 Octane 8 C8H18
9 Nonane 9 C9H20
10 Decane 10 C10H22
11 Undecane 11 C11H24
12 Dodecane 12 C12H26
13 Tridecane 13 C13H28
14 Tetradecane 14 C14H30
15 Pentadecane 15 C15H32
16 Hexadecane 16 C16H34
17 Heptadecane 17 C17H36
18 Octadecane 18 C18H38
19 Nonadecane 19 C19H40
20 Eicosane 20 C20H42
21 Uncosane 21 C21H44
22 Docosane 22 C22H46
23 Tricosane 23 C23H48
24 Tetracosane 24 C24H50

34 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

METHANE

Methane is the first and the simplest member of Alkane homologous series. It has a molecular formula
CH4 and the structural formula :
H

H C H

It is a component of petroleum gas. It is also the major constituent of natural gas which issues from
the ground in great quantities in certain part of the world. Methane is produced during the
decomposition of plant matter in the absence of air. It is given off from swamp and then often called
marsh gas.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF METHANE

Methane is produced in the laboratory by heating anhydrous sodium ethanoate (CH3COONa) with
alkali. The common alkali used is soda – lime and not caustic soda. This is because of the deliquescent
nature of caustic soda. A sada-lime is the mixture of quick lime (CaO) and concentrated solution
of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Apart from the deliquescent nature of caustic soda that prevents its
direct usage for methane production, soda-lime does not attack glass. The methane gas produced is
thereafter collected over water by upward delivery or downward displacement. This is because the gas is
less dense than air.

CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(S) → CH4(g) + Na2CO3(s).

Methane gas (CH4)

Split cork
Boiling tube
Delivery tube

Retort Stand
Water with bubbles of CH4
Bunsen burner

Sodium ethanoate + Soda-lime

Experimental set up for the laboratory preparation of Methane.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METHANE

1. It is a colourless and odourless gas

2. It is neutral to litmus
3. It is less dense than air
4. It is only slightly soluble in water.

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METHANE

Methane and most other members of Alkane homologous series are somehow inert as they are
not reactive with acids, alkalis or oxidizing agents at ordinary temperature and pressure. They only
undergo combustion and substitution reaction.

COMBUSTION REACTION OF METHANE

Methane burns with non-luminous, smokeless blue flame in the presence of air/oxygen and
becomes decomposed into carbon (IV) oxide gas and steam with the evolution of a lot of heat. The
mixture of methane and oxygen/air in coalmine is explosive.

CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)

The balanced equation of combustion reaction of hydrocarbon compounds can be derived from the
general equation stated below:

CxHy + ( ) O2 → CO2 + H2O

SUBSTITUTION REACTION IN ALKANE

Substitution reaction is the type of reaction in which a number of atoms or group of atoms in a
molecule of a substance is displaced by another type of atom or group of atoms of corresponding state
of valency. Substitution reaction is mostly common to members of Alkane homologous series due to
th3e fact that they are saturated hydrocarbon compounds. As such, they have no space for strange atoms
or radicals but instead, some of their atoms are rather replaced by suitable atoms/radicals of
reacting substances at suitable conditions.

Methane commonly undergoes substitution reaction by a process called HALOGENATION.

Halogenation is a term which means the chemical interaction of a substance by a member of
halogen family which are also called group VII elements. Examples of such group 7 elements are
Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I) and Astatine (At) but Astatine (At) is radioactive
and so it does not take part in ordinary chemical reaction.

Methane reacts with Chlorine gas in the presence of ultraviolet ray of the sunlight to form Chloromethane
(CH3Cl) and hydrogen chloride gas. CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

The Chloromethane (CH3Cl) formed earlier also combines with chlorine gas in the presence of ultraviolet
ray of the sunlight to form dichloromethane (CH2Cl2). CH3Cl(g) → CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)

The type of halogenations in which chlorine, Bromine, Fluorine and Iodine is involved is called
Chlorination, Bromination, Fluorination and Iodination respectively.

Bromination of methane is also possible but it is slow.

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USES OF METHANE

1. Methane is used as fuel, either by itself or mixed with other gases.

2. It is used in making hydrogen, Carbon black, carbon (IV) and sulphide, Alkyne,
hydrocyanic acid, trichloro methane (Cloroform), an anaesthetic used in surgical
operations, and tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride) which is recognized as a laboratory
solvent.

ALKENE

Alkene is another hydrocarbon family but its members have carbon to carbon double covalent
bond. The first member of Alkene is Ethene as Alkene lacks methane corresponding
member. Each member of Alkene has its molecular formula derived from a general molecular
formula C nH2n where n = positive whole number and it indicates the number of carbon atom that is
present in one molecule of Alkene member. The first three members of Alkene are gases at
room temperature. The next thirteen members after but-2-ene are liquid at room temperature.
Higher members are solid at room temperature.

ETHENE

Ethene is the first member of Alkene. Its molecular formula is C2H4.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF ETHENE

Ethene is prepared in the laboratory by heating ethanol (CH3CH2OH) with double of its volume of
concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid [H2SO4] at 170 . The ratio of the volume of acid to ethanol
is 2:1. Conc H2SO4 whose volume is twice that of the ethanol is divided into two equal halves,
each of which is of the same volume as the ethanol. This reaction occurs in two stages.

The first stage involves heating the first portion of the acid with equal volume of ethanol at 170
and the product is the mixture of water [H2O] and Ethyl hydrogentetraoxosulphate (VI)
[CH2CH2HSO4].

CH3CH2OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → CH2CH2HSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

The second portion of the acid is added to and heated Ethyl hydrogentetraoxosulphate
(VI) [CH2CH2HSO4] and ethane gas formed is passed through sodium hydroxide solution to
remove impurities such as carbon (IV) oxide, Sulphure (IV) oxide and acid fumes before it is
collected over water. An empty conical flask is placed between the round bottom conical flask and
the conical flask containing the sodium hydroxide to prevent sucking back of the alkali into the
reacting mixture. The concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is recovered and can be used for the
same task later.

CH2CH2HSO4(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → C2H2(g) + 2H2SO4(aq)

The formation of ethane gas from the above illustrations occurs through dehydration of ethanol
[CH3CH2OH] in the presence of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.
Conc. H2SO4
C2H5OH(l) C2H4 (g)
-H2O

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 a
b
c
d

f
g
h

Experimental set up for the laboratory preparation of ethene gas

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHENE

1. It is a colourless gas with faint sweetish smell.

2. It is sparingly soluble in water.
3. It is slightly less dense than air.
4. It has no action on litmus.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHENE

Ethene primarily undergoes three types of reaction. These are:

1. Combustion reaction;
2. Addition reaction;
3. Polymerization.
1. COMBUSTION REACTION OF ETHENE

Ethene and other members of Alkene have two hydrogen atoms less than their corresponding members
of Alkane and therefore they born with more smoky and luminous flame than their corresponding
members of Alkane.

Ethane born in the presence of air/oxygen and decomposes to release heat, Carbon (IV) oxide [CO 2] and
water [H2O]. Ethene forms explosive when mixed with air/oxygen.

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)

38 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

 2. ADDITION REACTION OF ETHENE

Being an unsaturated hydrocarbon, ethane undergoes addition reaction which is a type of reaction
in which an atom or group of atoms chemically adds up to the molecule of another substance
without displacement of any atom or group of atoms. Ethene accepts some atoms or radicals and
becomes saturated like ethane, its corresponding member of Alkane as its carbon to carbon double bond
is broken. Such addition reaction occurs when ethene reacts with:

i) Hydrogen;
ii) Halogens;
iii) Hydrogen halides;
iv) Chlorine and Bromine water;
v) Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid;
vi) Tetraoxomanganate (VII);
vii) Oxygen.

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHENE WITH HYDROGEN

In the presence of catalyst like finely divided Nickel, platinum or Palladium; ethene (C 2H4) reacts
with hydrogen gas mixed with it and becomes transformed into ethane (C2H6) as its double bond is
broken and two atoms of hydrogen add up to its molecular structure. This reaction is
also called HYDROGENATION OF EHENE. It is a common process industrially depended
on in making Margarine by hardening oil into fats.

H2C=CH2(g) + H2(g) → CH3CH3(g)

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHENE WITH HALOGENS

Ethen reacts at room temperature with Chlorine (Cl) and Bromine (Br) to form haloalkanes like 1,2
– dichloroethane and 1,2-dibromoethane respectively. Similar reaction is possible with iodine that
is dissolved in ethanol and it brings about the formation of 1,2-diiodoethane at room temperature.

H2C=CH2(g) + Cl2(g) → H2ClCCH2Cl(l)

H2C=CH2(g) + Br2(g) → H2BrCCH2Br(l)

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHENE WITH HYDROGEN HALIDE

Ethene (H2C=CH2) reacts readily with hydrogen Iodide vapour [HI] at room temperature to form
iodoethane (CH3CH2I). Similar reaction with Chlorine and Bromine is possible but very slow.

H2C=CH2(g) + HI(g) → CH3CH2I(l)

This reaction is also common to higher members of Alkene but it follows Markonicov‟s rule which
states that upon the addition of hydrogen halide to a molecule of unsaturated hydrocarbon, the hydrogen
atom of the hydrogen halide is added to the carbon atom with more hydrogen atoms while the halogen
combines with carbon atom with less hydrogen atoms. For instance, Propene reacts with hydrogen iodide
to form 2-iodopropane [H3CCH (I) CH3] and not iodopropane [CH2ICH2CH3].

39 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

CH3CH=CH2(g) + HI(g) → H3C - CH (I) CH3(l)

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHENE WITH CHLORINE AND BROMINE WATER

Chlorine water which contains Oxochlorate (I) acid [HOCl] reacts with ethene to yield 2-chloroethanol
[CH2OHCH2Cl].

CH3CH=CH2(g) + HOCl(aq) → CH2OHCH2Cl.

Similar reaction with Bromine water containing reddish brown Oxobromate (I) acid is used to test for
Ethene as an unsaturated hydrocarbon as a decolourized product of 2-Bromoethanol is formed.

CH3CH=CH2(g) + HOBr(aq) → CH2OHCH2Br(l).

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHENE WITH TETRAOXOSULPHATE (VI) ACID

Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid, [H2SO4] absorbs ethene readily at room temperature to form
ethyl hydrogentetraoxosulphate (VI), [C2H5HSO4].

C2H4(g) + H2SO4(aq) → C2H5HSO4(aq)

This product reacts differently with water and ethanol.

In the presence of water, the ethyl hydrogentetraoxosulphate (VI) [C2H5HSO4] becomes hydrolyzed into
ethanol [C2H5OH] while concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid, [H2SO4] is recovered.

C2H5HSO4(aq) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq) + C2H5OH(aq)

In the order way round, If ethanol is heated with the ethyl hydrogentetraoxosulphate (VI) [C2H5HSO4]
instead of water (H2O), Diethyl ether [CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3] will be formed instead of ethanol.

C2H5HSO4(aq) + C2H5OH(aq) → H2SO4(aq) + C2H5OCH2CH3(aq)

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHENE WITH TETRAOXOMANGANATE (IV)

If ethene gas is bubbled through purple potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII) solution in alkalinic
medium, a green Potassium tetraoxomanganate (VI) will be formed due to the reduction of purple
7+ 6+
Manganate (VII) ion [Mn ] to green Manganate (VI) ion [Mn ] but if ethene gas is bubbled through
7+
acidified solution of purple potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII), the purple Manganate (VII) ion [Mn ]
2+
becomes decolourized into colourless solution of Manganate (II) ion Mn .

In both cases, oxygen from the Manganate (VII) ion combines with ethene in the presence of water
to form ethan-1,2-diol which is commonly called ethylene glycol. Ethylene glycol is used as an anti
freeze mixtures for car radiators and for making Terylene which is an important polyester.

H2C=CH2(g) + H2O + [O] → CH2OHCH2OH(aq)

From

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ADDITION REACTION OF ETHENE WITH OXYGEN

The mixture of ethene gas with oxygen that is passed over silver catalyst at about 250 results to the
formation of epoxyethane which is also called ethylene oxide. This compound is used in making ethan
– 1,2-diol and some liquid detergents.

H H H
H

C C H C C H (l)

H H (g) O
Ethene gas Epoxyethane

3. POLYMERIZATION
The combination of two or more smaller unit of substances called monomers to form a
giant molecule called a polymer is termed polymerization. Ethene and its halogenated
product of halogenation process polymerize at about 60 in the presence of pressure and
catalyst to form polyethene and polychloroethethene which are important products used in
packaging of materials. Polychloroethane is used in making polyvinylchloride (PVC).
2 60
n(CH2=CH2) (CH2-CH2-CH2-CH)n
Pressure + Catalyst Polyethene

USES OF ETHENE
1. Ethene can be used in making ethane through hydrogenation; ethanol through dehydration
of tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid; ethanol, through oxidation of its ethanol product in the presence
of oxidizing agents; epoxyethane through its mixture with oxygen etc;
2. Ethene is used in making important plastic such as Polyethene; polyvinylchloride (PVC),
Polystyrene;
3. Ethene is used in making synthetic rubber;
4. Ethene is used in making 1,2-dibromoethene used as petrol additive;
5. Ethene is used in little quantity to hasten the ripening of fruits.

ALKYNE

Alkyne is a family of organic compounds with carbon to carbon triple covalent bond. Alkyne
members are also known as unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds as they are at least four carbon atoms
lesser than their corresponding Alkane members. Members of Alkyne have the general molecular
formula C nH2n-2 where n = positive whole number which is the number of carbon atoms and it is equal
or greater than 2. Like Alkene, Alkyne has no methane corresponding member. The first member of
Alkyne is ethyne.

ETHYNE

41 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

Ethyne is the first member of Alkyne. It has the molecular formula C2H2 and the structural formula
.

PREPARATION OF ETHYNE

Ethyne gas evolves as cold water is poured on calcium carbide (CaC2). The released gas is first of
all passed through acidified copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) solution to remove any phosphine
(PH 4) impurity before the gas is then collected over water by upward delivery (also known as
downward displacement). A lot of heat is released as ethyne gas is produced. In order to prevent the
glass from cracking, the preparation of ethyne is usually done on a heap of sand in the flask.

CaC2(S) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)

a
b

c
d
f e

g
h
i
j
k
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP FOR THE LABORATORY PREPARATION OF ETHYNE

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHYNE

1. Ethyne is a colourless gas with a characteristic sweet sell when pure

2. It is only sparingly soluble in water
3. It is slightly less dense than air.
4. It is unstable and may explode on compression to liquid. It is usually dissolved in acetone
(propanone) and kept in steel cylinder at about 12 atmosphere pressure.
5. It has no effect on litmus.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHYNE

Common chemical properties undergone by ethyne are:

1. Combustion Reaction;
2. Addition Reaction;
3. Substitution Reaction;
4. Polymerization;

42 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

COMBUSTION REACTION OF ETHYNE

In the presence of air/oxygen, ethyne burns with very smoky luminous flame (due to its high
carbon content compared to its constituent hydrogen atoms as it is highly unsaturated) to yield carbon
(IV) oxide and water. Ignition of the mixture of ethyne and oxygen or air is always explosive.

In pure oxygen or air, ethyne burns in air with less luminous but very hot flame whose temperature is
as high as 3000 . This flame is made use of in the oxy-acetylene torch which is used in welding and
cutting of metal scraps.

2C2H2(g) + 5O2 → 2H2O(l) + CO2(g)

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHYNE

Ethyne is two hydrogen atoms less than ethene and four hydrogen atoms less than ethane. Ethyne
is therefore the most unsaturated hydrocarbon while comparing it with its corresponding member of
Alkane and Alkene. It accepts four molecules of monovalent atoms/radicals in order to have its
triple bond broken into single bond and become highly saturated.

Ethyne undergoes addition reaction with:

i) Hydrogen;
ii) Halogens;
iii) Hydrogen halides;
iv) Water;
v) Tetraoxomanganate (VII);

1. ADDITION REACTION OF ETHYNE WITH HYDROGEN (HYDROGENATION)

Ethyne reacts with excess hydrogen gas in the presence of Nickel catalyst at 200 . At first, its triple
bond breaks and becomes ethene [H2C=CH2] . Subsequent addition of hydrogen breaks the double bond
and it finally forms ethane [CH3CH3].

H-C C-H(g) + H2(g) → H2C=CH2(g)

H2C=CH2(g) + H2(g) → CH3CH3(g)

2. ADDITION REACTION OF ETHYNE WITH HALOGENS (HALOGENATION)

The reaction of ethyne with Chlorine (Cl) and Bromine (Br) in the presence of metallic halide catalyst
at room temperature first of all yields 1,2-dichloroethene [HClC=CClH] and finally,
1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane [HCl2C-CCl2H].

H-C C-H(g) + Cl2(g) → HClC=CClH (l)

HClC=CClH(l) + Cl2(g) → HCl2C-CCl2H(l)

43 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

Chlorination of ethyne in the absence of catalyst results to the dehydrogenation of ethyne as it
forms carbon while Chlorine is reduced to hydrogen chloride [HCl]. This reaction is accompanied by
violent explosion.

C2H2(g) + Cl2(g) → C(s) + 2HCl(g)

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHYNE WITH HYDROGEN HALIDES

[HYDROHALOGENATION REACTION]

Ethyne reacts with hydrogen iodide readily at room temperature and with hydrogen bromide at 100 .
Similar reaction with hydrogen chloride is slow. With hydrogen iodide, Iodoethene [HIC=CH2] is
formed first and subsequent addition of hydrogen iodide yields 1,1-diiodoethane [HI2C-CH3].

H-C C-H + HI → HIC = CH2

HIC = CIH + HI → HI2C-CH3

With Hydrogen Bromide, Bromoethene [HBrC=CH2] (Vinyl bromide) is formed in the first place.
Continuous addition of hydrogen bromide results to the formation of 1,1-dibromethane [HBr2C-CH3].

Assignment 3

Write two balanced chemical equations to represent the complete reaction ethyne with hydrogen bromide.

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHYNE WITH WATER

If ethyne is bubbled through dilute tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid at about 60 in the presence of mercury
(II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) catalyst, ethenol [H2C=CHOH] is first of all formed. This compound is
not stable as it later becomes rearranged into ethanal [CH3CHO]. Ethenol and Ethanal are said to
be in dynamic equilibrium [They are also said to beTautomeric isomers].

+H2O
H C C H C C H H C C H
H

H OH H O

Ethenol/Vinyl Alcohol Ethanal

ADDITION REACTION OF ETHYNE WITH TETRAOXOMANGANATE (VII)

Ethyne decolourizes an acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII) while it turns the Alkaline solution
green at room temperature. In the process, ethyne is converted into ethanedioic acid (Oxalic acid).

OH OH

H C C H + 4[O] O C C O
From
Ethanedioic acid/Oxalic

44 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

SUBSTITUTION REACTION OF ETHYNE

The passage of ethyne with ammoniacal solution of copper (I) chloride [CuCl] and silver trioxonitrate
(V) [AgNO3] at room temperature brings about the precipitation of reddish-brown copper (I)
dicarbide [Cu2C2] and white silver dicarbide [Ag2C2] respectively.

C2H2(g) + 2CuCl(aq) → Cu2C2(S) + 2HCl(aq)

C2H2(g) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Ag2C2 + 2HNO3(aq)

Both dicarbides are explosives when dry and both form ethyne if warmed in a dilute acids. All
alkynes with a triple bond at the end of their carbon chain (RC CH) undergo similar substitution
reaction. CU2C2(S) + H2SO4(aq) → CU2SO4(aq) + C2H2(g)

POLYMERIZATION OF ETHYNE

Ethyne polymerizes to form aromatic hydrocarbon, Benzene, [C6H6], when it is passed through a hot tube
containing a complex organo-nickel catalyst.

3C2H2(g) → C6H6(l)

TEST FOR UNSATURATION

Unsaturated compounds are best recognized by their addition reactions. The most convenient test is
the reaction with bromine water whose colour is reddish-brown as this compound turns colourless
on exposure to unsaturated compounds. A purple solution of potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII)
also becomes colourless when added to unsaturated compounds but this is not by itself a distinctive test
since reducing agents too bring about the same result. A distinguishing test between Alkyne and Alkene
is the passage of the unknown gas through ammoniacal copper (I) chloride or Silvertrioxonitrate (V). If
the gas is Ethyne, it turns ammoniacal copper (I) chloride to reddish brown Copper
Carbide and Silvertrioxonitrate (V) in a white Silver Carbide. No colour change is noticed, if the gas
is a member of Alkene or Alkane.

USES OF ETHYNE

1. Ethyne is used as fuel in miner‟s lamp;

2. Ethyne is mixed with oxygen/air to produce a very hot and easily controllable flame known as
the oxy-acetylene torch/flame, used for cutting and welding metals;
3. Ethyne is a source of ethanal and the solvent, 1,1,2,2 – tetrachloroethene, useful for dry cleaning
and dissolving grease;
4. Polymerization of ethyne and its derivatives forms products like Polychloroethen, a plastic;
polypropenonitril, a synthetic fibre and neoprene, an artificial rubber.

HYDROCARBON

Hydrocarbon is any organic compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms only.
Hydrocarbon is classified into two major groups which are:

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 1. Aromatic hydrocarbon and
2. Aliphatic hydrocarbon.

AROMATIC HYDROCARBON

This is Benzene and any other compound which is built on Benzene structure. The molecular formula of
Benzene is C6H6. H

C
H C C H

H H C C H

C
C
H C C H H

H C C H

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 Common hydrocarbon compounds which are directly derived from Benzene structure are stated below:

H H H H
H

C C C C C
H C C C H H C C C H
C

H C H C C H
C C H C C
C C C C C

H H H H H

B Bond-line and structural formula of Anthracine

ond-line and structural formula of Naphthalene

Some Aromatic compounds which are not hydrocarbon are:

CH3 CH3

CH3

Toluene Xylene

OH NH2 COOH
NO2

Phenol Aniline Benzoic acid Nitrobenzen

ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBON

This is a type of hydrocarbon that occurs in straight chain, branched chain and cyclic structure. Aliphatic
hydrocarbon can further be classified into two groups. These are:

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 1. Alicyclic Aliphatic Hydrocarbon and
2. Cyclic Aliphatic Hydrocarbon

ALICYCLIC ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBON

Hydrocarbon is said to be alicyclic, if it either has straight continuous or branched chain. Hexane,
2-methyl-pentane, 3-methylpentane, 2,2- dimethyl butane, 2,3-dimethylbutane, are common examples
of alicyclic hydrocarbon. It should be born in mind that alicyclic hydrocarbon can be a member of
Alkane, Alkene or Alkyne Homologous series.

Structural Formula of Hexane and its Common isomers

H H H H H H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H C C H
H C C C

H H H H H H H H H
HH C H

n- Hexane
H

2-methylpentane (Isohexane)
H
H

H C H
H C H
H H H
H H H

H H C C C C H
C C C C H

H H H H
H H
H C H
H C H

H
H
2,3-dimethylbutane
2,2-dimethylbutane
Bond-line notational formula of Hexane and its Common isomers

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 2-methylpentane m p
n-Hexane 3- ethyl entane

2,2-dimethylbutane
Condensed formula of Hexane and its Common isomers

CH3(CH2)4CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH(CH3)CH3 CH3CH2CH(CH3)2CH3

n-Hexane 2- methylpentane 2,2-dimethylbutane

CH3CH(CH3)CH(CH3)CH3

2,3-dimethylbutane

CLASSIFICATION OF ALICYCLIC HYDROCARBON

Alicyclic hydrocarbon can further be classified into two common categories:

1. Saturated Hydrocarbon and

2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbon.

SATURATED HYDROCARBON

This is a type of hydrocarbon homologous series whose members have carbon-to-carbon single covalent
bond. Alkane is the only homologous series of hydrocarbon whose members are saturated.

UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON

This is a type of hydrocarbon homologous series whose members have carbon-to-carbon double or
triple covalent bond. Alkene and Alkyne are the only homologous series of hydrocarbon whose
members are saturated.

CYCLIC ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBON

This a non-Benzene ring shaped hydrocarbon derived from a straight chain member of Alkane, Alkene or
Alkyne. They are usually called cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes and cycloalkynes.

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 H
H
H
C H
C C
H
H

H
H C
C
H
H C Cyclohexane (Bond-line Notation)

H H
Cyclohexane (Structural formula)

HC CH

HC CH
Cyclopent -1,3-diene/Cyclopentene

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 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF HYDROCARBON CLASSES

HYDROCARBON

ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBON AROMATIC HYDROCARBON

BENZENE

ALICYCLIC CYCLIC
HYDROCARBON HYDROCARBON
BENZENE DERIVATIVES

XYLINE ANILINE TOLUENE NITROBENZENE

ANTHRACINE NAPHTHALENE ACETONE

SATURATED UNSATURATED
HYDROCARBON HYDROCARBON CYCLOALKENES CYCLOALKYNES
CYCLOALKANES
E.G. ALKANE
E.G. ALKENE &
ALKYNE

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ALKANOLS

Aliphatic alkanols are compounds in which hydroxyl group are linked to alkyl groups. Members of
Alkanols are derived from corresponding members of Alkane, when one or more than one
hydrogen atom(s) is replaced by hydroxyl group. The name of members is derived by replacing letter “e”
ending the suffix name of corresponding member of Alkane by letters “ol”- group. The hydroxyl
group is the functional group of Alkanol members as it is responsible for their chemical
properties. The general molecular formula of Alkanol members is CnH2n+1OH where CnH2n+1 is the
general molecular formula of Alkyl group that is symbolized by “R“ group. The general molecular
formula of Alkanol can therefore be represented by a formula „ROH‟. The first member of Alkanol is
Methanol (CH3OH), often called wood spirit. It is a poisonous alkanol that is produced from the
destructive distillation of coal.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALKANOL

Alkanol is classified based on:

a. Number of hydroxyl group attached to the Alkyl group;

b. Number of Alkyl group bearing the hydroxyl group.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALKANOL BASED ON THE NUMBER OF ALKYL GROUP

1. Alkanol members with only:

i) One hydroxyl group attached to the longest hydrocarbon chain/Alkyl group is called monohydric
Alkanol;
ii) More than one hydroxyl group attached to the longest hydrocarbon chain/Alkyl group is called
polyhydric Alkanol. Polyhydric Alkanols can further be classified into:
a. Dihydric Alkanol, if there are two hydroxyl groups attached to the Alkyl group;
b. Trihydric Alkanol, if there are three hydroxyl groups attached to the Alkyl group etc.
2. Alkanols with one, two and three Alkyl group attached to the major hydroxyl group is called
primary, secondary and tertiary Alkano.
Common examples of Primary, Secondary and tertary Alkanol are Methanol, Ethanol, 2-
methylpropan-1-ol etc; Butan-2-ol etc; 2-methyl propan- 2-ol etc. respectively.
All mentioned examples of Primary, secondary and tertiary Alkanol are all monohydric Alkanols;
Common examples of Dihydric Alkanol are Ethan -1,2-diol; Common examples of
trihydric Alkanols are Propan-1,2,3-triol, Butan-1,3,4 triol etc;

H H OH

C OH H
R C C H
H
Monohydric Primary Alkanol H H
Ethanol

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ETHANOL

Ethanol is the first member of alkanol homologous series. Its molecular formula is C2H5OH.

PREPARATIONS OF ETHANOL

Industrially, ethanol can be prepared from:

1. Hydrolysis of iodoethane with alkali;

2. Hydrolysis of ethylester with hot alkali;
3. Reducing ethanal with nascent hydrogen;

Ethanol can be produced in the laboratory through:

1. Hydration of ethene with Concentrated H2SO4 at 80 and 30 atm pressure:

C2H4(g) + H2SO4(aq) → C2H5HSO4(aq)
C2H5HSO4(aq) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq) + C2H5OH(aq)
2. Fermentation: C6H12O6 → 2CO2(g) + C2H5OH(aq)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL

1. It is a colourless, volatile liquid with taste characteristics and smell;

2. It is soluble in water;
3. It has the boiling point 78
4. It has no action on litmus.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL

1. Ethanol liberates hydrogen gas in the presence of sodium and potassium to form sodium ethoxide
C2H5OH(aq) + Na(S) → C2H5ONa + H2(g)
2. Ethanol reacts with phosphorus (V) Chloride and Phosphorus (III) Chloride as follow:
C2H5OH(aq) + PCl5(l) → C2H5Cl(g) + POCl3(l) + HCl(g)
C2H5OH(aq) + PCl3(l) → 3C2H5Cl + H3PO4.
3. Ethanol becomes oxidized into ethanal and latter to ethanoic acid. Secondary Alkanol becomes
oxidized into Alkanone while Primary Alkanol becomes oxidized into Alkanal.
4. Esterification: The reaction between Alkanol (ROH) and Alkanoic (RCOOH) Acid to form
Ester/Alkanoate (RCOOR‟) and water (H2O). ROH + RCOOH → RCOOR‟ + H2O
5. Dehydration: The removal of water molecule which is part of the structural molecule of
a substance from the substance. Ethanol becomes dehydrated in the presence of
concentrated teteraoxosulphate (VI) acid [H2SO4] to form ethane gas. See preparation of ethane
for details.

USES OF ETHANOL

1. Solvent for dissolving resins, vernishes, lacquer, soap, perfumes, dye drugs and flower
extract.
2. It is the raw material used for producing a lot of other useful chemicals like ethane, ethanal
etc;
3. It is used as fuel either by itself or mixed with petrol in racing cars and in rockets;

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 4. It is sometimes used as anti freez in automobile radiators due to its low freezing point of
about -117 .
5. It is present in many alcoholic beverages such as beers, wines and spirits (e.g Whisky, gin,
brandy etc.);
6. It is used in preserving corps.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in the atoms of elements. The atom of
any element has two basic regions which are the nucleus and the atomic shell(s) around the
nucleus. Electrons (negatively charged particles of an atom) are located in the atomic shells.
Depending on the atomic number of an element, common types of atomic shell are the:
(i) K-Shell (Closest to the atomic nucleus);
(ii) L-Shell (Next to the K-Shell);
(iii)M-Shell (Next to the L - Shell);
(iv)N – Shell (Next to the M - Shell).
Below is the atomic structure of Calcium, illustrating its electronic structure.

e- e- N
e- e- Atomic
M
e- Shells
L
e-e-
K

Proton
- e- Atomic
e e- e-
Nucleus
- e- Neutron
e e- e-

e-
e- e- Electron
e- e-

The maximum number of electron that can be held by each of the atomic shells is usually known
2
mathematically using a formula, 2n where n = principal quantum number and its value for K, L,
M and N shell is 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

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S/N Atomic Shell Value of “n” (Principal quantum Maximum number
number) of electron held by
2
the shell (2n )
1. K-Shell 1 2
2. L-Shell 2 8
3. M-Shell 3 18
4. N-Shell 4 32
2 29 2 8 30 2 8 18 2
18 1

ATOMIC ORBITALS

An orbital is the region in space where the probability of finding electrons is high. Atomic
orbitals are tiny spaces in each of the atomic shells. There are four common types of atomic
orbitals and these are:

(i) s-orbital;
(ii) p – orbital;
(iii)d – orbital and
(iv)f – orbital.

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A table showing characteristics of s, p, d and f-orbital

Orbital type s-Orbital p-Orbital d-Orbital f-orbital

Shape Spherical Dumb- Not Not
bell applicable applicable
Maximum number of electron held 2 6 10 14
Number of degenerates 1 3 5 7

Maximum number of electron in 2 2 2 2

eachdegenerates
Names of degenerates Px d 2
Not z Not
applicable 2 2 applicable
Py dx -y
Pz dxy
dyz
dxz

Assignment

Deduce the properties of s, p, d and f-orbital as stated in the above table.

Pz
Px
Py

Shape of s, p, d and f-orbital

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Atomic Shells and their respective constituent orbitals

S/N Atomic orbital Constituent Maximum Principal Maximum

orbitals electron number quantum number of
held by number (n) electron
each orbitals of atomic held by
shell atomic shell
2
2n
1. K-Shell 1s-orbital 2 1 2
2. L-Shell 2s-orbital 2 2 8
2p-orbital 6
TOTAL 8
3. M-Shell 3s-orbital 2 3 18
3p-orbital 6
3d-orbital 10
TOTAL 18
4. N-Shell 4s-orbital 2 4 32
4p-orbital 6
4d-orbital 10
4f-orbital 14
TOTAL 32

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RULES GOVERNING THE ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN THE ATOMS OF

ELEMENTS
Common rules that determine the ways electrons are arranged in the atoms of elements are as follow:

1. Aufbau Principle;
2. Hund‟s rule of maximum multiplicity;
3. Pauli Exclusion‟s principle.

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE

This principle state that while building up an atom, electrons are first fully filled into orbitals of
lower energy level before orbitals with higher energy level receive electrons.It could also be stated
that while building up atoms, no orbitals with lower energy level must be vacant while orbitals with
higher energy level receives electrons.

The arrangement of orbitals in increasing order of energy level can be obtained with the orbital triangle as
shown below:
1s

2s 2s

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5p
5s 5d

6s 6s

7s

Aufbau orbitals triangle

The electronic configuration of elements is derived from the above triangle starting from the first
arrow. In cases where an arrow picks more than one orbital, orbitals are arranged, starting from the
bottom of the arrow. For instance, in the third arrow from top of the above triangle, 2s is first written
before 3s.
which suppose to be 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s is 3p 3d 4s 4p 5s.It is acceptable that 3d comes before 4s. For
2 2 6 2 6 2 1
instance, the electronic configuration of scandium which ought to have been 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d is
2 2 6 2 6 1 2
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s . This is because 1s-orbita is present in K-shell; 2s 2p are members of L-shell;
3s 3p 3d belong to M shell while 4s is the first member of N-Shell.

3s
2
K-Shell

2 2
s
1 2
L-Shell
s

Sc 2p
6
3p
6 2
4s
M-Shell

N
-Shell
1
3d

Atomic structure of scandium (Sc) showing the arrangement of orbitals.

The atoms of elements exceptChromium (Cr) and Copper (Cu)in the first transition series of the
2
periodic tablehave their electronic configuration ending with 4s but the electronic configuration of
1
Chromium (Cr) and Copper (Cu) end with 4s .

A table showing the electronic configuration of transition metals.

21. Scandium Sc 2 2 6 2 6 1 2
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
22. Titanium Ti 1s2 2 6 2 6 2 2
2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
23. Vanadium V 1s2 2 6 2 6 3 2
2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
24. Chromium Cr
1s2 2 6 2 6 5 1
2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
25. Manganese Mn
1s2 2 6 2 6 5 2
26. Iron Fe 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
1s2 2 6 2 6 6 2
27. Cobalt Co 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

28. Nickel Ni 1s2 2 6 2 6 7 2

2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
29. Copper Cu 1s2 2 6 2 6 8 2
2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
1s2 2 6 2 6 10 1
2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Since ions are formed by the loss or gain of valence electrons, their electronic configurations resemble
that of their closest noble gas.

14. 2 2 6 2 6 1
Titanium (III) ion Ti
3+ 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
3+ 1s2 2 6 2 6 2
15. Vanadium ion V 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
16. 3+ 1s2 2 6 2 6 3
Chromate (III) ion Cr 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
17. 3+ 2 2 6 2 6 4
Manganate (III) Mn 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
ion
18. 2 2 6 2 6 5
Manganate (II) ion Mn
2+ 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

19. 1s2 2 6 2 6 5
Iron (III) ion Fe
3+ 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

20. 1s2 2 6 2 6 6
Cobalt ion Co
2+ 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

21. 1s2 2 6 2 6 7
Nickel ion Ni
2+ 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

22. 1s2 2 6 2 6 8
Copper (II) ion Cu
2+ 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

23. 1s2 2 6 2 6 9
Copper (I) ion Cu
+ 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

24. 1s2 2 6 2 6 10
Zinc (II) ion Zn
2+ 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

This rule states that while filling orbitals of the same sub-shell with electrons, electrons are first singly
filled before pairing occours.

This is not operational to s-orbitals as they only have one energy sub-shells. It operates in P, d, and f
orbitals with 3, 5 and 7 energy sub-shells respectively.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Magnetism is the ability of a magnetic substance to be attracted to a magnetic field. A magnetic

substance is anything that can be attracted to a magnetic field. A magnetic field is any region under the
influence of a magnetic force. There are three common types of magnetism on the basis of the nature of
the electronic configuration of the magnetic or non magnetic substances. These are:

1. Paramagnetism;
2. Diamagnetism and
3. Ferromagnetism.

PARAMAGNETISM

Paramagnetism is the attraction of an element to a magnetic field due to its possession of at least one
unpaired of electron in its electronic structure.

DIAMAGNETISM

Diamagnetic element, when placed in a magnetic field, have a magnetic moment induced in them
that opposes the direction of the magnetic field due to its possession of paired electrons.

FERROMAGNETISM
A ferromagnetic substance is one that, like iron, retains a magnetic moment even when the
external magnetic field is reduced to zero.

QUANTUM NUMBERS

Quantum numbers are numerical values that determine particulate properties of electrons in their
respective atomic shells. Common four types of quantum numbers are:

1. Principal Quantum Number (n);

2. Azimuthal/Subsidiary Quantum number (l);
3. Magnetic Quantum number (Ms);
4. Spine Quantum number (s).

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)

Principal quantum number determines the type of atomic shell that contains the electron. For
instance, the principal quantum number assigned to:

(a) K-shell is 1;
(b) L-shell is 2;
(c) M-shell is 3;
(d) N-shell is 4.

The principal quantum number can also be used to mathematically find out the maximum
2
number of electron held by a specific type of atomic shell. This is achieved by the formula, 2n .

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AZIMUTHAL/SUBSIDIARY QUANTUM NUMBER (l)

Azimuthal/Subsidiary quantum number (l) determines the specific orbital type that contains the
electron. It usually begins with zero through n-1. (l = 0…n-1) where n = principal quantum
number and l = azimuthal/subsidiary quantum number. If by this calculation, the
azimuthal/subsidiary quantum number (l) of an electron is:

(a) 0, the orbital containing the electron is s-orbital;

(b) 1, the orbital containing the electron is p-orbital;
(c) 2, the orbital containing the electron is d-orbital;
(d) 3, the orbital containing the electron is f-orbital.

MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (Ms)

Magnetic quantum number (Ms) determines the number of degenerate orbitals in each type of atomic
orbital by the result of the number of digits of numbers obtained from using the formula,
where Ms = Magnetic quantum number and l = azimuthal/subsidiary quantum number.

SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (s)

Spin quantum number (s) determines the direction of rotation of electrons around the nucleus of an
atom. The two electrons in the same degenerate orbitals move in opposite directions.One of them
moves clock wisely while the other one moves anti clock wisely. The electron that moves clock
wisely is usually
assigned the spin quantum number while the electron that moves anti-clock wisely is assigned -
. This is why the spin quantum number of the electron pair that spin in the same degenerate orbital
around the atomic nucleus is assigned the spin quantum number .This is the more reason, the
symbol of the
electrons in the orbital is half arrow ( ).Spin quantum number can also be used to determine the
maximum number of electron held
PAULI EXCLUSION’S PRINCIPLE

Pauli Exclusion‟s principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the
same value for all the four quantum numbers.

For instance, an electron at K-shell and L-shell of the same atom have different
principal quantum numbers. The principal quantum number of the one at K-shell is 1
while the principal quantum number of the one at L-shell is 2. The two electrons in the
same degenerate have the same principal quantum number as they both belong to the
same atomic shell; they also have the same azimuthal quantum number as they are both
present in the same atomic orbital; they have the same magnetic quantum number since
they are found in the same degenerate orbital but since they spin in opposite direction,
their spin quantum numbers differ.
SHAPES OF MOLECULES AND SOLIDS

Molecules of substances are either regarded as being polar or non-polar.A polar substance consists
of polar molecules.A polar molecule is the one that contains partial positive charge, which is denoted
as ( ) at one point of the molecule and a partial negative charge that is denoted as ( ) at another point.
Common examples of polar compounds are:

i) Water molecule (H2O);

ii) Ammonia, (NH3);
iii) Hydrogen fluoride, (HF)
iv) Hydrochloric acid, (HCl);
v) Trichloromethane (CCl3);
vi) Ethanol (C2H5OH);
vii) Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) etc.

Shape of hydrogen fluoride (HF) and Ammonia (NH3) showing partial charges

Polar substances are attracted by a non-polar uniform electrostatic field while non-polar substances are
not. Common examples of non-polar substances are:

i) Tetrachloromethane (CCl4);
ii) Benzene (C6H6);
iii) Toluene;
iv) Acetone;
v) Cyclohexane and other aliphatic hydrocarbon members etc.

If a burette is filled with a polar liquid like water and if the tap is open and a positively charged or
a negatively charged rod is brought near the thin jet of the polar liquid. The thin jet of polar liquid will
be deflected towards the rod but if the polar liquid is replaced with a non-polar liquid, no deflection
will be noticed.

In the molecule of hydrochloric acid, HCl, the bonding electrons will not be shared equally by the
hydrogen and chlorine atoms because the chlorine atom has a greater attraction for the electron
than hydrogen atom. This is because chlorine atom is more electronegative than hydrogen atom. In such
case, the centre of the negative charge in the hydrogen chloride molecule is closer to the chlorine atom
than to the hydrogen atom. Polarization is the unequal sharing of electron in a molecule of a
substance.A

75 EXCELLENCE WITHOUT COMPROMISE…

substance that undergoes polarization is also said to be dipolar. The separation of charges in dipolar
molecule is called a dipole.

The uneven distribution of electrons in a polar molecule is represented as an electron cloud. As the centre
of the positive charge and that of the negative charge do not coincide, a permanent electric dipole results.

An electric dipole is represented by , with the arrow pointing towards the negative end.

When polar liquid flows from a burette past a positively charged rod, the negative ends of the polar
molecules are attracted towards it. With a negatively charged rod, the positive ends of the polar
molecules are attracted.

Trichloromethane, CHCl3, is deflected by a non-uniform electrostatic field being a polar

molecule, whereas tetrachloromethane, CCl4, is not, due to its non-polar nature. This is because
Tetrachloromethane has a symmetrical distribution of similar atoms and each of its four bonds is a dipole,
C Cl .

In such a distribution, the equal dipoles cancel each other and the compound is non-polar. The structure of
trichloromethane is not symmetrical, it is polar since its dipoles never cancel each other.

SHAPES OF SIMPLE COVALENT MOLECULES

Covalent molecules are formed due to sharing of a number of electron pair between the two
participating atoms of the molecule. A single bond is formed from the overlap of two orbitals, each of
which contains a single electron.Common shapes of covalent molecules are stated in the table below:

S/N Common Shapes of Bond angle Common examples Number of Number of

covalent molecules Lone paired Shared/Bond
electron pair of
Electron in
simplest
molecular
example

1. Tetrahedral shape Methane (CH4), Nil 4

Trichloromethane,
CCl4,
Trichloromethane,
CHCl3 and other
members of Alkane
and Haloalkanes.
2. Trigonal/Pyramidal Ammonia (NH3); 1 3
shape Borontrifluoride
(BF3).
3. V-shape/angular shape Water (H2O) 2 2
4. Linear shape Carbon (IV) oxide 4 4
[CO2]; Ethyne,

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 C2H2; Oxygen
molecule, O2;
Nitrogen molecule,
N2; Hydrogen
molecule, H2;
Clorine
molecule, Cl2;
Beryliumdichloride,
BeCl2

FORMATION OF THE TETRAHEDRAL SHAPE OF METHANE [CH4]

The central atom of methane molecule is carbon, C. Carbon has the following electronic configuration at
ground state:
2 2 2
1s 2s 2p . According to Hund‟s rule of maximum multiplicity, the electronic configuration is more
correctly written as:

1s2
2s2

2px1 1 0
2py 2pz

Carbon atom has only two unpaired electrons available for bond formation in its valence shell.
However, in methane and most carbon compounds, carbon atom shows a valency of four. To achieve
this, one of the 2s electrons is “promoted” to occupy the empty orbital, creating four unpaired
electrons (one s and three p) in its valence shell.

1s2
2s1

2px1 1 1
2py 2pz

In the molecule of methane, each of the four unpaired electrons of the carbon atom forms a bond with
an electron from a hydrogen atom. Altogether, the carbon atom in methane has four bond pairs/shared
pairs of electrons in its valence shell, i.e. the octet electronic configuration is achieved.

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The C-H bonds in methane are identical although the valence electrons in the carbon atom consists of
one s and three p electrons. This is possible due to the margin together or hybridization of s and p
3
orbitals to form hybrid orbitals called sp (formed from combination of one s orbital with three p
orbitals).

The electron clouds of the four bond pairs of electrons in methane are equally negatively charged, so
they tend to repel one another to an equal extent. To minimize the repulsion, the four bond pairs
become widely spread so that the four electron pairs are directed towards the corners of a regular
trahedron. The bond angle between any two covalent bonds of a tetrahedral molecule is .

The Tetrahedtral Shape of Methane, CH4

FORMATION OF THE TRIGONAL/PYRAMIDAL SHAPE OF AMMONIA (NH3)

The central atom in a molecule of ammonia, NH3 is Nitrogen, N. The configuration of Nitrogen is
but this is more correctly illustrated according to Hund‟s rule of maximum multiplicity as
follows:

1s2
2s2

2px1 1 1
2py 2pz

Nitrogen atom has three unpaired electrons in the orbitals and one lone pair in the orbital of
its valence shell. Each of the three unpaired electrons forms a covalent bond with an electron of a
hydrogen

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atom. Altogether, the nitrogen atom in ammonia molecule has three bond pairs/shared pair of electrons
and one lone pair of in its valence shelland as such, octet rule for stability is satisfied.

Like methane molecule, the electron clouds of the four pairs of electrons are also spaced out but into
a slightly different shape called trigonal/pyramidal shape. This is because of the presence of a lone pair
of electrons in the valence shell of Nitrogen at the centre of ammonia molecule, whereas, the carbon
atom at the centre of methane molecule contains no lone pair of electrons. Lone pair of electrons has
a greater repelling effect than bond pair/Shared pair of electrons.

Due to the large repulsive force exerted by the lone pair on the three neighbouring bond pairs of electron,
the ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape, where the three hydrogen atoms occupy the

corners of the triangular base and the lone pair of electrons occupying a large space at the apex. The bond
angle between two N-H bonds is approximately .

The Trigonal pyramidal shape of Ammonia (NH3)

THE ANGULAR/”V” MOLECULAR SHAPE OF WATER (H2O)

The central atom of water molecule, H2O is Oxygen, O. Oxygen has the electronic configuration as
but this is more correctly illustrated according to Hund‟s rule of maximum multiplicity as
follows:
1s2
2
2s
2px2 1 1
2py 2pz

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The valence shell of oxygen atom has two lone pair of electrons and two unpaired electrons
( ). Each unpaired electrons forms a covalent bond with an electron from a hydrogen atom. The
water molecule has two lone pair of electrons and two bond/shared pair of electrons at
the valence/outermost shell of its central oxygen atom and thereby satisfying the octet rule for stability.

Normally, the four electron pairs should be directed towards the corners of a teterahedron as in the case
of methane. However, when one lone pair of electrons is located near another lone pair of electrons,
the repulsion between them becomes more pronounced that makes them squeeze the other two bond
pairs of electrons closer together. As a result, the bond angle between the two hydrogen atoms of
a water molecule is compressed to approximately , such that the structure of watermolecule
is V-shape/Angular shape.

H H

2 lone pairof electrons

O
H
105

H
d
egre
es

Angular/”V” shape of water molecule (H2O)

LINEAR MOLECULAR SHAPE OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE [CO2]

The central atom in the molecule of carbon (IV) oxide, (CO2) is carbon, C.The central carbon atom
forms a double covalent bond with each of the two oxygen atoms at its sides. The two lone pair of
electrons on the two oxygen atoms create a greater repulsion that results to a bond angle of between
the two

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neighbouring oxygen atoms of a carbon (IV) oxide molecule and this accounts for the linear shape of
carbon (IV) oxide.

O = C = O N N O O
Linear shape of CO2 Linear shape of N2 Linear shape of O2

H H Cl Cl
Linear shape of H2 Linear shape of Cl2
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATOM
S/N Inventor Experiment Role Discovery’simportant note 1. J.J In 1897, J.J
1. Discovery of Properties of Cathode
Thomson Thomson showed electrons which Rays
(1897) that when a he called 1. They travel in
potential difference Cathode ray; straight line and
of 5000V was 2. Measurement cast the
shadow applied across a of electron of opaque
glass tube charge to mass object placed in

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 containing a gas at ratio (Specific their paths;
a very low pressure charge) as 2. They are
of about 0.0001 composed of
atmospheres, the only negatively
tube began to glow charged
and when the particles;
potential difference 3. They are
was increased to capable of
15000V, a brighter producing
green glow mechanical
appeared on the motion;
glass. 4. They are
Thomson was able identical in
to prove that the nature and in
glow was due to ration of charge
some kind of to mass,
rays which irrespective of
travelled in straight the nature of
line from the residual gas
the cathode. in discharge
tube of metals
used in the
electrodes.

2. R.A Oil drop Measurement of the charge

Millikan experiment on the electron as
(1910) and the mass of
electron as
J.J He repeated his 1. He discovered Properties of Protons
Thomson experiment while protons which he 1. Unlike cathode
discovering called positively rays, positive rays
electrons but he charged rays. require larger
introduced a 2. Discovery of magnetic field to
perforated cathode protons charge to deflect them;
in the mass ration as 2. They are much
discharge tube and heavier than
he noticed reddish which is 1840 electrons;
glow opposite to times smaller than 3. Their masses
the green that of electrons. depend on the
glow. 3. Proposal of nature of
Thomson Atomic the residual gas in
model as a sphere the tube,
of positively; unlike electrons,
4. charged matters in e.g,
which negatively 4. Hydrogen ion
charged electrons (commonly
are embedded. [The called proton)
model was later has the
abandoned, as it lightest mass
was unable of protons;
to 5. Each proton carries
a unit of positive

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 account for the charge.
result of the work Protons are 1840 times
of Geiger heavier than the
and Marsden]. electrons.

3. Marden and Discovery of They Used positively

Geiger Rutherford atomic charged particles called
model with Alpha particles to bombard
Rutherford‟s gold foil and they noticed
suggestion. scattering of particles as
detected by a moveable
zinc sulphide screen around
the foil. Most of the alpha
particles pass through the
gold foil in a straight path
while others
bounced backward.

4. Rutherford 1. Constructi ` Rutherford’s

(1911) on of atomic Model’
Rutherford assumptions
atomic 1. Atom consists
model largely of an empty
using the space as majority of
result of the alpha particles
the work pass through the
of Geiger gold foil without
and deflection;
Marsden; 2. Alpha particles
2. Propositio which were
n of a deflected in large
nuclear angle must have
theory of collided with that
the atom part of the atom in
which which the positive
states that charge and mass of
the atom the atom were
consists of concentrated;
a positive
core called
the

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 nucleus,
where
most of the
mass of the
atom is
contained
and
electrons
move
around the
nucleus;
3. From the
angle
through
which the
alpha
particles
were
deflected,
the radius
of the
nucleus
and that of
the atom
were
calculated
by
Rutherford
as

respectively.

5. Chadwick Discovery neutron He bombarded a thin sheet Neutron has similar

(1932) of Beryllium with alpha mass as the proton but
particles lack electric charge.

Assignment
Explain the Niel Borh‟s atomic Model in 1913.

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RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of heavy nucleus the atom of a radioactive
element with the emission of radiations.
Radioactivity was first mentioned by Prof. Henry Becquerel, who observed that Uranium nucleus
emitted certain radiations which he called Alph ( ), Beta ( ) and gamma ( ) in 1896.
RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
Radioactive elements are elements whose nucleus disintegrate spontaneously with the release of
radiations. Common examples of Radioactive elements are Uranium (U), Thorium (Th), Barium
(B), Berylium (Be), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N), Helium (He), Astatine (At), Xenon
(Xe), Krypton (Kr), Iodine (I) etc.
RADIATIONS
Radiations are particles and electromagnetive rays released due to the spontaneous disintegration
of heavy nucleus the atom of a radioactive elements. Common types of radiations are:
1. Alpha ( ) particle;
2. Beta ( ) particle and
3. Gamma ( ) ray.
PROPERTIES OF ALPHA ( ) PARTICLE
1. They are Helium nucleus in nature and as such, they are denoted by .
2. They have the mass of 4 unit and charge of +2.
3. They are positively charged.
4. They are deflected towards negative plate of electrostatic field.
5. They cause the highest ionization effect as they pass through air when compared to beta
particles and gamma rays.
6. They have the least penetration power when compared with beta particles and gamma
rays.
7. They can be stopped by thin sheet of paper.
PROPERTIES OF BETA ( ) PARTICLES
1. They are electrons in nature and as such, they are denoted by
2. They have no mass number
3. They are negatively charge
4. They are deflected towards negative plate of electrostatic field.
5. They cause a greater ionization energy as they pass through air than gamma ( ) rays but
less than Alpha ( ) particles.
6. They are stopped by aluminum foil.
PROPERTIES OF GAMMA ( ) RAYS
1. They are electromagnetic waves in nature.
2. They are denoted as
3. They have no mass number
4. They have no charge.
5. They are not deflected by any plate of electrostatic field
6. They have the least ionization energy as they pass through air.
7. They have the highest penetration power.
8. They are stopped by thick lead block.

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 +ve electrostatic plate

Radioactive element

-ve electrostatic
plate Thin sheet of paper Gamma ( ) - ray
Thick lead block
Alpha ( )-particle
Thick lead block
Aluminium foil

Properties of radiations
0DETECTION OF RADIATIONS

Radiations are usually detected by the following common devices:

1. Geiger – Muller counter;

2. Scintillation counter;
3. Diffusion cloud chamber;
4. Photographic plate and
5. Dekatron.

GEIGER – MULLER COUNTER

Geiger-muller counter is based on the ionizing effect of radiations on gases. The device consists
of an ionization chamber into which two metal electrodes are sealed and also filled with a gas,
usually argon, at a very low pressure together with a little bromine vapour. A potential difference
of about 450Volts is maintained between the electrodes.

When an ionizing particles or radiations enter the chamber, some argon atoms ionize. The
electrons produced then drift towards the positive terminals while the positive ions are attracted
to the negative terminal. A small current called a pulse current is obtained for a short while.

This current is amplified and may be detected:

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 1. In form of audible chicks from a loud speaker;
2. By movement of needle of a rate meter;
3. By Readings recorded in the register of a scale.

Geiger – Muller counter is a widely used detector of radioactivity. It can also be used to measure
the intensity of radiation since the count rate is proportional to the intensity of the radiation.

SCINTILLATION COUNTER

Certain minerals such as Zinc sulphide fluoresce or glow when exposed to radiations. The glow
is made up of tiny flashes of light or scintillation and these may be seen under a microscope or
counted with suitable devices.

DIFFUSION CLOUD CHAMBER

The diffusion cloud chamber is used for detecting the actual paths followed by individual alpha
( ) and beta ( ) particles. These ionizing particles are allowed to pass through a gas which has
been super-saturated with water vapour.

The ions formed in the track of ionizing particles act like dust, serving as centres for the
condensation of the water vapour. As a result, the path of the particle is revealed as a visible
vapour trail.

The tracks persist long enough to be photographed so that a permanent record of the movement
of each alpha ( ) and beta ( ) particles through the gas is obtained.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE

When a radioactive sample is placed on a photographic plate coated with silver halide, the plate
will become darker as it absorbs radiations. The more intense the radiation, the darker the
photographic plate becomes when developed.

RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION/DECAY

This is the spontaneous breakdown of the atomic nucleus of a radioactive element with the
emission of radiations. As this occurs, the parent nucleus becomes transformed due to change in
the atomic number into the nucleus of a new element called daughter nucleus. This process is
called transmutation of atom. No physical or chemical process can affect the rate at which
disintegration of atoms occurs and proceeds.

The three common types of Radioactive decay are:

i) Alpha ( ) decay;
ii) Beta ( ) – decay and
iii) Gamma ( ) – decay.

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.
:

+ 5 +
 ;
ARTIFICIAL TRANSMUTATION

Some isotopes of elements are obtained by bombarding a given element with any of the
radiations. This is called artificial transmutation. For example, when Carbon -14 is bombarded
with a Helium particle, oxygen isotope is obtained.

Radioactive isotopes are not stable and as such, they emit the same particles to form the original
atom.

SAFETY PRECAUSIONS IN HANDLING RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

1. People working in radiology departments must wear protective wear

2. Radioactive materials must be shielded in thick lead container.

HALF LIFE OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

Half – life is the time taken by a radioactive substance to decay to half of its original size. It
varies from one substance to another.

EXAMPLE 1: The initial atom of a radioactive substance is 16g, if the half life of the substance
is 2 days, how long will it take for the substance to decay to:

i)8g?
ii)2g?
iii)0.5g?

Solution

i) After 2 days, 16g of the substance decays to 8g;

After 4 days, 8g will decay to 4g,
ii) After 6days, 4g of the substance decays to 2g
After 8 days, 2g of the substance decays to 1g
iii) After 10 days, 1g of the substance decays to 0.5g

The number of atom left after decay can be determined by the expression, where N =
initial atom present and n = number of life.

1985 JAMB

What fraction of a radioactive substance is left undecayed after 3 half - life.

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Solution

where n = 3; = = = =

Half-life is also related to decay constant as follow:

or where

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear energy is the type of energy put in or released during the disintegration of atomic nuclei
of radioactive elements resulting to the release of radiations. Nuclear energy is also called
binding energy.

BINDING ENERGY

Binding energy is the total energy required to separate protons and neutrons of an atomic nucleus
or the energy involved in combining the proton and neutron to form the atomic nucleus of the
element. There are two common types of radioactivity in which binding energy operates. These
are:

i) Nuclear fission energy and

ii) Nuclear fusion energy.

NUCLEAR FISSION

Nuclear fission is the splitting of the atomic nucleus of an element into two atoms of
approximately equal parts. An example of nuclear fission is the splitting of atomic nucleus of
Uranium to form atomic nucleus of Barium and Krypton in the presence of one unit of neutron.

+ 3

CHAIN REACTION

A chain reaction is the continuous transmutation of atomic nuclei. The chain reaction observed in
atomic bomb is due to nuclear fission. If the particle starting the nuclear fission is produced as a
product and further take part in the nuclear fission reaction, then a chain reaction of fission starts.

Chain reactions are of two types which are:

i) Controlled chain reaction and

ii) Uncontrolled chain reaction.

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NUCLEAR REACTOR

Nuclear reactor is a device producing heat from nuclear fission. Controlled nuclear fission
occurs in it to produce heat. The heat generated may be used for driving engine parts in
electricity plants and in nuclear weapons.

A nuclear reactor has the following parts:

i) Uranium atom used as fuel;

ii) Graphite rod used as a moderator;
iii) Boron coated steel rods used in controlling neutron production as it absorbs neutrons;
iv) Carbon (IV) oxide gas (CO2) used as coolant;
v) Heat exchanger used in removal of heat energy produced.

NUCLEAR FUSION

Nuclear fusion is the combination of two atomic daughter nuclei of elements or isotopes to
form heavier atomic nuclei. For example, the nucleus of one deuterium hydrogen atom can
combine with the nucleus of Tritium hydrogen atom to form helium nucleus.

Common products of nuclear fusion are:

i) Energy produced by the sun and stars;

ii) Explosion of hydrogen bomb.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION

s/n
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
1.
It involves splitting of heavy nuclei to It involves combination of two
form smaller nuclei with nearly equal smaller nuclei to form a heavy
masses. nuclei
2. It leads to chain reaction It does not lead to chain reaction
3. Energy is released Larger amount of energy is released
MASS DEFECT

Mass defect is the difference between the mass number of an atom and the lesser actual mass of
the atom. It is also known as the difference between the mass number of the product and the
reactant of a nuclear reaction.

EISTENE’S EQUATION

Albert Eisten put forward an equation called Eisten‟s equation with which Binding energy is
determined through the product of the square of velocity of light and the mass defect.

where E = energy, m = mass defect and C = velocity of light = .

Example: In a nuclear reaction, the change in mass is 2g. What is the energy obtained in the
process?

Solution

kg

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APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVITY

i) In archeology, radioisotopes like carbon-14 is used in determining ages of substances

through a process called carbon dating;
ii) Radioisotopes are used as tracers in chemical reactions;
iii) Industrially, Cobalt – 60 is used for checking faults and casting;
iv) Medically, Iodine-131 is used for treating cancer and Phosphorus -32 is used for treating
Leukemia.