Introduction

What does AC
• Energy is needed in different forms: and DC stand for?
• Light bulbs and heaters need electrical energy
• Fans and rolling miles need mechanical energy

• Electrical machines
• Motors and generators
• Operate in both modes
• AC or DC machines

http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&v=JFSTHTE5VZE&feature=endscreen
 Energy conversion process and losses
indution mahine is 96% effiient and 4% are losses

Electrical Magnetic = Core loss

Electrical power Losses Losses

Electrical Coupling field

Mechanical
System (windings) (iron and air)
Losses

Typical values for induction motors P < 100 kW Mechanical system

Type of loss Percentage of (bearings and fan)
total loss (100%)
Fixed loss or core 25
Variable loss: stator RI2 34 Mechanical power
Variable loss: rotor RI2 21
Friction & rewinding loss 15 Motoring operation mode of electrical
machines and related losses
Stray load loss 5
Outcome of this lecture

• At the end of this lecture you will be able to:

• describe different parts of a dc machine and their functions

• calculate the operation point of a dc machine at steady-state

• describe different kinds of dc machines

• describe the control methods of dc machine

• you will understand the principle of operation of a dc machine
• you will familiarize with some magnetic phenomena related to the operation of dc
machine
Basics of electromagnetic energy conversion

Conductor moving in magnetic field

Motional voltage

e < Blv

Current carrying conductor in magnetic field E = v× B

Electromagnetic force

f < Bli F = J×B

Both phenomena occur simultaneously in energy conversion process

Basic structure of electric machine
air gap has 2 funtions
1- to help in rotating the rotor freel
2- to store magneti flux.

large the air gap, larger the mahine and

hene larger will be the torue.

Why do we need
iron core ?

Cylindrical machine Salient pole machine

Uniform air gap Non-uniform air gap
• Slots with conductors
• Iron core
• Laminations

What this could be?

= fan
Cross section view of dc machine
Structure of the stator of dc machine
Structure of the rotor of dc machine

• Conductors interconnected to form windings

• Armature winding = in which voltage is induced
• Field winding = the one that produces the primary flux
• Permanent magnet can be used to produce the flux
Operation of DC Machines

• Operates as motor and generator, mainly used as motor

• Variable speed, large and small power range

• Field winding currying DC-current in stator

flux symmetrically distributed about pole axis
• Armature winding in rotor induced alternating voltage
• Mechanical Commutator and brush assembly rectify the voltage
• Armature current distribution fixed in space
• MMF of armature winding along quadratic axis

What is it?
Definition of direct and quadratic axis

q-axis
d-axis

q-axis
Magnetizing filed

d-axis

Armature field
Induced voltage

• Turn a-b
• Sides placed on diametrically opposite slots
• Terminals connected to slip rings
• Brushes provide access to revolving turn a-b

• Induced voltages on each side of the turn are in series

• Induced voltage in the turn is alternating
• Its waveform is the same as that of flux density in space

B and voltages are in phase

Commutator and Brushes- Principle

• As the turn passes the interpol region

• The turn is short-circuited
• The current in the turn is reversed
Rectification of the induced voltage

• Slip rings replaced with commutator segments

Voltage rectified

• Large number of turns in several slots connected in series through

commutator segments
Voltage with less ripple.
Windings- some definitions

Conductors conneceted turn

Turns connected coil

Connected coils

winding

Large machines have more than two poles

most conductors in region of high flux density

Windings- some definitions

• Pole pitch = distance between centers of two adjacent poles

• Coil pitch = distance between two sides of a coil
• Full-pitch coil pitch = pole pitch The electrical angle describes a two
pole machine whatever is the number
• Short-pitch coil pitch < pole pitch of poles. The electrical angle varies
between 0 and 360 deg.
short pith has lower voltage and low harmonis

• Electrical angle θe
• Mechanical angle θm
• p : number of poles

p
πe < πm
2
Lap Winding

Number of parallel paths

= number of poles
= number of brushes

• one coil between two adjacent commutator bars

• 1/p of the total coils are connected in series
• suitable for high-current low voltage
Wave Winding

• Number of parallel paths = 2

• Number of brushes positions =
2 or more
p/2 coil connected in series between
• Number of brushes increased
two adjacent commutator bars
in large machines to minimize
the current density in brushes.
Suitable for high voltage low current
Induced voltage

• The voltage induced in a turn

et < 2 B(π ) lϖ m r

• Average value of the voltage induced in a turn

Εp
et < 2 B(π ) lϖ m r < ϖm
ο
B ki value neechay se upar dali hai

• Flux per pole Φ

Ε Ε
B(π ) < <
≅ 2ο rl p p= no. of poles
Induced voltage

• Induced voltage in the armature winding

N Np
Ea < et < Ε ϖ m < KaΕ ϖ m
a οa Machine construction-
dependent constant
• N number of turns in the armature winding
• a number of parallel paths
• Z total number of conductors =2N Np Zp
• Ea independent of operation mode
Ka < Ka <
οa 2ο a

• In generator: generated voltage

• In motor back emf
Torque

• The force on a conductor

I
f c < B(π )lic < B(π )l a
a

• The torque on a conductor

Tc < f c r

• The average torque on a conductor

Ia Ε pI a
T c < B(π ) l r <
a 2ο a
Torque

• The total torque developed

NΕ p
T < 2 NT c < I a < K aΕ I a Machine construction-
οa
dependent constant
Np
Ka <
• Power balance οa

T < KaΕ I a
Ea Ia < KaΕ ϖ m I a < Tϖ m
Ea < K aΕ ϖ m

What is missing?
Magnetization

• Field mmf on d-axis

• Armature mmf on q-axis
• No coupling (see later)

Magnetic core with infinite permeability at low values of flux (ampere-turns)

2 Fp Fp
Ε< <
2R g Rg
Magnetization curve

Fp
Ε<
Rg

Increased Fp increased Ε saturation

Induced voltage proportional to flux times speed

Terminals marking
A

D C F E K I

B A-B: Armature windings

H C-D: Shunt excitation winding (for self-excitation)
E-F: Series excitation winding
I-K : Shunt excitation winding (for external excitation)
G G-H: Interpole and compensation windings in series
Classification of DC Machines
• Field and armature circuits can be connected in various ways

different performance characteristic

• Field pole can be exited by series and shunt windings

separately excited machine series machine shunt machine

compound machine
Separately Excited DC generator
• Prime mover with constant speed
• Armature connected to electrical load
• Steady-state (inductances ignored)

• Field winding Vf < Rf I f

• Armature winding Ea < Vt ∗ I a Ra

Ea < K aΕ ϖ m

• Operating point

Vt < I t RL
Plot it in the VI-plan
Vt < Ea , Ra I a
Armature Reaction
• Magnetizing filed

• Armature field

• Flux density increases in one

half of the pole and decreases
in the other half.

• Saturation reduces the flux per

pole.
Armature Reaction

• Flux per pole decreases

• The zero flux density region

moves from the q-axis
Armature Reaction

Ea < Vt ∗ I a Ra

• Armature reaction in equivalent field current

I f(eff) < I f(actual) , I f(AR)

• Terminal characteristic

Vt < Ea , Ra I a
Ea < KaΕ ϖ m
Compensating Winding

• Armature reaction

Poor commutation and sparking.

• Compensating winding fitted on the main

pole faces and connected in series with
armature winding.

Rotor mmf neutralized

• Expensive solution used only in large

machines
Interpoles or Commutator Poles

• Armature current reversal is delayed due to coil inductance

• Inter-pole is needed to compensate armature reaction.
• Used with compensating winding in large machines
Shunt Generator - Voltage Buildup

• 3 conditions are necessary for voltage buildup:

• Residual magnetism
• Field mmf aids residual magnetism
• Rf < Rfc

• Saturation results in a maximum armature voltage

• In reality voltage builds up following the magnetization curve
Shunt Generator - Characteristics
function of If
Ea < K aΕ ϖ m
Vt < I L RL I a < I f ∗ IL

Vt < I f Rf Ea , Vt
Ia <
Ra

• For a given If we get Vt and Ia

• Plot Vt vs. Ia

• If It=0, Ia= If ⇓ Vt0 ≠ Vp

• Voltage drops faster with armature current

Field current drop

Compound DC Machines
• Shunt field winding provides the major portion of the mmf in the machine
• Series winding compensates voltage drop due to RaIa and armature reaction

short-shunt long-shunt

Vt < Ea , I a Ra , I t Rsr Vt < Ea , Ia ( Ra ∗ Rsr )

Vt
It < Ia , If It < Ia , If If <
Rfw ∗ Rfc
Compound DC Machines

• Generated voltage and effective field current

Ea < Ka (Ε sh ° Ε sr )ϖm

N sr
I f(eff) < I f ° I sr , I f(AR)
Nf

• differential compound machine has almost constant current

Shunt Motor

• The field circuit is independent of the armature circuit because both

circuits are fed from voltage source

Vt < I a Ra ∗ Ea

It < Ia ∗ If

Ea < KaΕ ϖm < Vt , Ia Ra

• Armature current and speed depend on the mechanical load

Power Flow and Efficiency

• Efficiency

Poutput
γ<
Pinput

• Core losses are included in the rotational losses

Separately Excited DC Motor
Torque – Speed Characteristics
Ea < KaΕ ϖm < Vt , Ia Ra

T < KaΕ Ia

Vt , Ia Ra Vt Ra
ϖm < < , 2
T
KaΕ KaΕ (K aΕ )

• Constant flux and voltage

Good speed regulation Speed control by:
• Armature voltage control
• Armature reaction decreases the • Field control
flux Less speed drop • Armature resistance control
Armature Voltage Control

• rated field current and constant Ra ϖ m < K1Vt , K 2T

Constant torque Constant voltage

• In actual applications Ia is kept constant (needs closed-loop operation)

T < KaΕ Ia Constant torque
 Field Control
• Ra and Vt constant
• If variable (rheostat Rfc)
• Magnetic linearity assumed

KaΕ < K f I f
Vt Ra
ϖm < , 2
T
K f I f (K f I f )

• No-load speed

Vt
ϖm ≡
Kf I f
Field control
• Constant flux
• Less expensive
• Slow
ϖm < K 3 , K 4T • Speed response sluggish
Armature Resistance Control

• Vt and If constant
• Ra = Ra + Rae variable

Vt Ra ∗ Rae
ϖm < , 2
T
KaΕ (K aΕ )

ϖm < K5 , K6T

• Method used still in transit system vehicles

• Low efficiency
• Expensive resistance needed to carry Ia
 Series Motor
• Magnetic linearity

KaΕ < Ksr I a

Ea < Ksr I aϖ m

T < K sr I a2
Ea < Vt , Ia ( Ra ∗ Rae ∗ Rsr ) Vt R ∗ Rsr ∗ Rea
ϖm < , a
Ksr T Ksr

• Large starting torque

• Subway car, automobile starter, hoist, crane, blender
• Speed control over a wide range
 Starter

• Back emf is zero at start

Vt , Ea
Ia <
Ra
Vt
Ia start
<
Ra

• Variable external resistance is used to reduce the starting current

Vt , Ea
Ia <
Ra ∗ Rae
• At normal operation the electromagnet holds the handle and the external resistance is zero
• The angular speed is adjusted by means of the armature voltage ua.
• Further speed increase can be achieved through field current control.
• The maximum speed is defined by mechanical considerations.