ASIAN LITERATURE
ASIAN LITERATURE
It refers to the study of the literature of the people in:
1. China
2. India
3. Japan
4. Other small nations surround them
CHINA
Chinese civilization is the oldest civilizations in the world that dates back to
the Shang Dynasty in 1765 B.C.
It is known as “The Red Dragon”.
The Chou Dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty of great intellectual
activity and was in this period when the philosophies of the Confucianism,
Taoism and legalism originated.
It is the longest dynasty in Chinese history which lasted from 1122 B.C. To
256 B.C.
The Han Dynasty which succeeded after the collapse of the Chou
strengthened the unity within the bureaucracy but Confucianism was
substituted for Legalism.
THE FIVE CLASSICS
1. THE BOOK OF CHANGES
2. THE BOOK OF HISTORY
3. THE BOOK OF RITES
4. THE BOOK OF ODES
5. THE SPRING AND AUTUMN ANNALS
Confucius- perhaps the greatest philosopher of the world has known.
One of the truly great men that China has produced.
The word Confucius is the westernized form of his name, which is Kung Fu-
tze, Kung being his proper name, Fu signifying revered, and tze signifying
teacher.
Li Po (701 – 761), or Li tai Po, was one of the leading Chinese poets of the
eighth century. His writings deal with the good things of life and with the
pathos of human destiny. With a striking vividness they treat of love,
friendship, wine, nature, and simple village living.
Po – Chu – I (722 – 846) was a well-known Chinese poet who represented
the classical tradition in Chinese literature, politics and morality.
INDIAN LITERATURE
India is the vast land in Southern Asia, extending from the Himalayan
Mountains south to the tip of a great peninsula that reaches from out into
the Indian Ocean.
It is known as “Land of prayer”.
-The first characteristic we notice about Indian literature is that it is based on
piety, a deeply religious spirit.
Dravidians- earliest people in India dating back to 3000 – 2500 B.C. Towards
2000 B.C.
Sanskrit- literature of India. The word “sanskrit” means cultivated or
perfected.
Vedas – the bible of the Indians.
Ramayana and Mahabharata are the most important epics of India.
Ramayana – is about the reincarnation of the creator god Vishnu in the
person of Rama, who is the hero of the epic.
Mahabharata – deals with the other reincarnation of Vishnu in the person of
Krishna. It is considered as the greatest epic of India.
The Indians believe in reincarnation.
The reincarnation of Vishnu are called Avatars, descending from the god.
Roots of Indian Literature
1. Rig-Veda – made up of hymns in praise of the gods. The hymns are strong,
energetic religions expressions comparable to the Old Testament Psalms.
2. Upanishads- consists of a group of sketches, illustrations, explanations and
critical comments on the religious thoughts suggested by the poetic hymns of
Rig-Veda.
INDIAN DRAMA
The first great name in Indian drama is Bhasa. (13 plays are attributed to
him.)
Kalidasa – the greatest writer of plays. He is the author of Shakuntala.
- he is called the brightest of the “nine gems of genius”.
Shakuntala – it is a story of a king who goes hunting in the woods and meets
a beautiful maiden named Shakuntala with whom he falls in love.
Panchatantra (Five headings) – a book that said to contain the first fables
ever written. Fables are stories of animals who behave like human beings.
Rabindranath Tagore – was a great Indian poet and dramatist. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913 and was knighted by the
british government in 1915.
Japan
Also known as “The Land of the Rising Sun”.
The earliest writings from ancient Japan are:
1. The Records of Ancient Matters in Kojiko (A.D. 712)
2. The Chronicles of Japan or Nihongi (A.D. 720)
Japanese Literature
It is one of the major Oriental Literatures.
Katakana – basic alphabet in Japan which consists 47 characters.
Earliest Japanese Literary works:
1. Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters)
2. Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan)
JAPANESE DRAMA
Drama – favorite form of amusement.
Three Types of Japanese Drama:
1. Noh play
2. Joruri or puppet play
3. Kabuki play
Noh play
It is the national theatre of Japan.
The Puppet play (Doll theater)
The puppets are beautifully made and lifelike in size. The strings are expertly
manipulated and the dialogue reastically interpreted.
Kabuki play
The play of the masses. It is less intellectual, more realistic, even sensational.
Japanese Poetry
Manyo Shu (Collection of myriad leaves) – oldest collection of poetry. It was
compiled in 800 A.D. The collection titled One Hundred Persons was compiled
much later.
Haiku
Shortest form of Japanese poetry but most popular. It has seventeen-
syllable poem in three lines of five, seven, and five syllables.
Example:
Poetry and love
will fill your heart forever,
or rip it to shreds!
Tanka
A five-line poem. The first and third line lines have five syllables each and the
others seven, making a total of thirty-one syllables per poem.
Example:
O pine tree standing
At the side of the stone house,
When I look at you,
It is like seeing face to face
The men of old time.
- Hakutsu, from the Manyo Shu
21st Century writers
1. HARUKI MURAKAMI
2. KIM YOUNG HA
3. ETGAR KERET
4. MONG LAN
5. OUYANG JIANGHE
6. VINDA KARANDIKAR
7. ALI AHMAD SAID ESBER
AFRO-ASIAN
Literary of the African Literature The most notable literary selections are
those that capture the life and struggle of the African people. There have
been significant struggles that could have been left untouched, but writers
choose to face courageous task of answering the call of pen, and begin the
process of social healing through literature. Perhaps, it is this brilliant
characteristic of African literature that enables it to shine and fulfill one
universal function of literature.
The literary tradition of Africa became richer than ever as it gained artistic
and sophisticated expression in different languages. Traditional languages
became vehicles of cultural thoughts. Poetry, drama, novel, and short story
flourished as the literary genres. The people’s struggle to cope with – or
oppose – the changing atmosphere of their homelands was dramatically
recorder in what is known as African literature.
Literature represents the breadth and depth of universal experiences of
man. The texts for the study of African literature shed light on controversial
issues such as racial discrimination, apartheid, political conflicts, civil wars,
feminism and gender sensitivity, and human rights issues. These have given
the selections the flavor of relevance and universality, which are
outstanding themes of a meaningful literary study
NEGRITUDE “A sudden grasp of racial identity and of cultural values and an
awareness of the wide discrepancies which existed between the promise of
the French system of assimilation and the reality.”
Negritude arose in the 1930s among black intellectuals from French colonies
in Paris, sparked by a recognition of racial identity and cultural values, as
well as a realization of the gap between the promise of French assimilation
and its reality. This movement coincided with an explosion of African writing
in European languages, although African authors had been writing in
Portuguese since 1850 and some works had been published in English and
French prior to this period.
The Negritude movement aimed to revive African values erased by French
cultural dominance. Negritude writers, like Senghor and Cesaire, expressed
these values in French poetry, highlighting the equality of African traditions
with European culture. Presence Africaine, founded by Alioune Diop in 1947,
promoted African originality and integration into the modern world.
Literary Forms
ORAL LITERATURE
Oral literature, also called as “orature,” have flourished in Africa for many
centuries and take a variety of forms including folk tales, myths, epics,
funeral dirges, praise poems, and proverbs.
Myths usually explain the interrelationships of all things that exist, and
provide for the group and its members a necessary sense of their place in
relation to their environment and the forces that order events on earth
Epics are elaborate literary forms, usually performed only by experts on
special occasions. They often recount the heroic exploits of ancestors
FUNERAL DIRGES
Dirges, chanted during funeral ceremonies, lament the departed, praise
his/her memory, and ask for his/her protection.
PRAISE POEMS
Praise poems are epithets called out in reference to an object (a person, a
town, an animal, a disease, and so on) in celebration of its outstanding
qualities and achievements
Proverbs are short, witty or ironic statements, metaphorical in its
formulation which aim to communicate a response to a particular situation,
to offer advice, or to be persuasive.
PRAISE POEMS Praise poems serve various purposes. Professional groups
craft exclusive poems for themselves. Chiefs may appoint performers to
compile and recite praise poems at special events. Performers may also
travel to perform for families or individuals for alms or a small fee.
PROVERBS The proverb serves as a rhetorical device, showcasing the
speaker's cultural knowledge or authority. While rooted in African culture, it
also creates and reaffirms that culture whenever spoken, helping to
navigate immediate problems and situations.
WRITTEN LITERATURE
Discussions about African literatures highlight several complex issues. One
major concern is the limited readership within Africa due to high illiteracy
rates, with over 50% of the population unable to access written works.
Additionally, the scarcity and cost of books, along with a lack of publishing
houses, worsen the situation. However, some African countries like Ghana
and Zimbabwe have established publishing houses that have produced
notable works by African authors, often written in African languages, despite
these challenges.
Scholars have identified three waves of literacy in Africa.
1.Ethiopia where written works have been discovered that appeared before
the earliest literatures in the Celtic and Germanic languages of Western
Europe.
2.Africa with the spread of Islam. Soon after the emergence of Islam in the
seventh century, its believers established themselves in North Africa
through a series of jihads, or holy wars. In the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, Islam was carried into the kingdom of Ghana. The religion
continued to move eastward through the nineteenth century
3.Europe through trade relationships, missionary activities, and colonialism
propelled the third wave of literacy in Africa. During the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries, literary endeavors in British colonies primarily occurred
in vernacular languages. Missionaries prioritized translating the Bible into
local languages over teaching English to a large African populace.
Consequently, African languages saw the production of hymns, morality
tales, and other literature aimed at promoting Christian values. The earliest
examples of such "Christian-inspired African writings" surfaced in South
Africa.
The written works of the 1950s and 60s, including novels, plays, and poems,
are often termed as literatures of testimony. African authors writing in
European languages during this period are labeled as producing literatures
of revolt. Unlike earlier works focused on recovering and reconstructing
African history, these texts prioritize responding to and resisting colonialism
and corruption. They center on the contemporary African experience,
frequently portraying the past in a negative light.
FAMOUS LITERARY WORKS
POETRY
• Paris in the Snow swings between assimilation of French, European culture
or negritude; intensified by the poet’s catholic piety.
• Totem by Leopold Senghor shows the eternal linkage of the living with the
dead.
• Letters to Martha by Dennis Brutus is the poet’s most famous collection
that speaks of the humiliation, the despondency, the indignity of prison life.
• Train Journey by Dennis Brutus reflects the poet’s social commitment as
he reacts to poverty around him amidst material progress especially and
acutely felt by the innocent victims, the children.
• Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka is the poet’s most anthologized
poem that reflects Negritude. The poetic dialogue reveals the landlady’s
deep-rooted prejudice against the colored people as the caller plays up on
it.
• Africa by David Diop is a poem that achieves its impact by a series of
climactic sentences and rhetorical questions.
• Song of Lawino by Okot P’Bitek is a sequence of poem about the clash
between African and Western values and is regarded as the first important
poem in “English to emerge from Eastern Africa.” Lawino’s song is a pleas
for the Ugandans to look back to traditional village life and recapture African
values.
NOVELS
The Houseboy
"The Houseboy" by Ferdinand Oyono follows Toundi's disillusionment as he
leaves his parents' mistreatment to serve a foreign missionary. After the
priest's death, he becomes an assistant to a white plantation owner and
discovers the owner's wife's affair. Toundi is later murdered in the woods,
symbolizing disenchantment and coming of age. The novel, structured as a
recit, portrays Cameroonians' despair over white corruption and immorality
Things Fall
"Things Fall Apart" by Chinua Achebe vividly portrays pre-colonial Africa,
lamenting the disintegration of Nigerian society following British
colonization. The story follows Okonkwo, a once-respected chieftain who
loses his status and falls from grace with the arrival of the colonizers.
Cultural values are central to the narrative, including polygamy, tribal law
upheld by respected elders, social status based on esteem and possessions
like yam fields, and community life depicted through drinking, funerals, and
festivals.
No Longer at Ease
"No Longer at Ease" by Chinua Achebe serves as a sequel to "Things Fall
Apart." The protagonist, Okonkwo's son, returns as a hero but struggles to
navigate societal pressures and expectations. Despite winning a scholarship
to study literature in London, he faces pressure to conform to Umuofian
standards, including dressing well, owning a car, maintaining social status,
and avoiding marriage to an outcast. Ultimately, he succumbs to temptation
and corruption, accepting bribes and losing his sense of ease and integrity.
The Poor Christ of Bombay
"The River Between" by Ngugi wa Thiong'o explores the clash of traditional
and contemporary values, symbolized by the Honia River. Muthoni, torn
between Christianity and tradition, tragically dies, while Waiyaki promotes
unity over vengeance. Ngugi highlights the coexistence of religion and
lifestyle, emphasizing education's role in enlightening individuals about
socio-political responsibilities.
The River Between
"The River Between" by Ngugi wa Thiong'o depicts the clash of traditional
and contemporary values, symbolized by the Honia River representing tribal
and Christian unity. The protagonist, Muthoni, torn between Christianity and
tradition, tragically dies. However, Waiyaki, the teacher, advocates for unity
rather than vengeance against Joshua, the rival leader. Ngugi emphasizes
the coexistence of religion and lifestyle, underscoring education's role in
enlightening individuals about socio-political responsibilities.
Heirs to the Past
"Heirs to the Past" by Driss Chraibi follows anti-hero Driss Ferdi returning to
Morocco for his father's funeral after 16 years. The legacy left by his father,
revealed through a tape recorder, exposes family dynamics and
psychological complexities. Driss finds his brothers, Jaad and Nagib,
burdened by irresponsibility, while his mother longs for freedom. Driss
ultimately feels alienated from his people, religion, and civilization upon
returning to Europe.
A Few Days and Few Nights
"A Few Days and Few Nights" by Mbella Sonne Dipoko explores racial
prejudice as a Cameroonian scholar in France faces a dilemma between a
Swedish girl and a Parisian woman. Tragedy ensues when the Parisian's
father opposes their union, leading to their daughter's suicide. Doumbe, the
Cameroonian, prioritizes the future of his child with the Swedish girl,
reflecting racial pride and attachment to their homeland through his
analogy of Africans as turtles.
The Interpreters
The Interpreters by Wole Soyinka is about a group of young intellectuals
who function as asrtists in their talks with one another as they try to place
themselves in the context of the world about them.
Leopold Sedar Senghor
The individual described is Leopold Sedar Senghor, a poet, statesman, and
co-founder of the Negritude movement. He studied in Paris on a scholarship,
taught in the French school system, and became president of Senegal in
1960. Senghor wrote significant works like "Songs of Shadows" and "Black
Offerings" and edited an anthology of French-language works by black
Africans, cementing his role as Negritude's foremost spokesman.
Okot P’Bitek
He was born in Ugand during the British domination and was embodied in
contrast of cultues. He attended English-speaking school, but never lost
touch with traditional African values and used his wide array of talents to
pursue his interests in both African and Western cultures. Among his works
are: Song of Lawino, Song of Ocol, African Religions and Western
Scholarship, Religion of the Central Luo, Horn of My Love. (1930 – 1982)
Wole Soyinka
he individual described is Wole Soyinka, a Nigerian playwright, poet,
novelist, and critic. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986, the first
black African to do so. Soyinka's works portray modern West Africa with
satire and a tragic sense of human challenges. He has taught literature and
drama at Nigerian universities and is acclaimed for plays like "A Dance of
the Forests," novels such as "The Interpreters" and "Season of Anomy," and
poems like "Idanre and Other Poems.
Chinua Achebe
The individual described is Chinua Achebe, a renowned Igbo novelist
acclaimed for his realistic depictions of the clash between Western and
traditional African values. His notable works include "Things Fall Apart,"
"Arrow of God," "No Longer at Ease," "A Man of the People," and "Anthills of
the Savanna."
Barbara Kimenye
She wrote twelve books on children’s stories known as the Moses Series,
which are now a standard reading fare for African school children. She also
worked for many years for His Highness the Kabaka of Uganda, in the
Ministry of Education and later served as Kabaka’s librarian. She was a
journalist of the Uganda Nation and later a columnist for A Nairobi
newspaper. Among her works are: Kalasanda Revisited, The Smugglers, The
Money Game. (1940)
Bessie Head
She described the contradictions and shortcomings of pre- and postcolonial
African society in morally didactic novels and stories. She suffered rejection
and alienation from an early age being born of an illegal union between her
white mother and black father. Among her works are: When Rain Clouds
Gather, A Question of Power, The Collector of Treasures, Serowe. (1937 –
1986)
Nadine Gordimer
She is a South African novelist and short story writer whose major themes
was exile and alienation. She received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991.
Gordimer was writing by age 9 and published her first story in magazine at
15. Her works exhibit a clear, controlled, and unsentimental technique that
became her hallmark. She examines how public events affect individual
lives, how the dreams of one’s youth are corrupted, and how innocence is
lost. Amore her works are: The Soft Voice of the Serpent, Burger’s Daughter,
July’s People, A Sport of Nature, My Son’s Story, The Ultimate Safari. (1923)
