Renaissance: Humanism,

UNIT 9 REFORMATION Ideas and Science

Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Origin of the Reformation
9.3 The Social Background
9.4 Reformation in Germany
9.5 Martin Luther and Protestant Reformation
9.6 Luther and Peasant War
9.6.1 Luther’s Religion
9.7 Huldreych or Ulrich Zwingli
9.8 The Anabaptists
9.9 The Reformation in France
9.10 John Calvin
9.10.1 The Spread of Calvinism
9.11 The Reformation in England
9.12 Impact
9.12.1 Political
9.12.2 Social
9.12.3 Economic
9.13 Let Us Sum Up
9.14 Key Words
9.15 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
9.16 Suggested Readings

9.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
understand the concept of Reformation and its historical origins;
understand the social background of Reformation;
understand the spread of Reformation; and
understand the impact of Reformation in the social,political and economic
spheres.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The Reformation can be regarded as a milestone in the history of Europe. It was
not merely an event in the history of the Church that is the fragmentation of the
western Catholic Church or the emergence of Protestant theology. Rather, it
brought revolutionary changes in the social and political climate of the 16th and
17th century Europe.

Definition: The reformation in the conventional sense implies the schism or

break with in the Roman Catholic Church that functioned under the Pope in

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The Rise of the Modern West Europe for centuries and the only one part of Reformation. It led to the creation
of several radical and moderate folds within Christianity such as Lutherans,
Calvinists, Puritans, Anabaptists, Anglicans, etc.

Prelude : The Christian Church was effectively unified till the mid- eleventh
century. However, western and central Europe came under the control of the
Pope while the Byzantine church emerged under the influence of the Patriarch of
Constantinople. There were bitter conflicts between the two heads on the question
of supremacy and church incomes. In AD 1054 a split in the Christian Church
occurred. Since then the Western Church came to be called Catholic (means
universal) and the church in the Byzantine Empire came to be known as the
Orthodox Church.

The Catholic Church was a strong bond which provided religious uniformity to
the numerous feudal units. In the absence of political unity, the church helped in
stabilization of social relations. The popes interfered in the internal, political
and financial matters of the rulers. In a way the Catholic Church provided unity
to European Feudalism. The weakening of the feudal structure from the late
medieval period was bound to have repercussion on the church as well.

9.2 ORIGIN OF THE REFORMATION

The Catholic Church in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries faced institutional
problems because of the failure of the papal authority to provide spiritual
leadership. Contemporary writings unquestionably indicate a state of increasing
ecclesiastical corruption and inefficiency. The church leaders showed their
inability to satisfy the people’s longing for personal piety.

The economic changes and feudal crisis had led to the financial burden of the
Catholic Church. It was one of the important factors leading to the mounting
criticism of papal authority. The papacy had developed its own extensive
bureaucratic structure and fiscal system. The Pope received various types of
subscription from officials of the far flung churches. These include Tenths (one
tenth part of the income was to be sent to Pope), First Fruits (offering connected
with the beginning of the harvest), etc. The most controversial of all the
subscriptions was the Sale of Indulgence (cards of pardon from a grave sin on
huge payment to the church).

The economic problems of the church led to an increasing separation between

the upper and the lower clergies. The higher official who came from nobility like
cardinals, bishops, etc. accumulated huge wealth, while the lower clergies
remained poor and came from commoners.

9.3 THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND

The medieval world was close society dominated by feudalism and the Catholic
Church and its priesthood. The church was a focal point of life and touched
every aspect of people’s life from birth till death. The late middle Ages witnessed
significant developments which prepared the ground for the reformers. It is argued
that a decline in population was a fall in the agrarian produce as well as
manufacture. This hastened the transmutation of the feudal fabric society.

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Landowners too were seriously affected by the fall in their revenues owing to Reformation
the declining rentals. In western Germany, especially economic factors made the
nobles more dependent on the territorial princes of Germany, whose authority
was steadily increasing.

Artisans and peasants were particularly affected by the low wages and high prices.
These acute economic distress, disorientation and resentment found expression
in the rational appeals of Martin Luther and Calvin.

Marx and Engles described the period of Reformation as having witnessed a

social transformation that is the rise of the bourgeoisie. Reformation reflects the
rise of an educated elite of laymen who were ready and eager to take over the
spiritual and administrative functions of discredited clergy.

The most important theological change was the reduction of the role of the
sacraments in salvation which reduced the authority and prestige of the clergy
and increased the independence and self confidence of the people. The reduction
in the powers of the Holy Roman Emperor weakened the papal estates.

The Reformation, though due to religious factors, was made possible by the
secular requirements of the times. Among the non-religious element leading to
Reformation was the Renaissance which resulted in a critical approach to the
authority. The impact of the humanists’ movement upon the Protestant
Reformation has been a subject of historical debate.

The Reformation was seen as the logical and inevitable consequence of the rise
of humanism. By accepting the Renaissance, the papacy brought about its own
end as it led to increase in the intellectual activity with severe criticism. The
ideas of Renaissance accelerated the Reformation. Italian Humanism implicitly
rejected the monastic virtues of renunciation and fostered secular attitudes.

Thus, the Reformation arose, as Alister McGrath points out, from a complex
heterogeneous matrix of social and ideological factors. The rise of nationalism,
the growing political power of the south German states and the Swiss cities, the
emergence of individual personalities, intellectual movements and theological
awareness at the time of growing crises in the church gave way to the Reformation
movement, though it varied from one region to another.

9.4 REFORMATION IN GERMANY

The politics and socio economic conditions of Germany were conducive to the
emergence and spread of Protestant Reformation. Max Stienmetz suggests that
Germany’s economic position was characterized by an upturn in commercial
production yet feudalism in the countryside remained strong. The clergy often
played the role of landlord fuelling a spirit of revolt among the peasants, and the
Catholic Church still owned a substantial portion of land in Germany. A strong
feeling began to develop against church exploitation by the late-fifteenth century.
Hence, anti-papalism and anti-clericalism became the two main characteristics
of German region.

Martin Luther listed Papal and clerical abuses in his famous reforming treatise
of 1520 – An Appeal to the German Nobility. The rise of humanism emphasized
the idea of individual consciousness and human individuality, which raised new
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The Rise of the Modern West interest in the doctrine of justification-how human beings could enter into a
relationship with God. He achieved practical success because of his moderate
approach and the popular resentment against the prevalent practice of “Sale of
Indulgence”. Indulgence began as a gift of money or donation as an expression
of thanks for forgiveness. Initially Indulgence meant relaxation of the punishment
imposed by the church for a moral sin. Later it became a remission of punishment
in purgatory by God and not the church alone. Thus God’s grace was commercially
sold through Pope’s agents via Albrecht of Brandenburg and the banking house
of Fuggers.

9.5 MARTIN LUTHER AND PROTESTANT

REFORMATION
Martin Luther (1438-1546) was from peasant background. He showed strong
religious inclination and in 1505 he decided to become a monk. He was a professor
of Theology at the University of Wittenberg. Lutheran Reformation had to begin
with simple question — ‘What must be done to seek the forgiveness of God.’

In 1517, Martin Luther nailed his Ninety Five Thesis on the church door in
Wittenburg and directly challenged the sale of indulgence. His actions
immediately attracted the attention of all Europe. Engels described Luther’s revolt
against the Roman Catholic Church as ‘Luther’s lightning struck home’.

In the thesis he presented three points: 1) The concerned was the financial abuses,
2) Focus on the attention on doctrinal abuses and 3) Attacked religious issues.

In summer of the year 1520, Luther published his “Three Treaties”. In this, 1)
The address to the Christian nobility of the German nation in which German
provinces were called upon to reform the church. Here, he explained the
Reformation Doctrine “Priesthood of All Believers”, the assertion that all
Christians have an equal calling in the church. 2) Luther questioned the
sacramental system of the church and declared that instead of seven, there has
only three sacraments i.e Baptism, Marriage and Ucharism.. 3) The most drastic
change was that Luther denied the involvement of church and priest in granting
liberation to Christian Man. He developed religious and ethical implication of
doctrine of ‘justification by Faith’

When the Pope issued a bull (a Roman Catholic Church proclamation) of

excommunication, Luther publicly burned it. In 1521, the Holy Roman Emperor
asked Luther to appear before the Diet (parliament) at Worms to face trail. Luther
refused to recant his position and thus was outlawed by the highest authority in
Germany. He remained under a sentence of death throughout his life but was
shielded and supported by the Elector of Saxony- Frederick, who personally did
not like Papal interference in an academic centre. While in hiding Luther translated
the New Testament from Greek text of Erasmus to German language. The
supporters of his views came to be called the Lutherans or Protestant.
Check Your Progress 1
1) What do you understand by the term ‘Reformation’?
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2) Discuss the unfolding of Reformation in Germany.

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9.6 LUTHER AND PEASANT WAR

Luther confrontation with the Papal Church inspired the German peasants to
open rebellion in 1525. The Peasant war was not a coordinated rebellion and had
several leaders; Thomas Munzer successfully led the movement for a brief period.
He organized the struggle against the feudal lords and church exploitation. Their
“Twelve Articles” a programme for action, was quite moderate and did not seek
to destroy the feudal system completely.

Marxist writings suggest that the peasant war was an expression of socio-
economic conflict and formed an early phase of bourgeois revolution, while the
Reformation was its ideological expression. Steinmetz argues that it was a national
movement precipitated by Martin Luther, bringing all the classes (except the
ecclesiastical) under the leadership of the middling bourgeoisie against the Papal
church. Peter Blickle on the other hand, suggests that the Peasant War was an
attempt to overcome the crisis of feudalism through a revolutionary reshaping of
social and seigniorial relation.

Though, the peasants war was inspired by Luther’s brave confrontation with
Papal power, Luther did not want to lose the support of the nobility who were
threatened by the peasants and so he vehemently attacked the rebellious peasants.
Luther’s theory of political authority developed against the background of
peasants’ war. Luther condemned all forms of rebellion as means of settling
grievances. He argued that a true Christian should suffer the wrong and endure
evil rather than flight the authority of the king. Hence Luther’s views were
supported by a large section of the ruling class.

9.6.1 Luther’s Religion

Luther’s reformation began on the question of what an individual must do in
order to be saved. From this developed his doctrine of justification by faith.
Luther believed that the church had misunderstood the gospel and the true essence
of Christianity by adopting practices such as the sale of indulgence.

Luther’s religion was given an organizational structure and a definite shape by

his fellow Professor Melanchthon. He helped Luther prepare three Tracts and
establish a new sect of Christians. This new group of Christians called Lutherans
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The Rise of the Modern West believed in the supremacy of faith which destroyed the exclusive position of
priests along with their mystical functions. Luther declared that each Christian
was to be his own priest. For Luther the external order of the church was of
secondary importance. Liberty was an inward faith and not an outward social
and political freedom. He abolished the hierarchy of church officials from popes
down to priests.

The Lutheran movement brought about a sharp division within the Christian
church and destroyed papal supremacy. The general popularity of Lutheranism
was displayed by the way in which the people accepted it as a kind of doctrine
with ethical issues and which also suggested economic reforms which affected
the papacy and changed economic system of the country.

Thus, we can say that Reformation in Germany was not a really a single great
development but rather consisted of a number of separate localized Reformation.
Each of which was organized by the city council or Prince who looked after
different religious doctrine and tried to promote it.

9.7 HULDREYCH OR ULRICH ZWINGLI

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) was a contemporary of Luther who carried out
religious reforms in the Swiss confederation of the Zurich. Zwingli’s reformation
was based on humanist’s views. He presented new views in course of his
preaching. His actual reformation started in 1520 and was completed within five
years.

The Swiss Reformation under Zwingli stressed upon the corporate nature of the
church. It believed that clergy and laymen formed a ‘holy community’. The
Reformation in Zurich had a great social impact. The monasteries were abolished
and monastic charity became a communal concern. The church and moral
discipline was to be jointly supervised by the church and the state. Together they
were to form the ‘holy Community’.

There were some similarities between the Lutheran and Zwingli’s Reformation.
Both rejected the medieval sacraments and emphasized the God. Both of them
retained traditional practices of infant Baptism but for different reasons.

9.8 THE ANABAPTISTS

The Anabaptists rejected the doctrine of infant baptism and believed that the true
Christian is one who was re-baptized as an adult. They believed in the doctrine
of justification by faith and contended that only those who firmly believed in
God could become members of the true church and excluded all others.

As infant baptism was considered a sacrament both by the Protestants and the
Catholics, the arguments of the Anabaptists posed a threat to their doctrine.
Moreover, the Anabaptists refused to recognize or participate in civil government,
take oaths of allegiance or serve in the army and refused to pay taxes in the
government. They argued that true Christians should never use sword or go to
law courts or perform magisterial functions. These groups reflected the aspirations
of the poor people and wanted social reforms of all the institutions in preparation
for Christ second coming.
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Wherever the Anabaptists settled, the local rulers persecuted them; Protestants Reformation
drowned them in water and ordered them to be stoned to death while the Catholics
burned them alive. Their principal leaders like Balthasar Hubmaier and Jacob
Hutterhad converted some nobles to their faith, but in the end they face torture
and death. But their tradition of democratic thought and economic equality
remained.

9.9 THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE

The situation in France with respect to Reformation was similar to Germany.
Although decentralization of government was not so great and strong. The ground
was better prepared for the reform of the church in France than in Germany
because of the efforts of liberal Catholics. Luther’s ideas were soon imported
and widely read. The strongest opposition came from the Parliament of Paris.
Fransish I subordinated his religious policy at home to the needs of his foreign
policy. In 1560s, Fransish I of France concluded the Concordat of Bolognes with
Pope Leo X by which the crown was given virtual controlled of the French clerical
appointments.

In France, Reformation movement was a very much inspired by Calvin and his
philosophy.

9.10 JOHN CALVIN

John Calvin (1509-64) of France was from the second generation of reformers.
He is regarded as the most influential reformer because of his powerful impact
on different parts of Europe. Calvin was highly learned and possessed a logical
brain. Many of his views derived from the Bible but he was also influenced by
St. Augustine. Calvin was forced to leave France because of the religious
prosecution carried out by the rulers.

Calvin was influenced by Erasmus and other humanists of his time. He shared
with Luther the belief in salvation by faith alone and supported the doctrine of
direct communication of man with God. His emphasis on the absolute sovereignty
of God gave a unique character to his teachings.

Like Luther, he also retained only two sacraments— Baptism and the Eucharist.
Calvin’s first edition of Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) became the
most influential work of Protestant theology and reflected his sharp intellect and
legal mind. The doctrine of predestination constituted the most important element
of Calvin’s social thought. His social thought also believed to have indirectly
promoted commercial activity.

9.10.1 The Spread of Calvinism

The type of Protestantism which was the basis for the modern congressional and
reformed churches was Calvinism. Calvinism was established after the death of
Zwingli. The leadership of the new Swiss Protestantism was provided by a
Frenchman John Calvin (1509-34).The ethics of Calvinists were dynamic and
social. Luther’ ideology was more successful in Northern Germany and
Scandinavia because it suited the rulers of these areas. But the Calvinism took
roots in the states where it opposed vigorously the existing political and religious
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The Rise of the Modern West establishments. Calvinism was the official religion of Northern Netherlands and
the German states. It directly influenced the society and the development of
finance, industry and commerce. The economic significance of Calvinism has
been the cause of prolonged controversy. Calvinist political thought reinforced
the middle class attempt to throw off the control of the French monarchy and
break the power of the Catholic and aristocratic ministries in Scotland.
Hence Calvinism won adherents from the nobility and it was the support it
received from noble families. The Huguenots as French Calvinist were called
were particularly strong in courts and parliaments.

9.11 REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

When Reformation movement had already taken its root in Germany and France,
England also witnessed its reformation. The beginning was political rather than
religious. It is an irony that the English Reformation was initiated by the same
ruler – Henry VIII (1509-47), who was a strong critic of Martin Luther’s reforms.
Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife Catherine who was a Spanish princess but
the Pope could not grant it because divorce was not allowed in Catholic Church
and also due to the fact that the troops of the Spanish Emperor were in control of
the city of Rome and the Pope could not go against him. Henry became desperate
after waiting for three years, and decided to take matters into his own hand.
Through a subservient Parliament (also called the Reformation Parliament 1529-
34), he severed all relation with the Pope. He repudiated Papal authority and in
1534 set up the Anglican Church with the King as Supreme Head. Changes under
Henry were the suppression of monasteries and the introduction of the Bible in
vernacular.
The Reformation helped in strengthening the English monarchy and in creating
a national church. Thus we can say that the English Reformation was quite
different from other countries as here the rulers for personal reasons took the
initiative to introduce it. It was implemented through political means. The
Anglican Church Settlement (1559) was an attempt to avoid the extremes and
adopt a midway path between Protestantism and Catholicism.

9.12 IMPACT
The European Reformation of the 16th century was a complex and heterogeneous
movement with direct or indirect ramification on the political and socio economic
life of Europe. Since Christianity was associated with the lives of the rulers it
was bound to have some impact on them.
9.12.1 Political Impact
The Protestant reformation produced different perceptions of the relationship
between state and church. One of the first consequences of Reformation was the
breakdown of the Catholic Church into many divisions that was highly organized
and laid down strict norms of political, moral and social behaviour.
Protestantism indirectly contributed to the idea of political unity. It is also argued
by some of the historians that Protestantism marked a natural development of
European Nation States.
Protestantism had been interpreted as both a product of the rising nation states
148 concept as well as catalyst to emerge national identity
9.12.2 Social Impact Reformation

The Protestants placed family at the centre of human life and stressed on mutual
love between husband and wife. From the medieval times religion played an
enormous role in the everyday lives of most Europeans. Both the Protestant and
Catholics Reformation played an important role in transforming popular culture
including popular rituals and festivals.
The Reformation also stimulated new composition in art and music. Luther praises
an art and placed music next to the word of God. However, Zwingli and Calvin
in Switzerland were against it. They considered music to be a source of distraction
and stressed on a purified form of worship.

The Catholic Reformation became an important source of patronage to the new

style of art called ‘Baroque’ that developed in post Renaissance period.

9.12.3 Economic Impact

The Reformation is sometimes seen as a revolutionary event because it represented
the challenge of a new class to feudalism. According to some historians, this
religious individualism was a counter part to the intellectual individualism of
Humanism and it encourage the growth of Capitalism.

M.J. Kitch said that “historically there appears to be a strong link between
Protestantism and Capitalism”. This link has been the subject of much debate.
Max Weber, the German Sociologist and economist was one of the first to suggest
the relationship in detail. He makes a clear connection between Protestant Ethics
and Spirit of Capitalism. In his words, he has clearly said that it was difficult to
derive the economic progress of countries before Reformation.

Weber explains the casual relation between Protestantism and Capitalism by

demonstrating how the protestant model ideas created a mental and intellectual
environment in which capitalism came on its own.

His work Religion and the Rise of Capitalism did away with the abstract phrase
‘Spirit of Capitalism’. Secondly he emphasized the economic aspects of
capitalism, pulling it out of the social spiritual framework.

Christopher Hill also supported Tawney’s theory of two way affinity between
Protestantism and Capitalism. According to Hill, Protestantism provided a set of
flexible doctrines that helped in breaking the strong hold of the “Iron ideological
framework of the early times.”
Check Your Progress 2
1) Discuss the spread of Luther’s and Calvin’s ideas.
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The Rise of the Modern West 2) Discuss the social, political and economic impact of Reformation.
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9.13 LET US SUM UP

Thus, it can be said that Reformation embraced a number of areas – reform of
both the morals and the structures of church and society; reinterpretation of
Christian spirituality and the reform of its doctrine. The popularity of Reform
movements cannot be properly understood purely in religious light. Rather these
have to be placed in their historical, political, social, and economic context. The
Reformation was far more than a movement directed against the abuses in the
Roman Catholic Church. It was the culmination of a complex situation with
roots deeply buried in the medieval past.

9.14 KEYWORDS
Peasant Wars: The German peasant wars were a widespread popular revolt in
Central Europe between 1524-25.The revolts failed due to an intense opposition
and oppression from the aristocracy.

Infant baptism: The practise of baptising/naming young children practised by

both protestants and catholics.Infant baptism is also known as christening in
some faith traditions.

9.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) See Sections 9.1 and 9.2
2) See Section 9.4
Check Your Progress 2
1) See Sections 9.5, 9.6, 9.10 and Sub-section 9.10.1
2) See Sub-section 9.12.1, 9.12.2, 9.12.3

9.16 SUGGESTED READINGS

Arvind Sinha (2010), Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to Industrializa-
tion, Manohar, Delhi
Meenakshi Phulkar (2000), Rise of Modern West, Macmillan Delhi,

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