Computer Networks

Computer networks:
A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and other
devices which can communicate with each other and share hardware and
software resources.
Advantages (Need/Application) of computer networks:
1. Resource Sharing: Data, Hardware resources (modem, hard-disk,
DVD drive, scanner etc) and software resources (antivirus tools,
application software etc) can be easily shared on computer networks
by connecting these devices to one computer (server).
2. Cost saving: Sharing of resources in computer networking leads to
cost saving.
3. Improved communication: A computer network enables fast,
reliable, and easy communication among all users. We can easily
communicate with anyone through email, video conferencing or
chatting through networking.
4. Time saving it takes negligible time to send or receive messages,
images, videos, and audio on a computer network. We can easily
watch live videos and can talk live to anyone sitting in some corner
of the world on a computer network, this leads to time saving.
5. Increased storage and reliability: On a computer network, some data
is replicated on multiple computers to ensure availability of data, in
case of some computer getting faulty. Mostly the data kept on
servers is shared with legitimate users. This ensures data security
and reliability.

Components of data communication:

A network contains several components, they are:
• Sender: A device or a computer that sends the data is called the
sender.
• Receiver: A device or a computer that receives the data is called the
receiver.

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 • Message: It is the information to be communicated. It maybe text,
image, video, or audio.
• Transmission medium: It is the physical path through which the data
flows from the sender to receiver.
• Protocol: A set of rules that governs data transmission, it represents
the communication methods which are to be followed by sending or
receiving devices.

Evolution of computer network:

The network has passed through several stages which are described
below,
1. ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network):
• The first computer network was jointly designed by advanced
research project agency (ARPA) and US department of defense
(DoD) of united states in 1969 and was called ARPANET.
• It was an experiment project which allowed a few computers
to be connected from some of the reputed universities of USA
and DoD.
• It allowed access to computer sharing projects.
• ARPANET was a wide area network linking many universities
and research centers and was beginning of what we consider
the internet today.
• ARPANET was created to make it easier for computer
networks to access computers to have more effective
communication network for the military.

2. NSFNET (National Science Federation Network):

• In the mid 1980’s another federal agency NSFNET created a
new network which was more capable than ARPANET.
• Its main aim was to use network for academic research and
not for any private business activity.
• Later many private companies combined their own private
networks with ARPANET and NSFNET to make a more capable
and broader network called the INTERNET.

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 3. INTERNET:
• In the 1990’s, Internet which is a network of networks came to
existence.
• The internet has evolved from ARPANET.
• The computers connected through world wide web (WWW)
that contains a large network and shares a common
communication protocol TCP/IP (Transmission control
protocol/Internet Protocol)
• Millions of domestic businesses, government networks relate
to each other for the purpose of sharing files, data, email etc.

4. INTERSPACE:
• It is a software that allows multiple uses in a client server
environment to communicate with each other by sending and
receiving data of various types.
• Such as video, audio, data files, textual data in a 3D
environment.
• It also facilitates online real time exchange of data.

Measuring capacity of communication media:

1. Channel: A channel is a communication path through which the data
is transmitted from the sender device to the receiver device.

2. Baud: The number of changes in a signal per second is known as

baud.
• It is the measuring unit of data transfer rate
• 1 baud represents only 1 signal change per second and is
equivalent to 1 bit per second

3. Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be passed along a

communication channel in a given period of time (1 sec) is termed as
bandwidth.
• The measuring unit is Hertz (Hz)

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 4. Data and signals: Information that is stored within computer
systems and transferred over a computer network can be divided
into two different categories. They are data and signals.
• Data are entities that are stored in the forms of 0’s and 1’s
which conveys some special meaning to the computer system
when this data is transmitted from one place to another, it is
converted into a signal.
• Signals are the electric or electromagnetic encoding of data
and are used to transmit data.

5. Communication/transmission Media: It is a means of

communication or access (lines of communication) between two
organizations to exchange data or information.
• Communication media is a way of transmitting the signal from
one place to another.
• Communication media is also known as transmission media. It
plays an important role in sending and receiving of data to and
from the sender and receiver.
6. Data transfer rate: Amount of data transferred in one direction over
a link divided by the time taken to transfer in bits per second (BPS)
is known as data transfer rate.

Define the following terms:

1. Node: Any system or device connected to a network is called a node.

It is also known as workstation.

2. Server: A computer that facilitates sharing of data, software and

hardware resources to other computers is known as a server. A
server is a computer connected to a network of other workstation
(nodes) called clients.

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 3. NIU (network interface unit): It is a device that is attached to each of
the workstations and the server. It helps to connect the workstation
to the network. The NIU is also known as TAP (terminal access
point) as well as NIC (network interface card).

4. Node address: Each NIU (Network interface unit) that is attached to

a workstation as a unique identifying number, and it is known as
node address

5. IP address (Internet protocol address): Every machine on a TCP/IP

(Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) network has a
unique identifying number called an IP address. An IP address is a
group of 4 bytes (32 bits) each of which can be a number from 0 to
255 separated by (.) dot. A typical IP address looks like this
216.27.61.137.

6. MAC address: MAC (Media access control) address refers to the

physical address assigned by NIC (Network interface card)
manufacturer.

• It is a unique 12-digit hexadecimal (6 byte address) number

separated by colon (:).
• MAC address is the number assigned to the network interface
card.
• Eg: 10:B5:EC:12:68:2E
Where first 3 bytes of MAC address are the manufacturer ID
assigned by an international organization namely IEEE
(Institute Of Electrical And Electronics Engineers) and the last
3 bytes are the card number assigned by the manufacturer.
7. Switching techniques: The technique of sending data across the
network is known as switching technique. The three types of
switching techniques are,

• Circuit switching: Circuit switching is a technique where a

dedicated link between the sender and the receiver is
established.

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 • Circuit switching is a connection-oriented service.
• It provides end to end connection between two computers.
• It is established usually over a telephone network where one
person is making the call and the other is receiving the call. In
a telephone system the communication must be established
between the two participants (sender and the receiver).
• It is established before the transfer of the data takes place
• The following actions takes place takes place during the circuit
switching,
a) A request signal is sent by the sender to set up the
connection with the receiver. It establishes a physical
connection between the two participants (sender and
receiver).
b) All intermediate nodes are also identified. These nodes
are also called switching nodes.
c) If the destination node is available, it sends back the
acknowledgement of receiving signal. Hence, data
transmission begins.
d) When the data transmission is complete, the call can be
terminated.

• Packet switching: In packet switching the entire data is divided

into small fragments called packets.
• Each packet is of a fixed size, usually 128 bytes or 512 bytes.
• Each packet has a source address as well as destination address
(IP address) for the packet being transmitted.
• As there is no direct connection between the sender and the
receiver each packet follows different routes and therefore the
packets are delivered in a random order at the destination
address.
• It is a TCP protocol which then arranges all the received
packets in sequential order.
• During the transfer of packets, each packet must go through
several intermediate nodes, so each intermediate node checks
for destination IP address. If the packet matches with the node

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 address, it is received ;otherwise it is passed on to the next
node until it reaches the destination IP address.

• Message switching: Message switching is a store and forward

switching technique where there is no direct connection
between the sender and the receiver.

Types of networks:
Based on geographical spread, networks maybe classified as,
• PAN (Personal area network)
• LAN (Local area network)
• MAN (Metropolitan area network)
• WAN (Wide area network)

1. PAN (Personal Area Network):

• PANs are small networks used to establish a communication
between a computer and other handheld devices in the
proximity of up to 10 meters using wired USB technology or
USB connectivity or wireless systems like Bluetooth or
infrared etc.
• PANs are used to connect computer, laptops, mobiles, or
other IT enabled devices to transfer files including emails,
digital photos, video and audio etc.
• PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse,
Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers, and TV
remotes etc.

2. LAN (Local Area Network):

• LAN is a privately owned computer network covering a
small geographical area like our home, office, or a building
such as a school etc.

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 • It can cover an area spread over a few meters to a radius of
few kilometers.
• A LAN can span a group of nearby buildings.
• LAN is owned, controlled, and managed by a single
person/organization.
• A LAN can be setup using wired media (UTP cables, coaxial
cables) or wireless media (infrared, radio-waves etc.)

3. MAN (Metropolitan area network):

• MAN is larger than a LAN and can cover a city and its
surrounding areas.
• A MAN usually interconnects several LAN’s and individual
computers.
• All type of communication media (guided and unguided
media) is used to setup a MAN.
• A man is typically owned and operated by a single entity
such as a government body or a large cooperation.
• A good example of MAN is the interconnected offices of an
MNC (Multi-National Cooperation) or cable television
networks available in the whole city.

4. WAN (Wide area network):

• WAN spreads over a large geographical area across
countries and continents.
• WANs are generally used to interconnect sever other types
of networks LAN’s, MAN’s, PAN’s etc.
• It facilitates fast and efficient exchange of information at a
high speed and low cost.
• A WAN can cover over an area with a radius spanning 100
kms. A network of ATM’s, banks, govt. offices, international
organizations offices etc. spread over a country, continents
or covering many continents are examples of WAN.
• All types of communication media (guided and unguided)
are used to setup a WAN. The best-known example of WAN
is internet.

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 TOPOLOGY:
The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called Topology.
It is an arrangement of physical connection among nodes in a network.
The major ones are:

a) Bus Topology (Linear Topology): This consists of a single length of

transmission medium (coaxial cable) , onto which the various
nodes are attached. The main cable is called backbone. If any node
has to send information to another node, it sends the signal to the
backbone. The signal travels the entire length of backbone and is
received by the node for which it is intended. A small device called
terminator is attached to each end of the backbone which removes
the travelling data token from the network.

Advantages
• It is easy to install.
• It requires less cable length and hence is cost effective.
• Failure of node does not affect the network.

Disadvantages
• In case of cable or terminator fault, the entire network breaks
down/collapses.
• Fault diagnosis is difficult.
• At a time only one node can transmit data.

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 b) Star Topology: In star topology each node is directly connected to
a hub/switch, if any node has to send some information to any
other node, it sends the signal to the hub/switch. This signal is
then broadcasted to all the nodes, but it is accepted by the
intended nodes. In case of a switch the signal is sent only to the
indented nodes.

Advantages
• It is easy to install and wire.
• It is easy to detect the faults and to remove parts.
• It is easy to expand depending on the specifications of the
central hub or switch.
• It is more efficient topology as compared to bus topology.

Disadvantages
• It requires more cable length than bus topology.
• Central node dependency: If anything happen to the central
node, the entire network crashes.

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 c) Tree Topology (Extended Star Topology/Hybrid Topology): It is a
combination of star and bus topology. It is used to link different
star topology connected to a linear bus backbone cable.

Advantages
• It provides point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• It is supported by several hardware and software vendors.

Disadvantages
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling
used.

Q: What is transmission/Communication Media? Explain its types.

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 - A transmission medium is a medium of data transfer over a
network. It canbe wired (Guided) or wireless (Unguided).

Wired media(Guided media)

1. Twisted Pair Cable - This is one of the common forms of wiring in
networks, especially inLANs and it consists of four pairs of two insulated
wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern (Double helix). These pairs are
colour coded. An RJ-45 connecter is used to connect
this cable to a computer.

Advantages:

(i) It is easy to install and maintain.

(ii) It is very inexpensive

(iii) It is an adequate and least expensive medium for low speed (up to 10
mbps) applicationswhere the distance between the nodes is relatively small.

Disadvantages:

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 (i) It is incapable to carry a signal over long distances without the use of
repeaters.

(ii) Due to low bandwidth, these are unsuitable for broadband applications.

Twisted pair cable is of two types:

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): As the name suggests in UTP cables

individual pairs are notshielded. UTP has become the most closely identified
cable for Ethernet, and is therefore called Ethernet cable. Ethernet cables are
used to attach the computer to the modem to set up theinternet connection
at home or office.

Characteristics of UTP cable:

• It is a low-cost cable available for setting up small networks.
• It is a thin (External diameter app. 0.43cm) and flexible cable and
therefore it offers easeof installation.
• It can carry data up to a length of 100m at a stretch.

STP (Shielded Twisted pair): It is the same cable as the UTP, but with each
pair shielded individually. An outer shield then covers all the pairs like in UTP.
STP data connectors are used toconnect STP cable to the computer. RJ-45
connectors can also be used to connect this cable to a computer.

Characteristics of STP cable:

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 i) As compared to UTP, STP offers better immunity against
internal and externalElectromagnetic interferences.
ii) It is expensive than UTP cable.
iii) As compared to UTP cable, STP cable is difficult to install.

2. Co-axial cable (or coax)- It is the most used transmission media for LANs.
It is widely used for television signals and also by large corporations in
building security systems.Multi-channel television signals can be
transmitted around metropolitan areas at considerably less cost.

It consists of 2 conductors that share a common axis, where inner conductor

is the copper wireand outer conductor is a shield like wire mesh.

Advantages-

(i) It can carry data for a larger distance (185m - 500m) at a stretch.

(ii) Less susceptible to electromagnetic fields.

(iii) It offers high bandwidth (up to 400 mbps).

Disadvantages-

(i) Bulkier and less flexible than twisted pair.

(ii)Due to its thickness (1cm diameter) and less flexibility, it is difficult to

install as compared totwisted pair cable.

3. Optical Fiber cable – Optical Fibers are long thin strands of glass

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 about the thickness of a human hair. They are arranged bundles called
optical fiber cables and are used to transmit datathrough light signals over
large distances. Optical fibers offer a very high bandwidth, and this makes
it capable of multichannel communication.

It has the following parts:

i) Core: It is a thin glass rod at center through which light travels.

ii) Cladding: It is the outer optical material surrounding the core that
reflects the light back intothe core.

iii) Buffer coating: It is the plastic coating that protects the cable from damage
and moisture.

Advantages-

(i) It can carry data for a very large distance at a stretch.

(ii) Not susceptible to electromagnetic fields

Disadvantages-

(i) Especially skilled people are required to install optical

fiber cables. (ii)Till date it is the most expensive and at
the same time the most efficientcable available for
computer networks.

Wireless Media: Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless

communication over computer networks. Frequencies of waves are measured
in Hertz(Hz). As a frequencies of electromagneticwave changes, their

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 properties also change.
Electromagnetic waves are categorized on the basis of their frequencies.

i) Radio waves ii) Microwaves iii) Infrared waves iv)Satellite link v) Blue tooth

i) Radio Waves - They are widely used for communication, both indoors
and outdoors, Cordless phones, AM and FM radio broadcast, Garage door
openers etc. are examples of radiowave transmission. It has a frequency
range of 3 KHz – 3GHz.Radio waves are used for communication over
distances ranging from few meters up to covering an entire city.

ADVANTAGES

(i) It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.

(ii) These waves are Omni (All)-directional, so the transmitting and

receiving antennas need notbe aligned.

DISADVANTAGES

(i)The transmission can be interfered by motors or other electrical

equipment (ii)Permission from concerned authorities is required for
use of radio wave transmission.(iii)Less secure mode of transmission

(iv) Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains,

thunder storms etc.

2. Micro Waves: Microwaves travel in straight lines and cannot penetrate

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 any solid object. It is unidirectional. Therefore, for long distance microwave
communication, high towers are built, and microwave antennas are put on
their top. They have frequency range of 300 MHz- 300 GHz .It is used in mobile
calls.

In the big cities where land is very costly and a lot of formalities have to be
completed to get permission to dig land for cabling, microwave antennas can
be put on top of high rise buildingsand communication can be started in a
short time.

ADVANTAGES

(i) Free from land acquisition rights.

(ii) Offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.

DISADVANTAGES

(i)The transmission is in straight lines so the transmitting and receiving

antennas need to beproperly aligned (Line of sight transmission).

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 3. Infrared Waves: These waves are used for short range
communication (approx. 5m). Theyare so called because they have a
frequency range of just less than that of red light. Home- entertainment
remote-control devices, Cordless mouse, and Intrusion detectors are some
of thedevices that utilize infrared communication.

ADVANTAGES
(i) It is a line of sight transmission; therefore, information passed to one
device is not leaked toanother device.
(ii) No government license is required for their use.

DISADVANTAGES
(i)It is a line-of-sight transmission, therefore at a time only two
devices can communicate.(ii)Performance drops with longer
distances.
iii) Waves do not cross solid objects in between them.

4. Bluetooth- This technology is used for short range

communication (approx. 10m).Baby monitors, door openers, and
cell phones are some of the devices that utilize Bluetooth
communication.

ADVANTAGES
(i)Line of sight between communicating devices
is not required.(ii)Bluetooth can connect up to
eight devices simultaneously.

DISADVANTAGE
(i) Slow data transfer rate (up to 1Mbps).

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 5. Satellite Link: Satellite links are used for very long distance wireless
communication
which may range from intercity to intercontinental. The satellite system is
very expensive but itsarea coverage and fringe benefits compensate for the
expenses.

ADVANTAGES
(i) Satellites cover large area of earth
(ii) Since communication over very long distances is possible, this
becomes a commerciallyattractive option.

DISADVANTAGES
(i) This system is expensive.
(ii) Requires legal permissions.

Q: Write a note on the following network devices.

i) NIC ii) RJ45 Connector iii) Hub iv) Switch v) Repeater vi)
Gateway vii) Bridge viii) Modem ix) Router

Ans: i) NIC: The network interface unit (NIU) is a device (the network card) that is
attached toeach of the workstations and the server. It helps to connect the workstation
with the network. It facilitates communication between devices within a local area
network (LAN) using an RJ45 connector.

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 TheNIU is also called NIC (Network Interface Card) or Ethernet card.

ii) RJ45 Connector: RJ45 connectors are used to connect Ethernet cables to
devices like computers, switches, and routers. They have eight pins and are
commonly used for wired network connections.

ii) MODEM: A modem (Modulator - Demodulator) is a peripheral

device that enables acomputer to transmit data over telephone or
cable lines. It converts the digital data from the sender computer
into analog form to be able to send it over telephone lines.
At the receiving end modem converts the data from analog form to digital form
and
stores into receiving computer. Modem is the short form for Modulation and De
-Modulation.

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 HUB: A Hub is an electronic device that connects several nodes to form a
network and redirectsthe received information to all the connected nodes
in broadcast mode. The computer(s) for which the information is intended
receive(s) this information and accept(s) it. Other computers on the
network simply reject this information.

SWITCH: A Switch is an intelligent device that connects several nodes

to form a networkand redirects the received information only to the
intended node(s).

The difference between the two is that Hub broadcasts the received
information to all thenodes. Switch does not broadcast instead sends the

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 information selectively only to those computers for which it is intended.
This makes a switch more efficient than a hub.

Q: Why switch is called an intelligent HUB?

Ans: A Switch is an intelligent device that connects several nodes to form a

network
and redirects the received information only to the intended node(s). The
difference between the two is that Hub broadcasts the received information
to all the nodes. Switch does not broadcastinstead sends the information
selectively only to those computers for which it is intended. This makes a
switch more efficient than a hub. Therefore switch is known as an intelligent
hub.

Repeater: A Repeater is a device that is used to regenerate a signal which is

on its way through a communication channel. A repeater regenerates the
received signal and re-transmits it to its destination. When data is
transmitted over a network for long distance, the data signal becomesweak
after certain distance. If the signal becomes weak it cannot reach its
destination. Repeateris a device which is used to re-strengthen data signal.

Gateway: A Gateway is a device, which is used to connect different types of

networks and performs the necessary translation so that the connected
networks can communicate properly. Itconnects dissimilar networks. It
establishes an intelligent connection between local networks and external
networks with completely different structures.

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 Bridge: Bridge is a device which is used to connect two LAN’s or two
segments of the same LAN. LAN’s connected by the bridge must follow the
same protocol. Bridge works with MAC.

Router: It is a network device that connects multiple networks irrespective

of their protocols.Eg: LAN & WAN. It works with IP address.

WiFi Card: A WiFi card (or wireless network adapter) enables wireless connectivity. It
allows a computer to connect to WiFi networks, providing flexibility and mobility
without physical cables.

Q: Distinguish between the following:

i) Router and Bridge

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 ii) Switch and Router
iii) Switch and Hub
Ans:
Router Bridge
It connects multiple It is used to connect two LAN’s or two segments
networks of the same LAN. LAN’s connected by the bridge
irrespective of must
their protocols follow the same protocol.
It can handle multiple It cannot handle multiple protocols
protocols
It works with an IP It works with MAC address
address

Switch Router
It connects all the network It connects multiple networks
components irrespective of their protocols
(printer, scanner etc.)
It works with MAC It works with IP
Multiple switches cannot be joined Multiple routers can be joined
together to form large networks. together to
form large networks.

Switch Hub
Suitable for large networks Suitable for small networks
Network traffic is less Network traffic is more
It passes the information only It passes the information to all the
to theintended (appropriate) nodes.
nodes.

Q: Define Network Protocol. Explain its types.

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 A network protocol is a set of rules for communication among networked
devices. TheseProtocols are HTTP, TCP/IP and PPP etc.

i) HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): HTTP is the protocol that is

used for transferring hypertext (i.e. text, graphic, image, sound, video etc.)
between two computers and is particularly used on the World Wide
Web. It is a TCP/IP based communication protocol and provides a standard
for Web browsers and servers to communicate.
Hypertext is the text that is specially coded using a standard coding
language called HyperText Markup Language (HTML) which basically
creates hyperlinks and thereby controls how the World Wide Web works and
how Web pages are formatted and displayed.

ii) TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol):

Communication between twocomputers on internet is done using TCP/IP
protocol. TCP/IP is a two-layer protocol.
When data is to be sent from one computer to another over internet,
it is first broken into smaller packets which are actually sent. When
these packets are received by the receiver computer, they are
assembled into the original message. This job of dividing the original
message into packets and re-assembling the received packets into
the original message is done following TCP protocol. Internet
protocol is followed to ensure that each of these packets gets to the
right destination. Different packets from the samemessage may be
routed differently, but they reach the same destination and are
reassembled there.

iii) PPP (Point to Point Protocol): It is a protocol for direct

communication between twocomputers, typically a personal computer
connected by phone line to a server. PPP is
used over many types of physical networks including cellular
telephone, serial cable,phone line, trunk line, specialized radio

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 links, and fiber optic links.

iv) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) :It is used widely on internet for
transferring files to and from aremote host. File Transfer Protocol is a
standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files
between a client and server on a computer network. Files of any type can
be transferred to any system on the Internet. It is used to download a file
from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server. The main
objectives are:
• Transmitting and sharing of files.
• To transfer data reliably and efficiently.
• FTP uses the Internet’s TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer.
• Indirect use of remote computers.

v)Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3)

Post Office Protocol 3 or POP3 is the third version of a widespread method
of receiving email which receives and holds email for an individual until
they pick it up. SMTP has a disadvantage that if the destination computer is
not online, mails cannot be received. So the SMTP server receives the mail
on behalf of every host and the respective host then interacts with the SMTP
server to retrieve messages by using a client server protocol called POP3.

vi)SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for sending email
messages to other networks or computers. It handles only outgoing
messages and not incoming messages. SMTP does not create messages,
rather it helps in forwarding messages between client servers. It uses TCP
to send messages to another host. For receiving messages, another protocol
POP (Post Office Protocol) is used.

vii)TELNET(Remote Login)

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Telnet is a remote login that helps a user to log on to another user's terminal
without being its original user. A user who is logging in to their own system can
also get access to log on to another user system and perform various functions
such as accessing files or sharing files to/from the remote system. With TELNET, a
user logs as a regular user with whatever privileges that may have been granted
to the specific application and data on the computer.

viii) VOIP
VOIP stands for voice over internet protocol. It enables the transfer of
voice using packet switched network rather than using public switched
telephone network. By using VOIP software, phone calls can be done
using standard internet connection. This method of making phone calls
is much cheaper than convectional way because the service of
Telecommunication Company is not used. There are three different
methods of VoIP service in common use today:

• ATA - ATA stands for analog-to-digital converted. It is used to

connect the telephone device to the computer. It takes the analog
signals from the phone and converts them to digital signals. These
digital signals can be transmitted over the internet. Some
providers also are bundling ATAs free with their service.
• IP phones - IP phones appear much like an ordinary telephone or
cordless phone. They are directly connected to the router or the
LAN. They have all the hardware and software necessary right
onboard to handle the IP call. IP Phones are sometimes called
VoIP telephones, SIP phones or Soft phones.
• Computer-to-computer - It is the most easy and simplest way
to use VoIP. The basic hardware requirements are as follows:
Computer, Internet, Speakers, Microphone

Q: What is domain? What are its parts? Give examples.

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 Domain Name: In context of internet, a Domain Name is a name
assigned to a server through Domain Name System (DNS). Examples
of some domain names are cbse.nic.in,indianrailway.gov.in etc.
Domain names are used in URLs to identify particular Web servers. For
example, in the URLhttp://www.cbse.nic.in/welcome.htm, the domain name is
www.cbse.nic.in

A domain name usually has more than one part: top level domain name
or primary domain name and sub-domain name(s). Top level domains
are divided into two categories: Generic Domain Names and Country-
Specific Domain Names. For example:

Generic Domain Names:

·com - commercial business

·edu - Educational institutions

·gov - Government agencies

·mil - Military

·net - Network organizations

·org - Organizations
(nonprofit) Country
Specific Domain Names:
.in - India

.au - Australia

.ca - Canada

.ch - China

.nz - New Zealand

.pk - Pakistan

.jp - Japan

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 .us - United States of America

Q: What is Domain Name Resolution? How it works?

Ans: Domain Name Resolution is the process of getting corresponding IP

address from a domainname.
Suppose you mention a URL in the web-browser to visit a website. The
browser first checks your computer to find if the IP address of the server
corresponding to the Domain Name (embedded inthe URL) is present. If this
address is present then with the help of this address, the corresponding
server is contacted and then the website opens in your browser. Otherwise,
the browser sends this domain name to some specific servers (called domain
name servers) to find the corresponding IP address. Once the IP address is
known, the server is contacted and then the website opens in your browser.

Q: Why do we prefer domain name over

IP address?Or
How is domain name related to an IP address?
Ans: Whenever we have to communicate with a computer on network, we can
make use of IP address. But it is practically impossible for a person to
remember the IP addresses of all the computers (web servers) one may have
communicate with. Therefore, system has been developedthat assigns names to
web servers and maintains database of these names and corresponding IP
address.
Eg. For domain name: www.cbse.nic.in
Eg. For IP address:192.168.0.2

Q: Define URL by giving an example. Identify its parts.

Ans: URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is the complete web address
of the web pagewritten on the address bar of the browser
For eg: http://www.cbse.nic.in/welcome.html
i. http specifies the type(protocol)
ii. www – Sub domain
iii. www.cbse.nic.in –Domain name

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 iv. .nic- Top level domain name(Generic Domain Name)
v. .in- Top level domain name(Country Specific Domain Name)
vi. welcome.html- path

Introduction to Web Services

The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks around the globe.
Information is available on almost all the topic on the Internet.
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
HTML is language the helps in creating and designing web content. It is a markup
language. It has a variety of tags and attributes for defining the layout and
structure of the web document. It is designed to display the data in formatted
manner. A HTML document has the extension .htm or .html. Hypertext is a text
which is linked to another document.

XML (EXtensible Markup Language)

XML is a markup language like HTML. It is designed to carry or store data. In
contrast to HTML, it is not designed to display data. Unlike HTML, it does not have
predefined tags. It is possible to define new tags in XML. It allows the programmer
to use customized tags. XML is case sensitive. XML is deigned to be self-
descriptive. XML is a W3C recommendation.
XML documents form a tree structure. For Example

<root>
<child>
<subchild>.....</subchild>
</child>
</root>

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WWW (World Wide Web):
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a set of protocols that allows you to access any
document on the Internet through a naming system based on URLs. Protocols are
rules or standards that govern communications. The World Wide Web (WWW) is a
combination of all resources and users on the Internet that are using the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

The Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is a protocol mainly used to access data on
the World Wide Web. This protocol defines how messages are formatted and
transmitted, and what actions web servers and browsers should take in response
to various commands. For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this
sends an HTTP command to the Web Server directing it to fetch and transmit the
requested web page.

Website:
A website is a collection of several web pages images, videos, audios, or other
kinds of digital assets which are related to each other through hyperlinks.

The first page of a website is known as home page where all the links related to
other documents are displayed. The web pages of a website are written using
HTML and the information is transferred over the internet through

HTTP protocol. The HTML documents consist of several hyperlinks that are
accessed through HTTP protocol. Examples of various websites are: cbse.nic.in,
google.com, amazon.in, etc.

Webpage:
A web page is an electronic document/page designed using HTML. It displays
information in textual or graphical form. Traversal from one web page to another
web page is possible through hyperlinks.

A web page can be classified into two types:

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Static web page: A web page which displays same kind of information
whenever a user visits it, is known as a static web page. A static web page
generally has.htm or .html as extension

Dynamic web page: An interactive web page is a dynamic webpage. A

dynamic web page uses scripting languages to display changing content on the
web page. Such a page generally has php, .asp," or .jsp as extension

Dynamic web pages support two types of scripting:

Client-Side Scripting
On some web pages the contents change in response to an action done by the user,
for example a click from the mouse or a key press from a keyboard action. Such
pages use client-side scripting. In this technology, the content is generated on the
user's local computer. VB Script and Java Script are examples of client-side
scripting languages.

Server -Side Scripting

Some web pages use applications running on the server to generate the web
content. Such pages use server-side scripting language. Web pages display the
current time and date, forums, submission forms, shopping carts etc., use server-
side scripting. ASP, JSP, PHP are examples of server-side scripting languages.

Web browser
Web browser is software program to navigate the web pages on the internet. A
bowser interprets the coding language of the web page and displays it in graphic
form. A web browser allows anyone to access the web without even knowing
commands used in software languages to design a web page. Some popular web
browsers are: Mozilla Firefox, Opera, AOL, Webkit, Iceweasel, etc.

Internet works on client -server model. A web browser is a client which requests
the information from the web server. The web server sends the information back
to the client. The web address of the webpage written on the address bar tells the
web browser which page to access.
Web Browser is of two types:

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 • Text based browsers
• Graphical browsers URL (Uniform resource locator)

Web Server:
A Web server is a computer or a group of computers that stores web pages on the
internet. It works on client/server model. It delivers the requested web page to
web browser. Web servers use special programs such as Apache or IIS to deliver
web pages over the http protocol.

Web hosting
Web hosting is the process of uploading/saving the web content on a web server
to make it available on WWW. In case an individual or a company wants to make
its website available on the internet, it should be hosted on a web server.

Web 2.0
Web 2.0 is often known as World Wide Web for second generation where people
collaborate with each other through social networking sites, blogs, wikis,
folksonomies, video-sharing sites, hosted services, web applications and
mashups.
Web 2.0 offers more dynamic pages instead of static pages that allows users to
create online applications. Web 2.0 also allows groups of people to work on
multiple applications. For example, a user can work on a document or
spreadsheet simultaneously, while in the background a computer keeps track of
who made what changes, where and when.

Web 2.0 tools are also less expensive than traditional software—many are even
free. Because they are web-based, the need is only to update the browser.

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