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UNIT-I ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS

Syllabus: Basic requirements of Relays-primary and Backup protection – Construction
details of: Attracted armature, balanced beam, Inductor type and Differential relays-
Universal Torque equation – Characteristics of over current, Direction and Distance
relays

Introduction:
A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit
breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly measuring the
electrical quantities which are different under normal and fault conditions. The electrical quantities
which may change under fault conditions are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle
Basic parts of relay:
(i)First part is the primary
winding of a current
transformer (C.T.) which is
connected in series with
the line to be protected.
(ii)Second part consists of secondary
winding of C.T. and the relay operating
coil. The relay coil makes the trip circuit
when it is energized sufficiently high to
drag the arm to close the contacts of the trip
circuit
(iii)Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or d.c. It consists of a source of supply,
the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts
Basic requirements of protective relaying:
The following requirements must be considered while designing the protective relaying to
protect the power system components. They are (SSSRSE):
a. Speed: protective relaying should disconnect a faulty element as quickly as possible. That
results in
 To improve power system stability.
 To decrease the amount of damage incurred.
 Decrease the total outage time for power consumers.
 Decreases the development of additional faults due to one fault.
 Permits rapid re-closure of CB to restore service to customers.
b. Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective system to detect the point at which the fault occurs
and selects the nearest circuit breaker to clear the fault with minimum or no damage to the
system.
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This selectivity led to division of power system into protective zones where minimum part of the
system is disconnected while interrupting the fault. The system is mainly divided into the
following protective zones:
i. Generators or generator transformer units.
ii. Transformers
iii. Bus bars
iv. Transmission lines
v. Distribution circuits.
c. Sensitivity: It is the capability of the relaying to operate reliably under the actual conditions
that produce the least operating tendency. It is desirable to have the protection as sensitive as
possible in order that it shall operate for low values of actuation quantity. The complexity in
circuitry increases as the sensitivity increases.
d. Reliability: The protective relaying must be ready to function correctly and efficiently in
operation at all times under any kind of fault and abnormal conditions of the power system for
which it has been designed.
e. Simplicity: The main factor influencing the protective relaying are –
 Good quality of relay.
 Correctness of design.
 Installation
 Maintenance and supervision

If these factors of protective scheme are maintained simpler, less number of CBs,
Relays, CTs, PTs, etc can be adopted and hence improving the reliability.
Simpler the protective scheme grater is the reliability.

f. Economy: Cost is the main consideration in designing and installing a power system. And
too much protection is too bad. If we reduce the protection at undesired areas the cost can be
reduced.

Types of protection:
Power system is divided into various zones of protection, if fault occurs at a
particular zone; it is the duty of the relays and CBs to isolate the faulty section
Protective relaying is classified into two. They are (a) primary protection and (b) Backup protection
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Primary protection:
It is the first line of defense. They clear the faults in the protected section as
fast as possible, as the CTs, PTs and CBs may not be 100% reliable and so sometimes they fail to
clear the fault that leads to the damage of the power system equipments and instability in power
system. To avoid this we require some backup to protect the system and maintain the stability. This
is called back up protection which is performed by backup relays.
Backup protection:
It is the second line of defense which comes into action if the primary
protection fails. They cover not only the local section but also the next section. There are three
types of back up protection they are (a) Remote Backup (b) Relay Backup & (c) Breaker Backup.
(a) Remote backup: it is the cheapest and simplest form of backup. They are located at
neighboring station and backup the entire primary protective scheme (relay, CT, PT, and CB
etc). They are widely used backup for transmission lines.
(b) Relay back up: it is a kind of local backup. Additional relay is provided for backup that trips
the same CB if primary relay fails. This operation takes place without delay. The principles of
operation are selected that are different from those of primary; they are activated using
separate CTs and PTs. They are costlier and they are used where remote backup is not
possible.
(c) Breaker back up: it is also a kind of local back up where number of CBs connected are
more i.e., mainly Bus-bar system. When primary relay activates but the CB fails the fault is
treated as Bus-bar fault. So, all the CBs on that Bus-bar should trip. If proper CB doesn’t
open n specified time after the trip coil is energized, after some time delay the main relay
closes the contacts of the backup relay resulting in opening of all other CBs.

Relay Terminology:
(a) Operating Force or Torque: the torque which tends to close the contacts of relay.
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(b) Restraining force or Torque: The torque that opposes the operating force or torque and
tends to prevent the closing of the relay.
(c) Pick up level: the threshold value of the activating quantity above which the relay will close
its contacts.
(d) Pick up value: the minimum value of the activating quantity for which the relay gets
energized that tends to close the trip circuit.
(e) Reset level: also called Drop out level, defined as the value of the activating quantity below
which the relay will open its contacts and return to its normal position.
(f) Reset ratio: it is the ratio of reset value to the pickup value.
(g) Flag: it is a spring or gravity operated device used for indication the operation of a relay.
(h) Operating time: it is the time taken for the activation quantity to attain a value equal to
pickup value until the relay operates its contacts.
(i) Maximum torque angle: the design angle of the relay that will yield maximum torque.
(j) Current setting: Adjusting the pickup current to a pre-determined value is called as current
setting.
This is achieved by tapping the relay coil. These taping
values are expressed in terms of percentage full load
rating of CT with which the relay is activated. By
varying the number of turns the activating quantity is
varied, that varies the time of operation of relay to
close the trip.

Pick up current = Rated secondary current of CT x current setting.

(k) Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM): it is the ratio of fault current in the relay coil to the pickup
current.

Falult current∈telay coil

PSM =
pick up value of current
Falult current∈telay coil
= rated secondary current x current setting
(l) Time/PSM curve: the curve between the time of operation and PSM of a relay. Horizontal
axis: PSM representing the no. of times the relay current is in excess of current setting.
Vertical axis calibrated in terms of time required for
relay operation

Time from time/PSM curve =

value on time scale (sec)
PSM value
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(m)Time setting Multiplier (TSM):

adjusting the time of operation of the relay using time
setting dial is called time setting multiplier. The dial is
calibrated in steps; these values are multipliers to be used
to convert the time curve into the actual operating time.

Actual relay operating time = TMS x operating time from time/PSM curve.

Procedure to calculate the relay operating time:

1. Convert the fault current into relay coil current using CT ratio.
2. Calculate PSM, i.e., Express the relay current as multiple of current setting.
3. From time/PSM curve of rely, read the time of operation for the calculated PSM.
4. Determine the actual time of operation by multiplying the above time of relay using
TSM.

Classification of Relays:
Based on the construction and principle of operation:
1. Electromagnetic relays. They are activated by A.C. or D.C. quantities.
2. Electro-thermal relays. Thermal protection using Bi-metallic strip.
3. Physico-electric relays. Change in the physical parameters (Buchholz relay).
4. Static relays. use solid state devices for their operation.
5. Microprocessor based relays. Use VLSI technology.
Based on their application:
1. Over current relays. Operate when the activating quantity (current) rises above a specified
value.
2. Under voltage relay. Operates when the activating quantity (voltage) falls below a specified
value.
V
3. Distance relays. Its operation depends upon ratio.
I
4. Differential relays. Its operation depends upon comparison of two or more electrical
quantities.
5. Directional relays.
6. Under frequency relays.
Based on time of operation:
1. Instantaneous relays. Operation takes place after a small interval of time that is negligible.
2. Definite time relays. Its operation is independent of magnitude of activating quantity.
3. Inverse time relays. Their time of operation is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the
activating quantity.
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Electromagnetic relays:
The relay coil on carrying the relay current produces electromagnet on which they are
wound. The activating quantities may be AC or DC. They are categorized into (a) Attraction type and
(b) Induction type.

Electromagnetic Attraction Relays: operate by virtue of an armature being

attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid. Such relays
may be actuated by D.C. or a.c quantities.
The basic types are:
1. Attracted armature type. 2. Solenoid type. & 3. Balanced beam type.
1. Attracted armature type relay:
Construction: The attracted armature type relay
consists of a laminated electromagnet carrying a
coil and a pivoted laminated armature. The
armature is balanced by a counter weight and a pair
of spring contact fingers at its free end.
Operation: under normal operation conditions the
current through the relay coil is such that the
counter weight holds the armature in open position
i.e., it withstand and hold the magnetic attraction of the electromagnet. when fault occur, the
current through the relay coil increases sufficiently to attract the armature upwards making the
stationary contacts attached to the relay frame and closes the trip circuit that results in
operating of CB and faulty section is isolated.
2. Solenoid type relay:
Construction: this is a plunger model. It consists of a
solenoid and an iron plunger, where the iron plunger moves
freely through the axis of the solenoid or suspended by
springs.
Operation: under normal operation conditions the current
through the relay coil is such that it holds the plunger by
gravity or springs. When fault occurs, the current through
the relay coil becomes more than the pickup value, causing
the plunger to be attracted by the solenoid. Thus closing the trip circuit and the faulty circuit is
disconnected by CB operation.

3. Balanced beam type relay:

Construction: it consists of an iron armature
fastened to a balanced beam. The beam is held in
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horizontal position by a spring at one end and at the other end a plunger type arrangement is
made such that the iron bar is suspended along the axis of the relay coil and the trip closing
mechanism is also provided at this end.
Operation: under normal operating conditions the iron armature is held horizontally with the
help of spring. When fault occurs the current in the relay coil exceeds the pickup value and
attracts the iron plunger that closes the trip circuit and makes the CB to isolate the faulty
section.

Electromagnetic Induction Relays:

This relays work on the principle of induction motor. i.e.,
based on the Faraday’s laws of EMI. They are widely used for protective relaying using AC
quantities only. They are not used for DC quantities because of the principle of operation.
Basic construction:
Induction relays mainly consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in two
alternating magnetic fields of same frequency but displaced in time and space. The torque is
produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents inducted in
the disc by another. The two ac. fluxes Ф1 and Ф2 differing in phase by an angle α induce e.m.f.s in
the disc and cause the circulation of eddy currents i 1 and i2 respectively These current lags the
respective fluxes by 90°.
Let Ф1 = Ф1max sin ωt
Ф2 = Ф2max sin (ωt - α) where Ф1 and Ф2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes and Ф2 lags Ф1 by an
angle α.
Assuming that the path in which the rotor currents
flow have negligible self inductance, the rotor currents
will be in phase with their voltages.
dФ1 d
i1 α α (Ф1max sin ωt)
dt dt
α Ф1max cos ωt
dФ2 d
And i2 α α (Ф2max sin (ωt - α) ) α Ф2max cos (ωt
dt dt
- α)
Now, F1 α Ф1 i2 and F2 α Ф2 i1
Fig shows that the two forces are in phase opposition.
So net force F at the instant can be considered is
F α F2 – F1
α Ф2 i1 – Ф1 i2
α Ф2max sin (ωt - α) Ф1max cos ωt – Ф1max sin ωt Ф2max cos (ωt
- α)
α Ф1max Ф2max [sin (ωt - α) cos ωt – sin ωt cos (ωt - α)]
α Ф1max Ф2max sin α
F α Ф1 Ф2 sin α ……………..(i)
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Where Ф1 and Ф2 are the r.m.s. values of the fluxes.

The following points may be-noted from exp. (i)
(a) The net force is same at every instant.
(b) The greater the phase angle α between the fluxes, the greater is the net force applied to the
disc.
(c) Maximum force will be produced when the two fluxes are 90º out of phase.
(d) The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc depends upon which
flux is leading.
The following three types of structures are commonly used for obtaining the phase difference in the
fluxes and hence the operating torque in induction relays:
a. Induction disc type structure.
b. Induction cup structure.

(a) Induction Disc Type: aluminum disc is used and the fluxes with some phase difference are
produced these in turn develops the operating torque that rotates the disc.
They are classified into:
i. Shaded pole structure.
ii. Watt-hour meter or double winding structure
 Shaded pole structure: construction: it consists of a pivoted Aluminum disc free to
rotate in the air gap of electromagnet. One half
of each pole is surrounded by a copper band
known as shaded ring. The electromagnet is
created by the relay coil that is wound around it.
Operation: the actuating quantity flowing in
the coil produces flux in the electromagnet. At
the poles of the magnet due to shaded pole
created two fluxes i.e. Фs and Фu are created in the shaded and unshaded regions of the poles.
The flux Фs lags Фu because the main flux will be first induced into the copper band producing
some emf and by Lenz law this flux opposes the main flux, and this flux in turn induces emf
at the end of the pole thus resulting in the flux that lags the un-shaded flux due to which the
torque necessary to rotate the disc is developed.
i.e. the driving torque T α Фu Фs sin α .

Assuming Фu and Фs α I → T α I2 sin α

Watt-hour-meter structure :

Construction: the construction of the

relay is similar to the watt-hour meter
commonly used everywhere. It consists of
an E-shaped electromagnet and a U
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shaped electromagnet with a disc free to rotate between them. The upper electromagnet (E
shaped) carries two windings primary winding which is fed from the secondary winding of the
current transformer and the secondary winding is connected to the winding on the lower magnet

that carries the current due to emf induced by the primary .

Working: the primary winding on the upper E shaped electro magnet carries relay current
I1 producing flux that induces emf in the secondary winding. The secondary winding carries
current due to induced emf along the windings of the lower U shaped magnet i.e., I2 in it.
Therefore flux φ2 induced in the u shaped or lower magnet that lags behind the flux φ1 by
an angle ϴ. The fluxes φ1 and φ2 induced in upper and lower magnets respectively differing
in phase by an angle ϴ will develop a driving torque proportional to φ1. Φ2 sin ϴ
The advantage of this type of construction is that it produces high torque. And also it can be
made inoperative by providing an isolating switch in between the secondary winding of
upper electromagnet and the winding of the electromagnet which on isolation carries no
current in the lower magnet windings resulting in no flux and thus no driving torque to rotate
the disc.
Induction cup structure:

construction: . The
general arrangement of an induction cup
structure resembles an induction motor, except
that the rotor iron is stationary, only the rotor
conductor portion being free to rotate. The
moving element is a hollow cylindrical rotor which
turns on its axis. The rotating field is produced by

two or more magnetic poles excited by single or

double winding. A spindle is attached to the
rotating part to provide the mechanism for
closing the contacts of the trip coil.
Operation: the fluxes produced by two different field winding carrying two
different magnetizing quantities whose fluxes produced differ by some phase angle produces the
necessary driving torque to rotate the armature of the relay resulting in closing of the contacts of the
trip circuit thus isolating the faulty section by the CB operation.

Differential relays:
A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or more similar
electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.
Thus a current differential relay is one that compares the current entering a section of the
system with the current leaving the section. Under normal operating conditions, the two
currents are equal but as soon as a fault occurs, this condition no longer applies. The
difference between the incoming and outgoing currents is arranged to flow through the
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operating coil of the relay. If this differential current is equal to or greater than the pickup
value, the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.
There are two fundamental systems of differential or balanced protection viz .

(i) Current balance protection using current differential relay scheme.

(ii) Voltage balance protection by sensing the difference of induced emf in the secondary’s of
CT

Current Differential Relay :( assuming that protecting an Alternator)

Arrangements of an over current relay connected to operate as a differential relay is
shown.
A pair of identical current transformers is fitted on either end of the section to be protected
(alternator winding in this case). The secondaries of CT’s are connected in series in such a
way that they carry the induced currents in the same direction. The operating coil of the
over current relay is connected across the CT secondary circuit. This differential relay
compares the current at the two ends of the alternator winding.

Under normal operating conditions, suppose the alternator winding carries a normal current
of 1000 A. Then the currents in the two secondaries of CT’s are equal. These currents will
merely circulate between the two CT’s and no current will flow through the differential relay.
Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. If a ground fault occurs on the alternator winding
as shown in Fig (i), the two secondary currents will not be equal and the current flows
through the operating coil of the relay, causing the relay to operate. The amount of current
flow through the relay will depend upon the way the fault is being fed.

(i) If some current say (500A) flows out of Onside while a large current(2000A) enters the
other side as shown in the figure(1) then the difference of the ct secondary currents (10-2.5
= 7.5A) will flow through the relay
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(ii) If current flows to the fault from both sides as shown in Fig (ii), then sum of CT

secondary currents i.e. 10 + 5 = 15 A will flow through the relay .

Disadvantages
(i) The impedance of the *pilot cables generally causes a slight difference between the
currents
at the two ends of the section to be protected. If the relay is very sensitive, then the
small
differential current flowing through the relay may cause it to operate even under no
fault
conditions.
(ii) Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect operation of the relay when a large through-
current flows.
(iii) Accurate matching of current transformers cannot be achieved due to pilot circuit
impedance.
The above disadvantages are overcome to a great extent in biased beam relay.

Biased Beam Relay: The biased beam relay (also called percentage differential
relay) is designed to respond to the differential current in terms of its fractional relation to
the current flowing through the protected section. Fig shows the schematic arrangement of
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a biased beam relay. It is essentially an over current balanced beam relay type with an
additional restraining coil. The restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction

to the operating force.

Under normal and through load conditions, the bias force due to restraining coil is greater
than the operating force. Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. When an internal fault
occurs,the operating force exceeds the bias force. Consequently, the trip contacts are
closed to open the circuit breaker. The bias force can be adjusted by varying the number of
turns on the restraining coil.

The equivalent circuit of a biased beam relay is shown in Fig.. The differential current in
the operating coil is proportional to i2 – i1 and the equivalent current in the restraining coil is
proportional to (i1 + i2)/2 since the operating coil is connected to the mid-point of the
restraining coil. It is clear that greater the current flowing through the restraining coil, the
higher the value of current required in the operating winding to trip the relay.
This relay is called percentage relay because the operating current required to trip can be
expressed as a percentage of load current.

Voltage Balance Differential Relay:

Similar current transformers are connected at either end of the element to be protected (e.g.
an alternator winding) by means of pilot wires. The secondarys of current transformers are
connected in series with a relay in such a way that under normal conditions, their induced
e.m.f.s’ are in opposition.
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Under healthy conditions, equal currents (I1 = I2) flow in both primary windings. Therefore,
the
secondary voltages of the two transformers are balanced against each other and no current
will flow through the relay operating coil. When a fault occurs in the protected zone, the
currents in the two primaries will differ from one another (i.e. I 1 ≠ I2) and their secondary
voltages will no longer be in balance. This voltage difference will cause a current to flow
through the operating coil of the relay which closes the trip circuit.
Disadvantages
The voltage balance system suffers from the following drawbacks:
(i) A multi-gap transformer construction is required to achieve the accurate balance
between current transformer pairs.
(ii) The system is suitable for protection of cables of relatively short lengths due to the
capacitance of pilot wires. On long cables, the charging current may be sufficient to operate
the relay even if a perfect balance of current transformers is attained.

Over current relays: the name itself defines that this relays sense the over currents flowing
in the power system that are caused due to short circuit faults. Here the over current relays utilize
the constructional features of the induction relays for their operations. So called Induction
type over current relays.
Over current relays are of two types
(i) Non directional OC relays
(ii)Directional OC relays

Induction Type Over current Relay (non-directional):

This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates corrective measures
when current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value. The actuating source is a
current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current transformer. These relays are used

on a.c. circuits only and can operate for fault current flow in either direction .

Constructional details: The import constructional details of a typical non-directional

induction type over current relay is shown below. It consists of a metallic (aluminum) disc
which is free to rotate in between the poles of two electromagnets. The upper
electromagnet has a primary and secondary winding. The primary is connected to the
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secondary of a C.T. in the line to be

protected and is tapped at intervals. The
tapings are connected to a plug-setting
bridge by which the number of active turns
on the relay operating coil can be varied,
thereby giving the desired current setting.
The secondary winding is energized by
induction from primary and is connected in
series with the winding on the lower
magnet. The controlling torque is provided
by a spiral spring.

Operation: The driving torque on the

aluminum disc is set up due to the
induction principle .This torque is opposed
by the restraining torque provided by the
spring.
Under normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque
produced by the relay coil current. Therefore, the aluminum disc remains stationary.
However, if the current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque
becomes greater than the restraining torque. Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving
contact bridges the fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. The
trip circuit operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section.

Induction Type Directional Power Relay : This type of relay operates when power in
the circuit flows in a specific direction. Unlike a non-directional over current relay, a
directional power relay is so designed that it obtains its operating torque by the interaction
of magnetic fields derived from both voltage and current source of the circuit it protects.
Thus this type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and the direction of the torque set up in the
relay depends upon the direction of the current relative to the voltage with which it is
associated.
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Constructional details: The essential parts of a typical induction type directional power
relay is shown above diagram. It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in-
between the poles of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries a winding
(called potential coil) on the central limb which is connected through a potential transformer
(P.T.) to the circuit voltage source. The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called
current coil) connected to the secondary of C.T. in the line to be protected. The current coil
is provided with a number of tapings connected to the plug setting bridge (not shown for
clarity). This permits to have any desired current setting. The restraining torque is provided
by a spiral spring.
Operation:. The flux φ1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly 90º lagging behind
the
applied voltage V. The flux φ2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the operating
Current I
The interaction of fluxes φ1 and φ2 with the eddy currents induced in the disc produces a
driving torque given by:

T ∝ φ1 φ2 sin α

Since φ1 ∝ V, φ2 ∝ I and α = 90 − θ

T ∝ V I sin (90 − θ)

∝ V I cos θ
It is clear that the direction of driving torque on the disc depends upon the direction of power

flow in the circuit to which the relay is associated. When the power in the circuit flows in the
normal direction, the driving torque and the restraining torque (due to spring) help each
other to turn away the moving contact from the fixed contacts. Consequently, the relay
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remains inoperative. However, the reversal of current in the circuit reverses the direction of
driving torque on the disc. When the reversed driving torque is large enough, the disc
rotates in the reverse direction and the moving contact closes the trip circuit. This causes
the operation of the circuit breaker which disconnects the faulty section.

Induction Type Directional over current Relay:

The directional power relay discussed above is unsuitable for use as a directional protective
relay under short-circuit conditions. When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage falls to
a low value and there may be insufficient torque developed in the relay to cause its
operation. This difficulty is overcome in the directional over current relay which is designed
to be almost independent of system voltage and power factor.
Constructional details. Fig shows the constructional details of a typical induction type
directional overcorrect relay. It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case
viz. (i) directional element and (ii) non-directional element.
(i) Directional element. It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when
power flows in a specific direction. The potential coil of this element is connected through a
potential transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage. The current coil of the element is
energized through a C.T. by the circuit current. This winding is carried over the upper
magnet of the non-directional element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element
are connected in series with the secondary circuit of the over current element. Therefore,
the latter element cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is completed. In other
words, the directional element must operate first (i.e. contacts 1 and 2 should close) in order
to operate the over current element.
(ii) Non-directional element. It is an over current element similar in all respects to a
non-directional over current relay. The spindle of the disc of this element carries a
moving contact which closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of

directional element.
It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting but
has been omitted in the figure for clarity and simplicity. The tapings are provided on the
upper magnet of over current element and are connected to the bridge.
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Operation: Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the
circuit protected by the relay. Therefore, directional power relay (upper element) does not
operate, thereby keeping the over current element (lower element) unexercised. However,
when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the
reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the
fixed contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for over current element. The disc of this
element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit. This operates
the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements are so arranged
that final tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the following conditions
are satisfied:
(i) current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element
(ii) Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
(iii) Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of over
current element.