Sector: Construction and Building services

Sub-sector: Surveying
REQF Level: 3

LSVSI301: HANDLE SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Competence: Handle surveying instruments

Learning hours: 60
Credits: 6
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
DEFINITION OF SURVEYING
Surveying: has traditionally been defined as the science, art, and technology of determining the
relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the Earth’s surface, or of establishing such
point

“A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and

Technical expertise to conduct one, or more, of the following activities;
• to determine, measure and represent the land, three-dimensional objects, point-fields, and
trajectories;
• to assemble and interpret land and geographically related information;
• to use that information for the planning and efficient administration of the land, the sea and any
structures thereon; and
• to conduct research into the above practices and to develop them.

Detailed Functions

The surveyor’s professional tasks may involve one or more of the following activities, which
may occur either on, above, or below the surface of the land or the sea and may be carried out in
association with other professionals.
1. The determination of the size and shape of the earth and the measurements of all data needed
to define the size, position, shape and contour of any part of the earth and monitoring any
change therein.
2. The positioning of objects in space and time as well as the positioning and monitoring of
physical features, structures and engineering works on, above or below the surface of the earth.
3. The development, testing and calibration of sensors, instruments and
systems for the above-mentioned purposes and for other surveying
purposes.
4. The acquisition and use of spatial information from close range, aerial and
satellite imagery and the automation of these processes.
5. The determination of the position of the boundaries of public or private
land, including national and international boundaries, and the registration
of those lands with the appropriate authorities.
6. The design, establishment and administration of geographic information systems (GIS) and the
collection, storage, analysis, management, display and dissemination of data.
7. The analysis, interpretation and integration of spatial objects and phenomena in GIS, including
the visualization and communication of such data in maps, models and mobile digital devices.
8. The study of the natural and social environment, the measurement of land and marine
resources and the use of such data in the planning of development in urban, rural and regional
areas.
9. The planning, development and redevelopment of property, whether urban or rural and
whether land or buildings.
10. The assessment of value and the management of property, whether urban or rural and
whether land or buildings.
11. The planning, measurement and management of construction works, including the estimation
of costs.
In application of the foregoing activities surveyors take into account the relevant legal,
economic, environmental, and social aspects affecting each project.”
IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING

Following are the main importance of surveying:

i.To prepare a plan or map on a suitable scale from the field measurements. When the figure is
drawn to a small scale, then it is known as map and if it is drawn to a large scale, it is known as
plan.

ii.To arrange plans for estates or building roads, railways, pipelines or canals and to measure the
area of field or a station. To determine the exact positions on earth on widely distant points we
use geodetic surveying

iii. Measurements and determination of relative positions of distinctive features, boundaries of

land, other natural and artificial features of earth’s surface and then preparation of a map on
suitable scale.

iv. It is very useful in making topographical map showing hills, valley, rivers, villages, town etc,
of a country

v. Measurements and determination of relative heights or depths of points and plotting them to
prepare longitudinal section or cross-section plans.

vi. Setting out works, such as determining points at desired levels, or determine the relative
elevation / depression of given points for construction of buildings, roads etc. also setting out
curves for roads, railway, canals etc.

vi. To prepare maps of engineering importance showing details of roads, railways, reservoirs,
irrigation canals etc.

Types of Surveying

Plane Surveying

It is the type of surveying in which mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane or in which
its spheroid shape is neglected with regards to the horizontal distance. Plane surveying assumes
that the earth is flat and is the most commonly practiced form of surveying. It primarily locates
the position of features on the ground. This can be gained by combining angular and linear
measurements. This survey is suitable for small area.

Geodetic Surveying
It is that type of surveying where the spherical shape of earth is taken into account in
measurements. In this type of surveying, the extent of survey area is large. To find out the area of
any region on the earth surface, the length and directions of the border lines, contour lines and
location of basic points normally geodetic surveying is used. Long distance stations are used in
this survey and more accurate and specific tools and surveying methods are required for this type
of surveying.

Classification of surveying

Surveying may be classified on the basis of nature of the survey field, object of survey,
instruments used and the methods employed.

Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field

This basis survey may be classified as land survey, marine or hydraulic survey and astronomical
survey.

-Land Survey: It involves measurement of various objects on land. This type of survey may be
further classified as given below:

(a) Topographic Survey: It is meant for plotting natural features like rivers, lakes, forests and
hills as well as man-made features like roads, railways, towns, villages and canals.

(b) Cadastral Survey: It is for marking the boundaries of municipalities, villages, districts,
states etc. The survey made to mark properties of individuals also comes under this category.

(c) City Survey: The survey made in connection with the construction of streets, water supply
and sewage lines fall under this category.

-Marine or Hydrographic Survey

Survey conducted to find depth of water at various points in bodies of water like sea, river and
lakes fall under this category. Finding depth of water at specified points is known as sounding.

-Astronomical Survey

Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun, stars etc., to locate absolute positions of points
on the earth and for the purpose of calculating local time is known as astronomical survey.

Classification Based on Object of Survey

On the basis of object of survey, the classification can be as engineering survey, military survey,
mines survey, geological survey and archeological survey.

(a) Engineering Survey:These surveys are carried out for determining quantities or sufficient
data for designing engineering works such as roads, reservoirs, water supply systems etc.

(b) Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out plans of strategic importance.

(c) Mines Survey:These surveys are carried out for exploring the minerals, those are under the
surface of the earth, i.e copper, gold etc..

(d) Geological Survey:These surveys are carried out to find out the composition of the earth’s
crust i.e. different states of rocks of the earth’s crust.

(e) Archeological Survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of antiquity or it is the surveys
carried out to prepare the maps of ancient civilizations.

Classification Based on Instruments Used

Based on the instruments used, surveying may be classified as:

(i) Chain survey:It is the type of surveying in which, only linear measurements are made in the
field, with the help of chain or tape.

(ii) Plane table survey: It is a graphical method of surveying in which fieldwork and plotting are
done simultaneously.

iii) Theodolite survey: An instrument used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles is
known as theodolite and method of determining horizontal and vertical angle is known as
theodolite survey.

(iv) Tacheometric survey: This is the method of surveying in which both horizontal and vertical
distance are determined by observing a graduated staff.

(v) Modern survey using electronic distance meters and total station

(vi) Photographic and Aerial survey: This is a survey carried out by taking photographs with
camera fitted in aeroplane.

The survey is taught to civil engineering students mainly based on this classification.

Classification Based on Methods Employed

On this basis surveying is classified as triangulation and traversing.

(i) Triangulation: In this method control points are established through a network of triangles.
(ii) Traversing: In this scheme of establishing control points consists of a series of connected
points established through linear and angular measurements. If the last line meets the starting
point it is called as closed traverse. If it does not meet, it is known as open traverse.

Principles of surveying

There are two basic principles of surveying (i)To work from whole to part and (ii)Location of
point by measurement from two points of reference.

(i)To work from whole to part: According to this principle the whole area is enclosed by
main stations (i. e controlling stations) and main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines). The area
is then divided into a number of parts by forming well-conditioned triangles. A nearly
equilateral triangle is considered to be the best well conditional triangles. The main survey
lines are measured accurately with a standard chain or tape and then the sides of triangles are
measured.

(ii)Location of point by measurement from two points of reference: According to this

principal two control points are selected in the area and the distance between them is
measured accurately.

The line joining the control points are plotted to some scale on drawing sheet and then the
desired point can be plotted by making the suitable measurements from the control points.
 Let Q and P be the two control points whose positions are already known on the plan. The
position of R can be plotted by any of the following methods:

1) By measuring the distance QR and PR as shown in figure 1. (a)

2) By dropping a perpendicular from R on the line QP and measuring either QS or RS or PS
and RS as shown in figure 1. (b)
3) By measuring QR and angle α as shown in figure 1.(c)

SURVEYING INSTRUMENTATION
There is a long list of surveying equipment available in the market today. The selection of
particular equipment depends on the type of application and accuracy required. Though all these
equipments provide a wide range of options to surveyors, it is advisable to have a thorough
knowledge of both, the equipment and the desired survey. This would not only help in bringing
accuracy to the work but would also save considerable time and money

Select surveying instruments

The main surveying instruments in use around the world are the theodolite, measuring tape, total station,
3D scanners, GPS/GNSS, level and rod. Most instruments screw onto a tripod when in use. Tape measures
are often used for measurement of smaller distances. 3D scanners and various forms of aerial imagery are
also used.

Surveying Equipments – Old

In ancient times surveying equipment included chains, compass, solar compass, transit,
theodolite and more. Chains with equal size links were used to measure distance between two
required points.
A compass was used to measure the direction of a line that was being surveyed. A solar compass
was used for measuring both the direction and latitude of a particular point with the help of sun
and stars. A Solar Compass could also measure horizontal angles and the “true north" of a
particular place. A metallic measuring tape was used to measure shorter distances.
As technology gradually advanced with time, instruments used for surveying also improved.
Horizontal and vertical angles were measured using a simple theodolite whereas different
heights were measured by a basic level. Measuring wheels were also initially used by surveyors
to measure long distances in a short duration of time. Measuring wheels came in two types:
mechanical and electrical, and both worked on the same principle of rolling the wheel from the
start to the end point.

In the early 1900s, surveyors started to use surveying equipment such as planimeters, theodolites,
automatic levels and measuring wheels.
An auto level or a dumpy level is also a type of surveying equipment used for measuring
horizontal levels. It consists of a telescope like device fitted on a tripod stand.
Most surveying instruments are fixed on a tripod, which acts as a support. As the name suggests,
tripods have three legs with length varying capability. Many of these equipments are still used by
surveyors around the world.
Theodolite
Surveying Equipment - New

Recent development in technology has provided some of the finest surveying equipments present
today. Moreover, with the introduction of global positioning system, the methods of surveying
have also totally changed. GPS has not only made surveying faster but has increased the
accuracy to amazing heights. GPS works with the help of satellite systems which provide
accurate data directly on the computer screen. Various types of GPS equipment are available,
from basic to highly advanced. Some GPS equipment even have night vision which facilitates
surveying during the night time. However, it is said that though GPS helps in acquiring the exact
position of the land; it does not provide good results in dense forest areas or concrete
constructions. For this reason, an instrument known as total station is used along with the GPS
Introduction History GP
We Measure –Why?
 Mapping- determining the location of existing features
 Setting-out- marking the location of new features

Total station is a theodolite with an Electronic Distance Measurement Device. Total station can
also be used for leveling when adjusted in a horizontal plane.
A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying and building
construction. The total station is an electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with an electronic
distance meter (EDM) to read slope distances from the instrument to a particular point and
software running on an external computer known as a data collector. With the aid of
trigonometry, the angles and distances may be used to calculate the actual positions(x, y, and z or
northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points in absolute terms.

Total station: is a surveying instrument that determines coordinate of a point indirectly from
measured angles and distances. Its height reference is the geoid

Beginning in about1980, an EDM component, which also had been improved to enable
automatic read out, was combined with an electronic theodolite to create a single instrument
called the total station.

–The functions of the distance and angle measuring components were controlled by an interfaced
computer.

–Modern total station instruments can now make slope distance measurements, automatically
display the results, and also store the data in the computer memory.

They can also measure angles both in horizontal planes and vertical planes, and again there sults
can be automatically displayed and stored.

–The on board computer can use these measured data in real time to resolve horizontal and
vertical distances, to calculate the positions and elevations of points, or to set points for
construction projects.
–Total station instruments are probably the most commonly used and important instruments in
modern surveying today, having practically replaced all transits, theodolites, and stand alone
EDM instruments.
Components of Total station

 EDM
 Electronic theodolite
 On-Board Micro-processor
 Data Collector (built in or separate unit)
  Data Storage (internal or memory card)
 Prisms
Measures and Records
 Horizontal Angles
 Vertical Angles
 Slope Distances
Calculates
 Horizontal Distance
 Vertical Distance
 X,Y,Z Coordinates
 Layout Etc

Uses
1. Topo and As Built
2. Construction Layout
3. Monitoring & Control

GPS
Global Positioning System
A shortened term for NAVSTAR GPS Navigation Satellite Timing And Ranging
A system for locating ourselves on earth.
There are 24 geostationary satellites positioned around the earth by US air force. These satellites
are used as reference points to locate any point on the earth. They are at an altitude of 20200km
above the earth. The 24 satellites are positioned such that from any point on the earth a minimum
of 4 satellites are visible.
A user needs only GPS receiver. The receiver measures the travel time of the signals from
satellites and calculate position (latitude and longitude) and the elevation (altitude) of the station
with reference to a selected datum.

7.2. The advantages of using GPS:

1. Man power required is less
2. Can be used in day as well as in night
3. Indivisibility of the two stations on the earth is not a requirement
4. The time required to establish the position of a point is much less
5. For some of GPS, Accuracy is high (Most expensive GPS provide accuracies within 0.01m).

Uses of GPS: GPS is very useful in:

1) Marine navigation
2) Airborne aviation
3) Surveying of land
4) Sports such as yachting and hiking
5) Using GPS, drivers of automobiles can get directions to their destination easily on the screen

4HANDLE OF SURVEYING EQUIPMENT

CARE OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
Surveying instruments are used to carry out mostly precise and accurate measurements; to
achieve that they require good care. Study this information to learn how to take care of surveying
instruments; a test will be written according to the semester schedule.
1. Always keep the instrument in its case during vehicle transit.
2. Always keep the tripod legs stored and strapped during vehicle transit.
3. Replace the instrument in its box, with clamps secured when not in use.
4. Always centralize the foot screws before replacement.
5. Dry before storing after exposure to rain
6. Wipe the lenses only with a tissue or dusting brush.
7. Centralize the low motion screws from time to time.
8. Handle the instrument by the base only.
9. Never subject the instrument to vibration.
10. Never force the instrument.
11. Keep the instrument free from dust and rapid temperature changes.
12. Check that the adjusting tools are secured in the box.
13. Never stand the tripod on a smooth surface.
14. Always stand the tripod up vertically with legs spread when in use, never lean it against a
wall or vehicle.
15. Never leave the instrument unattended when set up, particularly where there is site traffic.
16. Check the tightness of the hinges and metals fittings.
17. Keep the cover plate of the tripod on when not in use.
18. Only use a damp cloth to clean the staff.
20. Keep the staff in its leather or plastic pouch during vehicle transit.
21. When the markings on the staff start to fade, return the staff to the manufacturer for
remarking.
22. When extending the staff, DO NOT SHOOT the extensions out, as this will damage the
locking mechanism.
23. Never remove the instrument from its housing and place it on the boot or roof of a vehicle.
24. Never return the foot screws so far that the instrument comes loose from its base plate.
25. Never carry the instrument when it is on the tripod. Remove the instrument and place it in its
container.
SETTING UP A LEVEL AND TAKING READINGS TEST
Setting up a level:
1. The tripod is set up over a benchmark with each leg approximately 400 – 500m away from the
center of the tripod.
2. Ensure the tripod head is approximately level.
3. Secure all tripod legs into the ground
4. Test for stability by placing one hand on top of the tripod and try to turn it in both directions.
5. Remove the instrument from its case and place it on the tripod
6. The instrument should be placed in such a way that the foot screws are in line with the legs of
the tripod and centered on the tripod.
7. Secure the instrument with the tripod bolt, without force.
8. Close the box and place it away from the tripod so that you do not trip over it.
9. Centre the circular bubble by first using only two foot screws by placing the bubble parallel to
two foot screws and center it by moving both screws either inwards or outwards at the same
time.
10. Secondly use the third foot screw to bring the bubble to the center
11. Repeat the two previous instructions until the bubble is centered.
12. When the circular bubble has been centered the vertical axis of rotation of the instrument is
approximately vertical. The compensator automatically levels the line of sight for every
subsequent pointing of the instrument.
13. Parallax elimination Parallax is an apparent change in the position of an object resulting from
a change in position of the observer; therefore it must be removed before any observations can be
made to a leveling staff.
The methods of removing parallax:
i. The eyepiece must be focused on the reticule until the lines of the reticule are seen
clearly and sharply. This is done by slowly rotating the eyepiece in either a clockwise or
anti-clockwise direction.
ii. ii. The image of the staff must be focused on to the reticule by means of the internal
focusing lens. This lens is activated by the focusing screw which is situated on the right-
hand side of the telescope.
14. After eliminating parallax, the instrument is ready to be used to take observations on staves.
15. The staff is sighted by using the peep sight on top of the telescope and brought into focus by
using the focusing knob and staff reading is booked.
16. The bubble of the level should remain central; in practice, it might not be centered because of
a variety of reasons, namely:
a. Imperfect adjustment of the instrument
b. Wind pressure c. The observer’s movements around the tripod
d. Unequal expansion of the various parts of the instrument by the sun

SETTING UP A TOTAL STATION / THEODOLITE TEST

Setting up
 The total station is set up on a tripod over a benchmark with each leg approximately
500mm from the benchmark.
 The tripod head should be approximately level
 The front leg of the tripod is secured into the ground
 Test for stability of the tripod by placing a hand on top of the tripod and try to turn it in
both directions
 Remove the instrument from its case and place it on the tripod  Keep on holding the
instrument until it is secured to the tripod with a bolt; it should be centered on the tripod
 Close the box and put it away so that you do not trip on it
 Centralize the foot screws and the horizontal and vertical slow motion screws
  With the front led firmly into the ground, take a grip on the other two tripod legs, place
your big toe next to the bench mark and look through the optical plummet
 While looking through the plummet, lift the two tripod legs and move tripod around until
the cross hairs are over the benchmark
 Place the tripod on the ground whilst still looking through the optical plummet so that the
cross hairs do not move away from the benchmark
 Secure the two remaining legs into the ground
Levelling
There are two bubbles to be levelled, the circular bubble (bull’s eye bubble) and the plate bubble
(sprit level bubble)
Bull’s eye bubble
 It is levelled using the tripod legs.
Loosen the tripod legs one by one starting with the one positioned opposite the bubble;
Using the legs move the bubble to the center
 By moving the tripod legs one by one, one can centralize the bulls eye bubble
 It does not need to be exactly at the center at this stage but it should at least be inside the
inner circle
Levelling the plate bubble
 It is levelled the same way as the automatic level using foot screws
 Turn the plate bubble to a position where it is parallel to two foot screws; Centre the
bubble by turning both foot screws at the same time either inward or outwards depending
on the position of the bubble until it is center
 Turn the bubble through 90o that is until it is parallel to the third foot screw
 Level it using this third foot screw until it is centered; repeat these two steps until the
bubble remains centered when the instrument is turned through 360o and stopped.
 The instrument is now level and ready for orientation