Course: Foundations of Psychology Instructor: Ms Saba Asif
Chapter# 9 Lecture# 38 - 40
Motivation and emotion
Contents
• Introduction to motivation
• Factors affecting motivation
• Introduction to emotions
• Types and physiology of emotions
• Theories of emotions
Defining Motivation
Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal. Motivation is the
process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes you to act,
whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.
Nature of Motivation
describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal. It is an urge to behave or
act in a way that will satisfy certain conditions, such as wishes, desires, or goals. Older theories
of motivation stated that rational thought and reason were the guiding factors in human
motivation; however, psychologists now believe that motivation may be rooted in basic impulses
to optimize well-being, minimize physical pain, and maximize pleasure. Motivation involves the
biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior.
In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does
something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation doesn't just refer to the
factors that activate behaviors; it also involves the factors that direct and maintain these goal-
directed actions (though such motives are rarely directly observable). As a result, we often have
to infer the reasons why people do the things that they do based on observable behaviors.
Components of Motivation
There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.
Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.
Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example
of persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it
requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources.
Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example,
one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly,
participate in discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first
student lacks intensity, while the second pursues his educational goals with greater intensity.
Factors affecting motivation
Motivation can be intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external
factors).
• Internal factors:
Intrinsically motivated behaviors are generated by the sense of personal satisfaction that they
bring. They are driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself that comes from the
individual, not society.
For example, if you are in college because you enjoy learning and want to make yourself a more
well-rounded individual, you are intrinsically motivated. Intrinsic motivation is a critical element
in cognitive, social, and physical development; those individuals who are intrinsically motivated
are likely to perform better and improve their skills at a given task. Intrinsic motivations are
those that arise from within the individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely
for the personal gratification of solving a problem.
• External Factors:
Extrinsically motivated behaviors, in contrast, are performed in order to receive something from
others. They do not come from within the individual, but from society— other people.
For example, employees might do their work because they want the company to pay them, not
because they love the work. Many athletes are driven by the goal of winning, beating the
competition, and receiving praise from fans; they are not driven by the intrinsic satisfaction they
get from playing the sport. Similarly, if you are in college because you want to make yourself
more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your
motivation is more extrinsic in nature. Extrinsic motivations are those that arise from outside of
the individual and often involve rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation:
Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual and results in a sense of autonomy,
mastery, and purpose. Extrinsic motivation such as punishments, rewards, and other types of
compensation, come from outside the individual.
Introduction to Emotions
How we interpret and respond to the world around us makes up who we are and contributes to
our quality of life. The study of emotional psychology allows researchers to dive into what
makes humans react as they do to certain stimuli and how those reactions affect us both
physically and mentally. While the study of emotional psychology is vast and complex,
researchers have discovered quite a bit about what constitutes our emotions and our behavioral
and physical reactions to them.
Defining Emotions
Emotions are often confused with feelings and moods, but the three terms are not
interchangeable.
According to the American Psychological Association (APA),
emotion is defined as “a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral and
physiological elements.”
Emotions are how individuals deal with matters or situations they find personally
significant. Emotional experiences have three components: a subjective experience, a
physiological response and a behavioral or expressive response.
The Process Of Emotion
While there is debate about sequence, there is general agreement that emotions, as mentioned
earlier, are made up of three parts: subjective experiences, physiological responses and
behavioral responses. Let’s look at each of these parts in more detail.
1. Subjective Experiences
All emotions begin with a subjective experience, also referred to as a stimulus, but what does
that mean? While basic emotions are expressed by all individuals regardless of culture or
upbringing, the experience that produces them can he highly subjective.
Subjective experiences can range from something as simple as seeing a color to something as
major as losing a loved one or getting married. No matter how intense the experience is, it can
provoke many emotions in a single individual and the emotions each individual feel may be
different. For example, one person may feel anger and regret at the loss of a loved one while
another may experience intense sadness.
2. Physiological Responses
We all know how it feels to have our heart beat fast with fear. This physiological response is the
result of the autonomic nervous system’s reaction to the emotion we’re experiencing. The
autonomic nervous system controls our involuntary bodily responses and regulates our fight-or-
flight response. According to many psychologists, our physiological responses are likely how
emotion helped us evolve and survive as humans throughout history.
Interestingly, studies have shown autonomic physiological responses are strongest when a
person’s facial expressions most closely resemble the expression of the emotion they’re
experiencing. In other words, facial expressions play an important role in responding accordingly
to an emotion in a physical sense.
3. Behavioral Responses
The behavioral response aspect of the emotional response is the actual expression of the emotion.
Behavioral responses can include a smile, a grimace, a laugh or a sigh, along with many other
reactions depending on societal norms and personality.
While plentiful research suggests that many facial expressions are universal, such as a frown to
indicate sadness, sociocultural norms and individual upbringings play a role in our behavioral
responses. For example, how love is expressed is different both from person to person and across
cultures.
Behavioral responses are important to signal to others how we’re feeling, but research shows that
they’re also vital to individuals’ well-being. A study in the Journal of Abnormal
Psychology found that while watching negative and positive emotional films, suppression of
behavioral responses to emotion had physical effects on the participants. The effects included
elevated heart rates. This suggests that expressing behavioral responses to stimuli, both positive
and negative, is better for your overall health than holding those responses inside. Thus, there are
benefits of smiling, laughing and expressing negative emotions in a healthy way.
Emotional psychologist Paul Ekman identified six basic emotions that could be interpreted
through facial expressions. They included happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust.
He expanded the list in 1999 to also include embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame, pride,
satisfaction and amusement, though those additions have not been widely adapted.
List Of The Six Basic Emotions
• Sadness
• Happiness
• Fear
• Anger
• Surprise
• Disgust
Theories Of Emotion
As we’ve explored, emotion is multifaceted and debatable. Thus, many theories of emotion exist.
While some theories directly refute others, many build upon each other. Here are some common
theories of emotional psychology that have helped shape the field and how humans view
emotions.
1. James-Lange Theory
The James-Lange Theory of Emotion is one of the earliest emotion theories of modern
psychology. Developed by William James and Carl Lange in the 19th century, the theory
hypothesizes that physiological stimuli (arousal) causes the autonomic nervous system to react
which in turn causes individuals to experience emotion. The reactions of the nervous system
could include a fast heartbeat, tensed muscles, sweating and more. According to this theory, the
physiological response comes before the emotional behavior. Over time, the James-Lange theory
has been challenged, as well as expanded upon in other theories, suggesting that emotion is the
mix of physiological and psychological response.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory
Developed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard in the 1920s, the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
was developed to refute the James-Lange theory. This theory posits that bodily changes and
emotions occur simultaneously instead of one right after the other. This theory is backed by
neurobiological science that says that the once a stimulating event is detected, the information is
relayed to both the amygdala and the brain cortex at the same time. If this holds true, arousal and
emotion are a simultaneous event.
3. Schachter-Singer Theory
This theory, developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer, introduces the element of
reasoning into the process of emotion. The theory hypothesizes that when we experience an
event that causes physiological arousal, we try to find a reason for the arousal. Then, we
experience the emotion.
4. Cognitive Appraisal Theory
Richard Lazarus pioneered this theory of emotion. According to the Cognitive Appraisal Theory,
thinking must occur before experiencing emotion. Thus, a person would first experience a
stimulus, think, and then simultaneously experience a physiological response and the emotion.
These are far from the only theories of emotion that exist, but they provide great examples of
how the ideas about how emotion is generated differ from each other. What all theories of
emotion have in common is the idea that an emotion is based off some sort of personally
significant stimulus or experience, prompting a biological and psychological reaction.
