TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

College of Engineering Technology

Office of the Program Coordinator

LEARNING MODULE

Subject Code:

TE434
(ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING)

COMPILED BY:

ARON J. LEONORAS

2020
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LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: 3

TOPICS: Ecological Systems, Disturbance and Pollution; Water Pollution, Ecological

Perspectives; Water Quality in Rivers and Lakes

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. The freshwater environment

2. Marine systems
3. Terrestrial ecosystems
4. Ecological systems and pollution
5. Assessment of Water quality
6. Aquatic, freshwater, and marine pollution
7. Transformation processes in water bodies
8. Turbulent mixing rivers
9. Groundwater quality

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

The students will be able to learn the basic conditions of ecological systems,
disturbances, and pollution, and understand the impact to the environment of each
inherent ecological characteristics such as freshwater and floodwater conditions, the
features of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, the classifications and effects of
pollutants to the physical environment; the nature and assessment of water pollution; as
well as the physical properties of water and wastewater in water bodies such as rivers
and lakes.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

A. Ecological Systems, Disturbances and Pollution

In an ecological system, each species has a particular range of optimum for

physicochemical factors such as temperature, pH, light, nutrients, and biological
factors such as food, competitors and predators that vary in space and time within the
environment. A species is most successful in that area or place where the ranges of
optima for the different factors overlap to the greatest degree; this is, in effect, the
species niche – the entire set of optima conditions under which the species survives
and reproduces itself indefinitely. Each species within a community and habitat has a
different and unique niche, some more similar to each other than others. In crude
terms we can think of the habitat as a box into which the niches of all the species
living in the community fit just like balls. This habitat niche space itself fits into the
entire niche space of the biome and in turn the biosphere.
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Disturbance can be defined as a discrete, punctuated killing, displacement or

damaging of one or more individuals or colonies that directly or indirectly creates an
opportunity for new individuals to become established (Sousa, 1984) and so causes a
temporary or permanent shift in the community. Pollution refers to any change in the
natural quality of the environment brought about by chemical, physical or even
biological factors, and normally refers to the activities of man.

Physical conditions can change naturally in the short term (e.g. through natural
disasters like flood, fire, storms, landslides, etc.) or in a directed way in the longer
term (e.g. gradual climatic change), or the habitat can be disturbed by man (building,
drainage, forest clearance). Biological processes like predation or gazing,
non-predatory effects like digging and man-induced events like tree felling, hunting,
mowing, etc., can also cause disturbances. Chemical conditions can be altered through
the elevation of concentrations of substances (like nutrients during eutrophication) or
the addition of toxic substances (like PCBs) through pollution. Under all of these
circumstances, the prevailing environmental conditions in a particular area have
changed and may no longer encompass the ranges of optima – the niches – of a few,
many or even all the original constituent species of the community living in that area.

The Freshwater Environment

We can conveniently divide freshwater systems into lotic - running waters -

and lentic - still waters. The characteristic features, certainly of running waters, are
determined by the physical setting, in which land-water linkages are important.
Therefore, it is important to consider freshwater systems in the context of an
integrated system of the river catchment including both the aquatic habitat and the
terrestrial drainage basin. What happens in the catchment has direct and indirect
effects on the freshwater ecosystems.

Oxygen

Oxygen is essential for animal and plant life as the major requirement for
respiration. Oxygen is 30 times less abundant in water (≈10 mg/L) than in air and can
therefore become a limiting factor. Oxygen concentration increases as water
temperature decreases and as turbulence and mixing in the water body increase. Thus,
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a fast, shallow, turbulent stream has higher dissolved oxygen levels than a
slow-moving, deep river.

Current

Current speed or velocity is a dominant physical factor in the functioning of

running water ecosystems, affecting the type of substrate. Eroding the nature of the
stream channel, oxygen levels and sediment loads and, in turn, therefore, the ecology
balance. It is also a factor often influenced by engineering activities. The shear stress
of the current on the substrate is proportional to velocity2, and influences the stability
of the substrate and the ability of animals living on and in the substrate (benthic
macroinvertebrates dominated by insect larvae) to retain their position on the stream
bed. Fish and plants are also influenced by the current. Different types of organisms
have differential tolerance to flow conditions and show strong preferences for a fairly
narrow range of current speeds. High current speeds outside tolerance limits can
dislodge organisms and carry them downstream. In addition, high flows can cause
direct mortality through physical damage, while deposition and sedimentation of
substrate can cause smothering of organisms during a flood.

1.) Flooding Disturbance

Flooding of rivers and streams is a frequent feature of many
landscapes and much attention is directed towards control and alleviation by
engineers due to the impact on agriculture, industry and urban areas. The
destructive force of floods can be immense and amounts to considerable
economic loss.

2.) Engineering implications to the effects of floods on natural ecosystems

The way water interacts with the surrounding catchment area has
important repercussions on the influence of heavy rainstorms on the running
water system. Certain streams and rivers are naturally ‘spatey’; the catchment
areas surrounding them are such that there is rapid and considerable runoff and
drainage of water into the system. Human influence on the landscape can
increase this input from the catchment and hence increase the natural
occurrence of catastrophic flooding events. Drainage of farmland causes water
to run off the land more quickly, leading to sharp hydrograph peaks in streams
during storm events.

Water Chemistry

Most of the dissolved and particulate organic and inorganic matter in

freshwaters is carried in from the surrounding catchment via surface runoff,
subsurface flow and from groundwaters, although there is some direct atmospheric
input as well. As such, the chemical nature of the freshwater system strongly reflects
the type of land being drained and the land use.

Light and Lake Zonation

Light is an important factor in still water and slow, large rivers. Light
penetration in water is poor and therefore light can be a major limiting factor to
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photosynthesis by aquatic plant life. Aquatic plants are restricted to fairly shallow
depths and are much dependent on the clarity of water.

Lake Classification

Lakes and large rivers can be classified on the basis of the level of primary
productivity. Low productivity systems are known as oligotrophic, characterized by
high levels of oxygen and low nutrient concentrations. High productivity systems are
eutrophic, usually with low oxygen levels and high nutrient concentrations.

Water Density and Thermal Stratification

Another important property of water is that density is greater at approximately

4 C - water above or below this temperature floats on water at 4 oC. Also, warmer
o

water floats on cooler water. This density differential per degree increases
progressively with higher temperatures. During the year, as the water body warms and
cools seasonally, there is a changing temperature profile with depth. This has direct
and indirect effects on several ecosystem processes.

Water Regulation

The effects of major water regulation schemes involving damming and

impoundments deserve special attention. Dams are built to regulate river discharge
preventing flooding of downstream settled lands, to create reservoirs of water and
often to produce hydroelectric power. When a barrier is put across a river, ecological
conditions change dramatically upstream as the aquatic system is switched from lotic
to lentic conditions - from a river to a lake. Filling time can vary depending on the
size of the reservoir/man-made lake basin in relation to the size of the river.

Marine Systems

The oceans cover a little over 70 % of the surface of the globe. On land, life
exists as a thin veneer, extending only a relatively short distance down into the soil
and up into the atmosphere. In the oceans, life exists from the surface down to the
deepest parts of the oceans (about 11000 meters). Over half of the globe lies beneath
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4000 meters of sea, the largest ecosystem in the world, known as the abyss, where it is
permanently dark, has a constant temperature of approximately 4oC and experiences a
constant pressure in excess of 400 atmospheres. The deep sea is, however, scarcely
exploited commercially, apart from mining of the often-abundant manganese nodules.
It is probable that as land resources become depleted, the deep sea will attract more
exploration and, when appropriate technologies have been developed, will become
more exploited.

Temperature

One of the most characteristic features of the oceans is its uniformity in

physicochemical properties. Temperatures range from 0oC in high latitudes (as low as
-2oC in the Arctic deep water) to +30oC in shallow tropical waters (up to 35oC in the
Persian Gulf), a range of only 30 to 37oC. This compares with a range of about 145oC
in the terrestrial ecosystems, which experience temperatures of -88oC in Antarctica to
+57oC in the Libyan Dessert.

Salinity

The total amount of inorganic material dissolved in seawater is termed the

salinity and is usually about 3.5 % or 35 parts per thousand. In the open ocean, where
rainfall is low and evaporation high, salinities may rise to 37 parts per thousand, e.g.
in the Sargasso Sea. On the other hand, in the Arctic during the summer, melting ice
may lower salinities to around 30 parts per thousand. Inshore waters are a little more
variable, with salinities reaching 40 parts per thousand or more in the Eastern
Mediterranean and Gulf of Arabia, due to high temperature with consequent
evaporation and little freshwater run-off, and as low as 5 parts per thousand in the
Northern Baltic, where there is considerable input from large rivers coupled with
relatively low temperatures.

Stratification and Productivity

Temperature and salinity together influence the density of seawater and, to a

much lesser extent, so does pressure, which increases with depth. The fact that the
density of seawater varies with temperature has important consequences for primary
productivity in the oceans. In low latitudes where the sea surface is heated by the sun
more or less throughout the year, a thermal stratification similar to that in lakes is
established, where the warmer surface water floats on the denser colder water with a
thermocline in between. As plants and animals decompose, they sink and the
constituent nutrients are not recycled into the upper layers, so that plant nutrients
become limiting, despite the abundant light for photosynthesis. For this reason,
tropical waters are relatively unproductive and that is why they always look so clear
and blue. In high latitudes, there is no stratification because the surface waters are
cold and of much the same temperature as the deeper water. Instead there is
continuous mixing which brings nutrients back up to the surface. In the long
day-length summers of high latitudes, there is ample sunlight and ample nutrients, so
productivity is high.

pH
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Unlike freshwater, the pH of seawater only varies between about pH 7.5 and
8.4, with the highest values occurring at the surface during periods of high
productivity when carbon dioxide is withdrawn during photosynthesis. An increase in
temperature or pressure causes a slight decrease in pH and under great pressure,
below 6000 meters, calcium carbonate goes into solution. Calcareous deposits are
thus conspicuously absent from the deep sea, and deep-sea bivalves (shellfish) tend to
have weakly calcified shells, while deep sea fish have weakly calcified skeletons. It is
the buffering properties of seawater, resulting from the presence of strong bases and
weak acids (H2CO3 and H2BO3), that maintains the pH.

Oxygen

The mixing properties of the oceans unlike those in lakes, operates on a global
scale, and supply oxygen to all ocean depths, including the deepest trenches, so that
oxygen is rarely a limiting factor. This is not to say that oxygen is uniformly
distributed. There is, for example, an oxygen minimum layer at about 400 to 1000
meters. Enclosed seas such as Mediterranean may experience deoxygenation at times,
as may the Norwegian Fjords. The Black Sea, cut off from the Mediterranean by the
Bosphorus, is permanently stagnant below 200 m, and therefore devoid of animal life,
although anaerobic bacteria flourish.

Circulation

The oceans therefore are in general well oxygenated, with a fairly even
temperature, chemical composition and pH. This benign nature is dependent upon the
mixing properties of the oceans which are brought about by the current systems
generated by the action of the winds on the surface waters and the differences in the
density of seawater resulting from variations in salinity. The direction in which
surface current flow is affected principally by the Coriolis effect and the shape of the
land masses.

Waves

Another feature of oceans is the presence of waves. On the surface they are
usually produced by winds. In a moving wave in deep water, water particles move in
a nearly circular orbit, rising to meet each wave crest as it passes them. Waves move
with the wind, but the individual particles of water do not, although there is a slow
mass transport of water in the general wind direction.

Natural Disturbances

Because of the immensity and homogeneity in conditions of the oceans,

natural disturbances such as hurricanes, floods, droughts, etc., generally have little
impact upon marine systems except on a very local scale, in inshore waters. In general,
animals living in the intertidal and in shallow coastal waters of temperate regions
have adapted to environmental variation since they experience regular differences in
temperature and salinity and are exposed to the air for short periods as a result of the
daily immersion from the tidal cycle. These factors also vary seasonally. The
organisms are thus scarcely affected by the disturbances that can cause havoc on land.
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Organisms of tropical, on the other hand, do not experience significant seasonality

and may be more damaged by natural disturbances.

Anthropogenic Disturbances

Marine Systems, because of their size, are buffered against disturbance and
man has long regarded the oceans as useful dumps for a wide variety of rubbish. We
are now becoming aware, however, that such a cavalier attitude to the seas is no
longer acceptable. Recall the international uproar when Shell Oil intended to dump
one of their defunct North Sea platforms in the North Atlantic. The problems of viral
infection from swimming on beaches affected by sewage have brought home the real
and immediate dangers of polluting coastal waters. The discoveries of PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls) in Antarctic penguins and lead residues in Arctic ice have
demonstrated very clearly that marine pollution is a global problem requiring
co-operation from all nations.

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by their vegetation - the carpet of

plant life covering the ground that confers a three-dimensional structure to the habitat.
Vertical structure consists of the different layers or strata of the vegetation - a tropical
forest has a very complex vertical structure compared to a simple pasture or tundra.
There is also a horizontal component with different patches of different species
combinations, each with its own degree of stability. There is also a temporal element
to the nature of the vegetation at a particular place, as pioneer assemblages of
ephemeral weeds on uncultivated or disturbed ground gradually change to climax
forests with a complex array of life forms and layers.

Temperature and Moisture

Land heats up and cools down much more quickly than water, thus terrestrial
habitats have greater daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations. Thus from a global
perspective, the distribution of vegetation can be associated with temperature (Krebs,
1985). However, at the level of the individual plant species, there is a less clear-cut
effect of temperature. In cold climates, plants have usually evolved adaptations to
cope with low temperatures, but they cannot anticipate unusual conditions, so late
spring frosts, for example, a sharper, but again at a global rather than a local level.
Temperature is more likely to affect activity patterns of animals than distribution per
se.

Light, Nutrient and Soils

Light is vital for photosynthesis. Generally plants are either shade-tolerant or

shade-intolerant, depending on their ability to function efficiently at low light levels.
Under dense shade there is normally little ground vegetation. This is usually attributed
to lack of light reaching the forest floor, but competition between plants for soil water
and nutrients may also play a part. All plants require the same basic set of essential
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nutrients including P, N, Mg, Fe, S, K and Ca, but they do not use the nutrients in the
same proportions, hence soil type can affect the distribution of plants. Soils are in turn
affected by the plants that grow on them. While it is true that most plants have fairly
wide tolerance for soil types, some species are restricted to specific soils.

The Influence of Humanity

In much of the world, the vegetation is not natural, but is semi-natural as a

result of the activities of humanity. The change from tropical rainforest to poor
agricultural grazing land in large tracts of Africa and South America is the most
obvious example. However, what is not often realized is that very little of the
so-called ‘countryside’ of Europe is actually the natural vegetation for the region. It is
the result of hundreds of years of manipulation, tree felling, intensive grazing by
cattle and sheep, application of fertilizers and other activities. Removing the
agricultural pressures from most of Europe and North America would probably lead
to a return to the natural forests that once covered these large tracts of land.
Humanity’s role in shaping terrestrial habitats should not be overlooked.

Natural Changes in Terrestrial Vegetation and Disturbance

Vegetation is naturally in a state of flux. Short-term, reversible, fluctuations

occur about some notional mean state on a seasonal or perhaps year-to-year basis,
with differences among the constituent species responding to fluctuations in the
environmental conditions. Over a longer time frame, successional changes occur
which markedly alter the appearance of the vegetation over time. These changes are
directional from the initial state, involving the appearance of new species and loss of
others. All vegetation appears to be subject to successional change although the rate
may often be too slow to be detectable (Miles, 1979).

Ecological Systems and Pollution

The movement of pollutants and toxic compounds through the environment is

very similar to the movement of energy and nutrients within the ecosystem and on a
larger scale through the biosphere. These chemicals (commonly known as pollutants)
may cause harm to living organisms and the environment. The study of pollutant
movement through the environment is known as ecotoxicology. However, before
discussing the processes involved, let us first define a pollutant.

Definition and Classification of Pollutants

A pollutant is defined as ‘a substance that occurs in the environment, at least

in part, as a result of human activities, and which has a deleterious effect on the
environment’ (Moriarty, 1990). Pollutants are now unfortunately part of our
environment as a result of industry and other activities. It is estimated that there are
about 63000 chemicals in use today (Maugh, 1978) and there are many hundreds
being developed each year. The term ‘pollutant’ is a broad term and refers to a range
of compounds, from a superabundance of nutrients giving rise to enrichment of
ecosystems to toxic compounds which may be carcinogenic (cancer causing),
mutagenic (cause damage to genes) to tetragenic (compounds that cause abnormalities
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in developing embryos). One of the most useful classifications of pollutants divides

them into two major groups: (a) those that affect the physical environment and (b)
those that are directly toxic to organisms, including humanity (Moriarty, 1990).

Pollutants that change the physical environment

Some pollutants do not have any obvious direct effect on living organisms but
simply change the physical environment in such a way as to make conditions less
suitable for life or unsuitable for the community present in the ecosystem at the time.
The substances or conditions may have always been, but now their concentrations or
levels are altered.

Toxic Pollutants

Some compounds, however, directly affect an organism’s health and these are
called toxic pollutants. Toxic pollutants include a range of compounds from heavy
metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins to radioactive ions. Their
toxicity depends on a number of factors.

1.) Concentration

It is important to point out that although many elements may be required by

organisms in trace amounts for normal physiological functioning they may
also be toxic in large quantities; i.e. toxicity depends on concentration.
Good examples of this are the heavy metals, such as copper and zinc. Not
all metals, however, have been shown to be essential in trace
concentrations. Lead, aluminum and mercury have no known physiological
role and are highly toxic to organisms.

2.) Chemical forms or species of compounds

Most heavy metals are only absorbed by the individual organism and
distributed through ecosystems if they are in methlyated form, where
methyl group(s) (CH3) are added to the element making it easier to enter
organisms. In the same way, only certain species of metals with particular
charges are toxic to organisms. For example, the particular form of
aluminum which is toxic to fish in streams is a type called labile
monomeric aluminum (Howells, 1990), and this form occurs at certain
stream pH levels. Therefore, complete examination of the form and ‘species’
of metal must be established as a pollutant before its toxicity can be
determined.

3.) Persistence

Some compounds disappear very quickly from the environment and are
said to have a very short half-life, i.e. the time for 50 % of the compound to
disappear or be broken down into a non-toxic form. Modern herbicides fall
into this category.
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Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

All organisms are made up of individual cells and in order for these cells to
obtain nutrients and essential trace elements they selectively absorb and store a great
variety of molecules. This is a natural process called bioaccumulation or
bioconcentration. Because of the similarity between many toxic compounds, in
particular heavy metals and essential trace elements, many toxins that are rather dilute
in the environment can reach dangerous levels inside cells and tissues through
bioaccumulation.

Mixture of Compounds or Pollutants

Organisms are not exposed to just a single environmental condition or factor

but to many simultaneously. In the same way, organisms are rarely exposed to
individual compounds in the environment. In fact, all environments consist of
mixtures of natural organic and inorganic compounds and most also include a range
of manufactured compounds. These mixtures may have significant effects on the
toxicity of pollutants. If two or more compounds are present in a mixture, they exert a
combined effect on an organism which may be additive (Mason, 1993).

Lethal and Sublethal Effects

Chemical compounds and mixtures of chemicals can have three types of effect
on organisms. One is no effect at all, the second is a lethal effect and the third is a
sublethal effect. The first case is self-explanatory whereby a compound is effectively
biologically inert to the organism (although it should be pointed out that some
compounds may have no effect on some organisms but may prove lethal or sublethal
to other types). In the second case a substance may be lethal to an organism at a given
concentration. In this context there are specified protocols for defining the toxicity of
substances and lethal doses based on LD50 and LC50 (i.e. the lethal dose or
concentration of a toxic compound at which 50 % of organisms die when exposed to
that concentration for a certain duration of time, usually 48 hours).

Environmental Factors Affecting Toxicity

A large number of environmental factors influence the toxicity of chemical

compounds. These environmental parameters only affect the metabolism of organisms
themselves but also influence the bioavailability of chemicals to organisms.
Chemicals that are released into the atmosphere, water or soil are often transformed
one form to another, e.g. elements may be transformed from an inorganic state to an
organic state or vice versa. These chemical changes may be brought about by
oxidation, methylation or other chemical processes in the soil, water or air. This often
results in increased toxicity of compounds. For example, consider mercury (Hg), a
compound released in large concentrations from crematoria (Mills, 1990) and
formerly a fungicide widely used in agriculture. Inorganic mercury in itself is
virtually unavailable to biological systems and hence has no toxicity. However, when
the mercury is transformed into methylated mercury by bacteria and fungi in soil and
water it becomes extremely toxic to biological systems.
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B. Water Pollution: Ecological Properties

Water is a renewable resource, which is a naturally recycled in the

hydrological cycle. Surface waters tend to have a short residence time in the
hydrological cycle while groundwaters have a very long residence time. The recycling
renews water resources and potentially provides a continuous supply. With the advent
of industrialization, intensification of agriculture and increasing populations, the
demand of water has increased. The main uses of freshwater (consumer processes)
can be divided into two broad categories: abstraction and instream uses. (Table 3.1)
The conflict of uses and strong land-water linkages have contributed to
establishing ta range of freshwater quality issues and limitations to the use of water
resources at the global scale, which are outlined in Table 3.2.

Table 3.1

Main consumer processes of aquatic resources

Abstraction Instream uses
Domestic supply Biological exploitation
Irrigation Power generation
Industry - manufacturing Transportation/navigation
Industry - cooling Recreation/amenity
Flushing of canals Flood control
Diversion between catchments Waste transportation
Political boundaries
Water Quality Standards and Parameters

Pollution and water quality degradation thus interfere with vital and legitimate
water uses at scales from local regional to international levels (given the
transboundary unidirectional nature of river systems and vastness of seas and oceans).
Water quality criteria and standards are therefore necessary to ensure that the
appropriate quality of resource is available to a particular consumer process. The
related legislation is used as an administrative mean to manage and maintain water
quality for the maximum number of users of the water body.

Table 3.2

(a) Major freshwater quality issues on a global scale and (b) limitations to water uses
due to degradation of water quality by various pollutants
(a)
Water body

Issue Rivers Lakes Reservoirs Groundwaters

Pathogens xxx x† x† x

Suspended solids xx na x na

Decomposable organic matter‡ xxx x xx x

Eutrophications x xx xxx na

Nitrate as a pollutant x 0 0 xxx

Salinization x 0 x xxx
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Trace elements xx xx xx xx¶

Organic micropollutants xxx xx xx xxx¶

Acidification x xx xx 0

Modification of hydrological regimes†† xx x x

xxx Severe or global deterioration found † mostly in small and shallow water bodies.

xx Important deterioration ‡ Other than resulting from aquatic primary production

x Occasional or regional deterioration § Algae and macrophytes.

0 Rare deterioration ¶ From landfill, mine tailings.

na Not applicable †† Water diversion, damming, overpumping, etc.

b)
Consumer Process

Pollutant Drinking Aquatic wildlife, Recreation Irrigation Industrial Power and Transport
water fisheries
uses cooling

Pathogens xx 0 xx x xx† na na

Suspended solids xx xx xx x x x‡ xx§

Organic matter xx††,‡‡ x xx + xx¶ x†† na

Algae x x§§ xx + xx¶ x†† x¶¶

Nitrate xx x na + xx† na na

Salts xx xx na xx xx‡‡‡ na na

Trace elements xx xx x x x na na

Organic micropollutants xx xx x x ? na na

Acidification x xx x ? x x na

xx Marked impairment causing major treatement or † Food Industries

excluding the desired use

x Minor impairment. ‡ Abrasion

0 No impairment § Sediment settling in channels

na Not applicable ¶ Electronic industries.

+ Degraded water quality may be beneficial for this specific use. †† Filter clogging

? Effects not yet fully realized ‡‡ Odour, taste

§§ In fish ponds higher algal biomass can be accepted.

After Chapman, 1992 ¶¶ Development of water hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes)

††† Also includes boron, fluoride, etc.

‡‡‡ Ca, Fe, Mn in textile industries, etc.

Assessment of Water Quality

The maintenance and assessment of water quality are important procedures in
such in modern society. Earliest and simplest methods were purely subjective - does
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the water look clean, smell right, etc.? Such assessment of water quality is sufficient
for some consumer processes but, for most, the fact what water is such a good solvent
and can contain all kinds of dissolved substances led to requirements for more precise
assessment methods. These have been met through hydrochemical analytical
techniques. Each chemical parameter has an associated standard, and water is
chemically tested as a routine measure to ensure it fulfills the quality standards for the
various consumer processes. However, there are thousands of chemical pollutants, but
only a small number can be analyzed in any one sample.

Thus, modern approaches to the description of water quality utilize three

approaches:

• Quantitative measurements, such as of physicochemical parameters in water, in

sediments or in biological tissues.
• Biochemical/biological tests (including BOD estimation, toxicity testing, etc.)
• Semi-quantitative and qualitative descriptors involving biological indicators and
species inventories (Chapman, 1992)

Aquatic Pollutants

The term pollutant was described in Chapter 5 and two main types were
considered:

• Those pollutants that affect the physical environment

• Those that are directly toxic to organisms

Some 1500 substances have been listed as pollutants in aquatic systems and
Mason (1991) has recently summarized these. To this list can be added heat, which
cannot be placed in these categories.
Some of the compounds may interact additively or antagonistically or synergistically
to give different responses in aquatic systems. The influence of polluting substances
in natural waters will vary according to the pollutant, the local conditions and the
organisms concerned. Pollutants can act in at least three ways (Maitland, 1990):

• Settling out and smothering life, e.g. mining effluents, poorly treated sewage and
sewage sludge.
• Being acutely toxic and killing directly, e.g. some industrial effluents, heavy
metals in relatively high concentrations.
• Influencing organisms indirectly, e.g. through reduction in oxygen supply,
addition of fertilizers or sublethal effects of compounds acting on growth,
reproduction, etc.

In the following sections, freshwater, estuarine and marine pollution are dealt
with separately. Although there are obvious overlaps in many of the processes and
sources of pollutants, the uses and importance of the various aquatic resources are
clearly different and deserve individual attention.

Freshwater Pollution
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This section will deal specifically with organic pollution, the major form of
pollution of freshwater systems, and then discusses two other subjects of serious
concern, namely eutrophication and acidification, as illustrative case studies of
freshwater pollution.

Organic Pollution

By far the greatest volume of discharge into freshwater systems is composed

of organic material, municipal sewage, industrial wastewater and agricultural
wastewaters. These liquid waste streams are rich in organic matter, and as they break
down in the presence of oxygen under bacterial activity, the dissolved oxygen levels
in the water are affected as well as liberating nutrients like nitrates and phosphates.
These wastes are said to have a high oxygen demand. The reduction in the oxygen
concentration in the water, brought about by the activities of the aerobic bacteria, is
compensated for by diffusion of oxygen from the water surface and from surrounding
areas of higher oxygen concentration. The replenishment process is, however, slow,
and as the oxygen level drops, anaerobic bacteria, which can oxidize organic
compounds without the presence of oxygen, start to thrive. The end products from the
activities of these bacteria are hydrogen sulphide, methane and ammonia. These
products are toxic to most higher organisms.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication can be defined as the enrichment of waters by inorganic plant

nutrients. The nutrients are usually nitrogen and phosphorous and these result in an
increase in primary productivity. In this discussion we are talking about artificial
enrichment which has been termed ‘cultural eutrophication’. This is an important
distinction because eutrophication of waters is a natural process in the life history of
freshwater lake systems which tend to gradually change from an oligotrophic to a
eutrophic system as they age.

Before going into further detail it is important to point out that a number of
factors affect the occurrence of eutrophication: firstly, the nutrient or trophic status of
the water body, secondly, the characteristics of the water body (e.g. size, water
residence time) and, thirdly, its susceptability to temperature and oxygen stratification
and whether it is a monomictic or dimictic lake. The degree of productivity can be
classified according to the annual mean level of phosphate entering a system and the
annual mean production of plant growth in the form of chlorophyll-a. For a variety of
lake and water body types in Europe the OECD has the classification for water body
status.

The sources of nutrients that cause the cultural eutrophication are essentially:

• Urban sewage effluent discharge which may be in the form of treated or untreated
sewage or
• Agricultural activities, especially animal wastes and fertilizers, which are found
particularly in the Western world and the United States.
 16

Surface Water Acidification

Eutrophication is, for the most part, a problem of the populated lowlands. In
the uplands and in more remote unpopulated regions, with poorly weathered rocks
and thin soils on poorly buffered geologies, acidification of lakes and rivers is much
more of a problem. Over the last two decades, acidification of surface waters has been
a major focus for political and scientific activity largely because of the transboundary
nature of the problem. Effects on the chemical, ecological and economic and aesthetic
status of rivers and lakes have been detected and have serious implications. There are
now many water bodies which today have low pH, low alkalinity and elevated metal
concentration as a result of acidification, and in many cases changes have been
induced by an through the disruption of biogeochemical cycles.

Effects of Surface Water Acidification

Surface water quality

The influence of acidification on surface water quality has received

considerable attention, not only because of changes in potable water quality, but also
due to changes in the ecology of systems caused by a reduction in pH. Because of the
paucity and unreliability of historical data, it has been difficult until recently to
describe spatial and temporal trends in acidification.

Biological effects of acidification

Organisms can be affected by acidification either directly by physiological

stress or indirectly by such changes as food supply, habitat provision and predation.
As expected, the ecosystem response to acidification is very complex, indicating the
complexity of both ecological and pollutant processes. Microbial activity seems to be
reduced with reduced decomposition.

Potential Solutions

The acidification of surface waters has resulted from deposition of acids, and
this has been accelerated in some areas by upland conifer afforestation. Potential
mitigation techniques may therefore be possible by policy changes in these areas
either individually or in combination. Possibilities include reduction in emissions,
liming of moorland catchments, short-term restriction in afforestation and direct
liming of waters. Emissions, in particular of sulphur dioxide, are dominated by power
stations and are likely to remain about the same over the foreseeable future.

Estuarine Water Quality

 17

Before discussing estuarine in detail, we will identify some of the main

characteristics of estuaries and illustrate how they differ from other aquatic systems.

Characteristics of Estuaries in Relation to Pollution

There are at least five important characteristics of estuaries which relate not
only to the pollution itself but also how it is distributed and how it may affect
estuarine ecosystems. The main points we will consider are tidal movement, salinity,
fluctuations in temperature and oxygen, reduced species diversity and sediments and
sedimentation.

Movement of the tide has a profound effect on the distribution, character and
adaptations of the estuarine organisms, and not only on the organisms but also on the
destination and the effects of pollution. The daily cycle of the tide means the
organisms living on the upper parts of the intertidal zone generally must be able to
withstand prolonged exposure to the air and short periods of inundation with brackish
or saline waters. In addition to the twice daily changes in the levels, there are the
monthly patterns of spring or neap tides. These tides will also determine the
distribution of pollutants in an estuary. It is often common practice to discharge on a
high tide, but if waste is discharged at the wrong state of the tide, the waste may be
driven further above an outfall, rather than out to sea as desired.

Salinity is the amount of inorganic of inorganic material dissolved in water

expressed as a weight in grams per kilogram of water, i.e. parts per thousand. The
salinity in an estuary will change overtime. Saline water is heavier than freshwater, so
it tends to sink below the inflowing freshwater as one progresses down an estuary,
forming a salt wedge. This salt wedge varies longitudinally within an estuary and
during the course of a tidal cycle. Associated with the tidal movements, there are large
changes on oxygen and temperature during the course of a tidal cycle. These changes,
in addition to those of salinity, will also make it difficult for organisms to survive.

The diversity and distribution of organisms is an important consideration in

evaluating the effects of pollution in estuarine ecosystems. Estuaries have a naturally
low diversity of species and higher biomass than other aquatic systems. The majority
of species present are euryhaline (tolerant of wide salinity changes) and occur in high
abundance. The substrate will also influence the species present, in that at the top of
the estuary it will tend to be muddy, whereas at the seaward end it would tend to be
stony.

In addition to these changes in chemistry, there are also possibilities for

stratification of the water body, the long residence time, the nature of mixing zones
and sedimentation of material when the river enters the estuary to be taken into
consideration. The change of pH and redox potentials as freshwater encounters the sea
causes intense flocculation of clay and other particles, with increased adsorption of
metals and other materials on the flocculates. The sedimentation in estuaries leads to
expensive mudflats containing much organic material, metals and pesticides from the
water column. No two estuaries are the same and detailed examination of the
hydrological flow and the estuarine processes (mentioned above), etc., needs to be
established to allow the prediction of the geochemical behavior of each element and
 18

its possible effects on organisms as well as the role of estuaries in governing the mass
balance of nutrients between rivers and oceans.

Pollutants in Estuaries

Organic Waste

The bulk of municipal and licensed industrial waste into estuaries is organic
matter. Most of the domestic organic waste is sewage (municipal wastewater). This
organic waste will have a high biological oxygen demand (BOD).

Heavy Metals

In addition to the organic contamination of the water, there is an added load of

heavy metals from sewage and industrial waste. Metals such as copper and zinc in
sewage often become bound to the sediments of the estuary. These metals, unlike the
organic waste, are not biodegradable and persist in the environment. The metals often
precipitate out because of the displacement of the metal ions by the ions in the salt
water. They are often concentrated in filter feeding molluscs such as the mussels,
Mytilus.

Synthetic Organic Chemicals, e.g. Organochlorines

Synthetic organic compounds are also likely to enter the estuarine ecosystem.
Some of these compounds such as pesticides and PCBs are harmful and may have a
significant impact on the biota. Usually licenses are not issued to discharge these
wastes, and they seem to enter the estuaries via leachate (from, for example, landfill
sites or dumps) or through illicit dumping.

Thermal Waste

The origin of thermal water is from cooling water in industry and power
stations. This will increase turbidity due to an increase in suspended solids in the
waste and can also lead to greater oxygen demand by other waste effluents. The
increased water temperatures can also support some unusual assemblages of
organisms (often of semi-tropical origin in temperate estuaries) that are not usually
found under the normal climatic conditions.

Marine Pollution

The sea is a major sink or reservoir for all pollutants, covering as it does over
70 % of the surface of the globe. Pollutants entering the sea may be degradable or
non-degradable and are similar to the range found in other aquatic environments.

Pollutants enter the sea directly from outfalls and sometimes from coastal
towns, but most frequently they enter from estuaries. Pollutants also reach the sea
indirectly from rivers, which receive many pollutants from their drainage catchments,
as discussed earlier. Particulate atmosphere pollutants may enter the sea directly as
fall-out while non-particulate pollutants enter the sea through precipitation.
 19

Atmospheric pollution tends to be more regional or even global in scale then the
previously mentioned inputs.

Sewage and Other Oxygen Demanding Wastes

Man has been aware of the need to control the ‘nuisance’ value of sewage for
more than a century. In addition to the reduction in oxygen levels caused by the high
BOD levels of sewage, as discussed earlier, sewage pollution also can lead to
eutrophication, a process that has already been described for freshwaters and estuaries.
In the marine environment, a frequent sign of eutrophication is the growth on the
shore of the green algae Enteromorpha and Ulva, which turn parts of the beach bright
green. An increase in the incidence of red tides (caused by blooms of red algae) has
also been attributed to organic enrichment of coastal seas, although the precise factors
initiating blooms of these toxic phytoplankton species are not known. These red tides
can be economically destructive to fisheries y being toxic in themselves and also
through the bans on shellfish sales during these periods. A number of conditions have
been diagnosed in birds and other organisms known as paralytic shellfish poisoning
which is brought about by red tide toxins and is fatal to organisms.

Oil

Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which must be refined before

it is available for any of its multiple uses (lubricating, combustion, pharmaceuticals,
etc.). Oil enters the sea from a variety of sources.
Oil is a natural product which results from plant remains fossilized over
millions of years, under marine conditions. It is not surprising, therefore, that all
components of oil are readily biodegradable by bacteria, although different
components degrade at different rates, tars being one of the slowest. When oil is
spilled on the sea, being light, it spreads over the surface as a slick. The lightest
components, which are also often the most toxic, either evaporate or dissolve in the
water. Immiscible components become emulsified and dispersed in the water, while
heavy residues form tar balls. The immiscible fraction forms a water-in-oil emulsion
called ‘chocolate mousse’, which contains about 75 % water. This forms sticky brown
masses when it comes ashore and causes major problems on tourist beaches. Tar balls
float and are common in ocean waters, particularly along shipping routes.

Heavy Metals

Metals are known to be essential for living organisms. They are used in
respiratory pigments (iron, copper, vanadium) enzymes (zinc), vitamins (cobalt) and
other metabolic processes. Only when normal concentrations are exceeded do heavy
metals become potentially toxic. Marine organisms tend to accumulate heavy metals
from the environment and are adapted to handle normal fluctuations in intake. In the
sea, the concentrations of heavy metals are so low that they are readily increased to
levels that marine organisms have never previously encountered.

The following subsections discuss several of the more important heavy metals
in the marine environment.
 20

Mercury The first indication that mercury in the marine environment could
be a hazard to human life came in the late 1950s when more than a hundred people in
Minimata Bay, Japan, were killed or disabled through eating fish and shellfish
contaminated with methyl mercury. While the toxicity of mercury was well known,
this was and still is the only pollutant introduced into the marine environment known
to be directly responsible for human deaths.

Cadmium Cadmium levels are quite high in some coastal waters such as the
Severn Estuary in Britain and the Hardanger Fjord in Norway. In the former case the
contamination is natural; in the latter it is due to smelter wastes. Nevertheless, no
ecological effects have been reported. Molluscs are known to accumulate large
concentrations of the metal and in Tasmania the consumption of oysters with high
concentrations of cadmium led to nausea and vomiting in people consuming them.
Cadmium can cause permanent damage to the kidney and can give rise to nephrii
proteinum, where proteins are lost in the urine.

Lead The lead levels are increasing globally in world seas is apparent from
records from annual ice layers in Greenland. Lead aerosols are distributed world-wide
in the atmosphere and enter the sea though rain. Local levels may be enhanced by
sludge dumping or other special circumstances. However, lead does not appear to be
particularly toxic to marine organisms and is known to be accumulated in some
species without apparent harm. In the contaminated Sorfjord in Norway seaweeds and
plants contain levels up to 3000 ppm. Lead is responsible for serious damage to the
health of humans and birds (O’Halloran et al., 1988) but does not at the moment
appear to be a problem in the marine environment. Interestingly lead nitrate actually
enhances the growth of some diatoms.

Man-made Organic Poisons

• Organochloride pesticides
• Organophosphorous compounds
• Herbicides
• Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

Radioactivity

Like heavy metals, radioactivity occurs naturally in seawater, principally from

potassium-40, although it also contains other decay products. Radionuclides tend to
accumulate in sediments and in some parts of the world reach quite high natural levels.
At one popular bathing beach near Rio de Janeiro, visitors are exposed to a dose rate
of 20µGy/h (Clark, 1992). A gray (Gy) is the amount of radiation causing 1kg of body
tissue to absorb 1J of energy. The principal anthropogenic inputs of radioactivity into
the oceans are from nuclear weapons testing and liquid wastes from nuclear power
stations and fuel reprocessing plants.

Heat

Cooling waters from power generating stations, for example, are often
discharged into the sea at high temperatures. The large volume of receiving water
 21

usually results in relatively modest increases in sea temperatures in the vicinity of the
outfall, usually less than 2oC. In temperate regions this has little effect on the
communities, although breeding seasons may be extended. In enclosed areas such as
docks, the survival of exotic organisms may be enhanced (Chapman and Carlton,
1991). In tropical waters, the effects of hearing may be more severe, since many
tropical organisms, such as corals, are already living near their thermal upper limit. A
rise in sea temperature by as little as 2 oC may kill many tropical corals, sponges,
crustaceans and molluscs. The bleaching of corals in the Galapagos and the Carribean
after modestly raised temperatures following an El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
event is testimony to this (Glynn, 1993).

C. Water Quality in Rivers and Lakes: Physical Processes

Water bodies as in streams, lakes and estuaries support a variety of fish life,
whose ability to survive in their natural habitat may be inhibited if the water quality is
unsatisfactory. The quality of water to sustain aquatic life differs from species to
species. For instance, coarse fish can survive in freshwaters with dissolved oxygen
levels greater than about 3mg/L. However, pelagic fish may need twice this amount.
Other water waste uses such as water abstraction for human consumption set a further
series of water quality standards on a lake or river. Recreational use may set further
standards, e.g. low coliform counts for bathing waters. As such, there are a host of
parameters relevant to water quality at different levels. However, probably the most
significant parameter relating to the sustainability of fish life is dissolved oxygen
(DO). A parameter intimately tied up with DO is biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
described in Chapter 3 with the test detailed in Standard Methods (1992); BOD is
generally applied to a wastewater quality. It is a measure of the potential of the
wastewater to reduce the oxygen levels of the receiving water body. Of course, the
greater the dilution of the receiving waters, the less the negative impact of a discharge.
Wastewater is most often characterized by its effluent BOD strength. This BOD
strength is diluted by the receiving water and if the resulting receiving water body
BOD is impaired then the BOD effluent strength has been too high. The most relevant
lotic water quality parameters are:

• Dissolved oxygen (DO)

• Suspended solids (SS)
• Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
• Temperature
• pH
• Nutrients, especially N and P
• VOCs

Parameters of Organic Content of Water Quality

The organic content of a wastewater effluent or a streamwater is determined

using either of the following tests:

• BOD5 - biochemical oxygen demand

• COD - chemical oxygen demand
 22

• TOC - total organic carbon

When an organic waste is discharged to a stream, the organic content of the effluent
undergoes a biochemical reaction, i.e. assisted by micro-organisms, as follows:

Organic micro-organisms new stable

matter + O2 + nutrients biomass + CO2 + H2O + products

This is an oxidation reaction and consumes O 2 from the water body. If the oxygen
demand of the waste (BOD) is high enough, it may deplete the O 2 and the worst-case
scenario is an anaerobic water body. BOD is defined as the amount of oxygen
required by living organisms in the stabilization of the organic matter of a
water/wastewater.
Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand in Streams

The Streeter and Phelps (1925) model of the relationship of BOD and DO is
still valid. They considered that when biodegradable waste was discharged to a stream
or river it consumed oxygen, and the latter was only renewed by atmospheric
reaeration. The process is

dDO
= K1 L1 − K 2 DO = K1 Lo e − K1t − K 2 DO
dt

where DO = saturation DO deficit, mg/L

or the difference between saturation
(maximum DO) and the actual DO, in mg/L.
Lt = CBOD, mg/L
K1 = deoxygenation rate, day -1
K2 = reaeration rate, day -1

With a fuller mathematical description

K1 Lo
DO(t ) = (e − K1t − e − K 2t ) + DOo e − K 2t
K 2 − K1

where Lo = oxygen demand at t = to, (or the BOD)

DOo = dissolved oxygen deficit at t = to
DO(t) = dissolved oxygen saturation deficit at any time t
 23

Transformation Processes in Water Bodies

Constituents in water bodies are subjected to a range of transformation

processes. Those pertaining to a specific constituent will depend on whether the
constituent is conservative (which means the constituent does not react in water, e.g.
metals) or non-conservative. The constituent of key interest in water quality are:

• DO and BOD (mg/L)

• Temperature (oC)
• Salinity (mg/L of Cl)
• Algae as chlorophyll-a
• Nitrogen as organic N
• Nitrogen as ammonia N
• Nitrogen as nitrate N
• Nitrogen as nitrite N
• Phosphorous as organic and dissolved
• Coliforms
• Dissolved solids or salts
• Metals
• Organics

The transformation processes in water bodies include:

• Influent ‘clean’ flows improve DO

• Influent ‘waste’ flows disimprove DO by adding BOD
• Biological oxidation of carbonaceous and nitrogenous organic matter
• Reaeration of surface layers - oxygen source
• Reduction of BOD by solids settling (sedimentation)
• Photosynthesis - oxygen source
• Respiration - oxygen sink
• Oxygen diffusion into benthic zone - SOD (sediment oxygen demand) -
oxygen sink
• Increase in BOD of resuspended benthic sediments
• Bacterial cell mass decay
• Volatilization
• Chemical oxygen demands (organic chemicals)
• Adsorption (chemical constituents)

In addition to the transformation processes, the transportation processes also impact

on water quality constituents. The key transformation processes are:

• Advection
• Diffusion
• Buoyancy
 24

Transport Processes in Water Bodies

The key transport (of a solute) in water bodies be it a river, a lake or an estuary are:

• Advection (by the mean velocity of the water body) and

• Diffusion (molecular and turbulent)

Oxygen Transfer by Interphase Transfer in Water Bodies

While O2 is the gas of key interest in water quality, other gases including
nitrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide and VOCs etc., are of interest also. The ease or
difficulty by which a gas becomes absorbed by water depends principally on the
solubility of the gas in water. Ammonia, which is highly soluble in water readily
becomes absorbed by the water, while oxygen or carbon dioxide, which are weakly
soluble in water, are less readily absorbed by the water. There are also gases that are
somewhere between being strongly soluble and weakly soluble in water;
determination of the mass transfer for these gas types is more complex than that of the
other two.

Turbulent Mixing in Rivers

If the flow in a river or water body is turbulent, it will actualize much more
aeration through turbulent mixing than it will through Fickian diffusion. However,
diffusion may be the prime ‘aerator’ of quiescent water bodies. In rivers, mixing can
be imagined as occurring in the vertical, lateral (horizontal) and longitudinal axes.

Water Qualities in Lakes and Reservoirs

Water quality in lakes and reservoirs was discussed earlier from an
ecological perspective. This section introduces some of the numerical concepts and
further modelling concepts are dealt with in previous topics. Water quality problems
in reservoirs are often due to cultural eutrophication which is caused by:

• Municipal sewage discharges

• Industrial wastewater discharges
• Urban runoff
• Agricultural runoff with natural or artificial fertilizers causing high nutrient
loading
• Biocides from aquaculture

In most developed countries the first three items are generally insignificant
due to the wealth of environmental legislation that encouraged the upgrading of
treatment facilities. However, in the 1990s, nutrient-rich agricultural runoff is by far
the most common problem left to deal with. It is a difficult problem as the sources are
diffuse and solution techniques, by way of changes to land use practices, are slow and
complex to implement. In situ lake solutions via mechanical aeration are sometimes
used in small lakes. Lakes and reservoirs are characterized by long residence times of
maybe 3 months to tens of years. In the latter case, the inflows have the insignificant
flushing effect on water quality. The inflow if they are rich in nutrients is undesirable.
The key physical parameters affecting water quality in lakes are:
 25

• Wind movements
• Temperature changes
• Inflows/outflows

Examining the main lake parameters over the annual cycle typically in the
northern hemisphere we have:

• Reduced inflows in summer months with corresponding reduced water depths

• Increased solar radiation in the summer months with corresponding elevated
water temperatures, particularly closer to the surface
• Reduced dissolved oxygen values in the summer months, due to increased
temperature and reduced depths

Groundwater Quality

Groundwater may be contaminated by either point sources or diffuse sources.

Typically in rural farmyards where there are water wells, there is always the
possibility of wastewater runoff and other agricultural contaminants entering the
groundwater. The spreading of fertilizers and pesticides on land are potential diffuse
sources of pollution. Accidental spillages of oil or leaking oil tanks in petroleum
depots are a potential source of point pollution. When the pollution has occurred it is
the task of the engineer and the scientist to quantify the pollutant and track its
progress. Modelling the future plume development may then lead to remedial
measures.

The mass transport processes determine the extent of plume spreading and the
geometry of the distribution of concentration. Some pollutants may attenuate or
aggregate depending on the biological, chemical or nuclear processes occurring. The
transport process is essentially advection, with diffusion and/or hydrodynamic
dispersion being insignificant. The magnitude and direction of transport are governed
by:

• The three-dimensional hydraulic conductivity, K

• The water table and its gradient
• The existence of sources (underground streams) or sinks (limestone caverns)
• The shape of the flow domain

PROGRESS CHECK

Essay. Ten (10) points for each correct answer to questions:

1. In what ways do engineering processes and activities impinge on the functioning

freshwater systems”
2. How can changes in primary productivity of aquatic systems affect the use of aquatic
resources?
3. Explain the significance of ocean current to marine systems.
4. Describe the properties of seawater that are of biological significance.
 26

5. Outline the physical and chemical characteristics of a waterbody that make them
susceptible to pollution.
6. Why can the deposition of small quantities of some pollutants give rise to large-scale
disruption of ecological systems?
7. Compare and contrast the causes and effects of acidification with cultural
eutrophication of freshwater ecosystems
8. What procedures are generally used for cleaning up oil spills? Which are the most
biologically friendly?
9. What are the ecological consequences of sewage input to the marine environment?
10. Explain the physical chemical phenomenon of using a water tower absorb ammonia
into water from an ammonia pollution air source.

REFERENCES

Davis, M. L. and Masten, S. J. (2009). Principles of Environmental Engineering and

Science, 2nd Edition. McGraw – Hill.

Giller, P. S., J. O’Halloran, R. Hernan, N. Roche, C. Clenaghan, J. Evans, G. K.

Kiely, N. Allot, M. Brennan, J. Reynolds, D. Cooke, M. Kelly-Quinn, J.
bracken, S. Coyle and E. Farrel (1993). ‘An integrated study of forested
catchments in Ireland,’ Irish Forestry.

Kiely, G. K. (1997). Environmental Engineering. McGraw – Hill

Myers, A. A., T. Southgate and T. F. Cross (1980). ‘Distinguishing the effects of oil
pollution from natural cyclical phenomena on the biota of Bantry Bay,
Ireland’, Marine Pollution Bulletin.

O’ Halloran, J., A. A. Myers and P. F. Duggan (1988). ‘Lead poisoning in Mute

Swans Cygnus olor in Ireland: a review’. Wildfowl Supplement.

O’Halloran, J., S. D. Gribbin, S. J. Tyler nd S. J. Ormerod (!990). ‘The ecology of

dippers Cinclus cinclus in relation to stream in upland Wales: time activity
budgets and energy expenditure’. Oecologia.

O’Halloran, J., S. J. Ormerod, P. Smiddy and B. O’Mahony (1993). ‘Orgnochlorines

and mercury content of dipper eggs in Southwest Ireland’, Biology and
Environment, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.