CITIES OF VESUVIUS

Survey
→ The geographical setting and natural features of Campania

The region of Campania was located along the Gulf of Naples, with a coastline of over 200 km consisting
of key cities, Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae, Oplontis, Neapolis, and Misenum. The city of Pompeii
stood on a volcanic plateau between the Sarni River in the south and fertile slopes of Mount Vesuvius to
the north, and Herculaneum lay below Mount Vesuvius, 20 m from the beachfront. The natural features of
Campania included fertile volcanic soil surrounding the volcano, allowing for a wealth of crops and
agricultural produce. Sarno River ran south of Mount Vesuvius, leading into the Mediterranean sea. This
natural access route allowed for various trade routes available to the region of Campania. The mild
climate of Pompeii and Herculaneum was ideal for agriculture, the fertile soil rich in minerals allowed
growth of crops such as wheat, barley, cabbage, broad beans, chickpeas, dates, figs, and olives. Other
major industries available due to the area’s natural resources were sheep and goats providing wool and
meat, a maritime industry due to close access to the sea, and salt collected from pools of evaporated
seawater.

Pliny the Elder: “A region blessed by fortune”

→ The eruption of AD79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum

Mount Vesuvius’ volcanic eruption of AD79 involved stages of impact on the cities of Campania, starting
with seismic disturbance and earthquakes severely damaging Pompeii and Herculaneum, additionally
interrupting water supply to Pompeii. Following this was the Plinian phase of eruption, using Pliny the
Younger’s recount of the eruption as a main source of evidence. Columns of ash and pumice were layered
over Pompeii for several hours, with the topography and wind circumstances leading to Pompeii
experiencing more ash and stone deposits than Herculaneum. Then followed pyroclastic surges, hot gas
avalanches from Mount Vesuvius that surged into the cities of Campania. Archaeological evidence
remaining in the form of human remains and the physical site were studied, with interpretations of causes
of death changing as investigations were conducted. Major identified causes of death at Pompeii were
asphyxiation, thermal shock and being crushed by roof collapse under pumice. There were no bodies
found at Herculaneum, however archaeologist Bisel discovered 139 skeletons at boat sheds in
Herculaneum.

→ Early discoveries and the changing nature of excavation since the 19th and 20th centuries

Pompeii and Herculaneum experienced various stages of discovery and excavation through the 19th and
20th centuries, beginning with early discoveries at the site involving looting of evidence from the sites.
Following this were contributions by Fiorelli, conducting organised, methodical excavation practises.
Then followed contributions of Mau, impacting the changing nature of excavations using a classification
system of frescoes providing accuracy and organisation to the excavation practice. Then followed
contributions of Spinazzola, giving the world a better understanding of a reconstructed view of the site,
based on Roman paintings that ensured accuracy. Further contributions included those of Maiuri,
examining human remains to study the cities.

Cooley states that “the aim of excavations was not primarily to gain knowledge about the past but to gain
prestige for the present, and it is this that overwhelmingly influenced the progress of the excavations
throughout the rest of the 18th century”. Early excavations from 1860 to 1875 involved Giuseppe Fiorelli,
who introduced a uniform numbering and naming system for buildings, providing a more systematic
approach to excavation. The plaster cast method was also introduced, heavily benefitting the preservation
and study of body remains buried under pumice and ash remnants. August Mau’s excavations followed
from 1882, who developed a sequential classification of wall paintings, providing archaeologists an
ability to identify the exact dates when buildings were built. Vittorio Spinazolla’s studies followed from
1910 to 1923, with a focus on excavating Via Del Abbondanza, and reconstruction of buildings and shop
fronts. Finally, Amadeo Maiuri’s excavations from 1924 to 1961 involved the excavation of the House of
Menander and the Villa of Mysteries, and further restoration of sites at Herculaneum.

→ Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time

Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum evolve over time starting with the first hand account of
Pliny the Younger, with his recount of the eruption of 79 AD being the only piece of raw evidence.
Reconstructed representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum then focused on Roman architecture and art,
with representations then becoming more focused on the tragedy of the eruption. Artistic and musical
representations included The Last Days of Pompeii, depicting tragedy and horror, with some artists
focusing on depictions of archaeological ruin and excavation. Literary representations include the book
Pompeii, historical fiction novel by Robert Harris. Film and television representations evolved through
pop culture representation, including documentary series Pompeii: Life and Death in a Roman Town with
Mary Beard.

Focus of Study
Investigating and interpreting the sources for Pompeii and Herculaneum
→ The evidence provided by the range of sources, including site layout, streetscapes, public and private
buildings, ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human, animal
and plant remains from Pompeii and Herculaneum

→ The economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations

The localised but wealthy economy of Pompeii and Herculaneum was a result of the large variety of
industry and agriculture access available to the region on Mount Vesuvius’ rich, fertile soil, located on the
Bay of Naples with access to a prosperous maritime industry. Primary sources of income were oil and
wine in Pompeii, and fish in Herculaneum with its proximity to the waterfront. The Forum building
structure in Pompeii was the centre of public life, where political, administrative, legal, commercial,
religious and social activities occurred as a large part of the city’s economy. Herculaneum’s Forum served
the same role, but was smaller in size. The Mensa Ponderaria in the Forum was an official measuring
table used by officials to supervise the accuracy of weights and measures used in the city’s markets,
demonstrating the advanced nature of economic activity in the region. The Macellum consisted of markets
and stalls, serving as a meat and fish market, evidenced by fish bones found in drains beneath the
Macellum. The Building of Eumachia served a further economic purpose to sell wool and other
commodities, emphasising the high standard of economic trade in Pompeii. A wide range of trade,
commerce and varying industries is evident in Pompeii, with archaeological evidence of over 600 shops
and businesses, Thermopolian structures, and Fulleries for clothes washing. Key industries such as wine
are evidenced by the frequency depiction of Dionysus, god of Wine, such as in fresco outlining the extent
of wine and winery farming. Olive oil press and Bakery structures in Pompeii further reinforce the extent
of commercial practice. The flourishing economy of Pompeii is further evident in the large community of
artisans, with artists, metalworkers, potters and glassblowers. Roles within the Forum’s economic activity
included tradesmen, wealthy merchants and manufacturers.

→ The social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves

The social structure of Pompeii and Herculaneum involved a population of 10,000 to 20,000, 40% of this
being the slave population, with divisions in social structure being largely reinforced by legal and political
privileges. Social class was established from birth, resulting in limited social mobility and a strictly
unchanging society. Family hierarchy is seen in the form of the pater familia at the top of a household,
controlling all household decisions. A client patron relationship was the only circumstance through which
social mobility was allowed, with clients gaining support from their patrons allowing them to climb the
social ladder towards wider opportunity. Marcus Caecilius Jucundus, a wealthy freedborn businessman,
provides key primary evidence through wax tablets of a patronage relationship with various clients,
engaging in business transactions. The hierarchical structure of Pompeii and Herculaneum society from
the top of the structure was Freedborn men and women; ingenui, Freedmen and women; libertas and
liberta, and Slaves; servi. Freeborn men and women were the social and political elite citizens, born into
hierarchical dominance and were allowed opportunities of holding political office, full legal rights, being
members of town council, having privileged seats in amphitheatres, controlling public finances, spaces
and religion, and being landowners and businessmen within their society. Freedmen and women were
declared ‘freed’ from slavery when manumitted, often continuing to work for former masters and
sometimes going on to gain social mobility through this given opportunity, becoming wealthy and
influential. Freedmen and women would then vote in elections, but were still not considered citizens so
could not hold formal political office. Slaves, consisting of 40% of the population in both Pompeii and
Herculaneum, engaged in domestic work in the farm and trade industries, regarded very low in the social
structure. The status of women in the ancient cities of vesuvius varies to other ancient societies, as
women were highly engaged in activities similar to those of men, revealing a close to equal status of men
and women in their everyday lives. Women in ancient Pompeii and Herculaneum could engage in
economic, religious and political roles, inherit and own property, run businesses alone, work in fulling
industries, vegetable selling and medical professions, but could not vote or hold political office. The close
to equal status of men and women is evidenced by a fresco from Pompeii showing a Pompeiian man
holding a scroll, and a woman holding a pen and writing tablet, depicting an equal status of women are
co-workers. The public life of women in society is evidenced by Eumachia, a business woman depicted in
the Statue of Eumachia, built in the Forum that outlines her public image as having conducted a building
program as political leverage for her son, engaging in political and economic activity as a high status
woman.

→ Local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium

The local political life of Pompeii and Herculaneum can be described with the term Municipia, meaning a
self-governing local community of Roman citizens. Epigraphic evidence across the Vesuvian cities
suggest intense political activity leading to elections, evidenced through extensive graffiti throughout the
cities promoting candidates and outlining campaigns between parties running for political roles. The
citizens of Pompeii and Herculaneum were very politically aware and engaged, Cicero stating that it was
“harder to get seat in city council of Pompeii than in the Roman state”, highlighting the competitiveness
and high standard in political roles.

→ Everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water
supply, sanitation

Everyday life at Pompeii and Herculaneum was luxurious and varied, with a plethora of unique housing,
leisure activities, luxurious food and dining, clothing, health, leisurely baths, water supply and sanitation.

Housing in Pompeii and Herculaneum was intricately designed to suit the homeowner, a classic layout
described by Andrew Wallace Hadrill who categories the Pompeiian domus into 4 categories. These
included large houses designed for hospitality and large scale admission of visitors, often richly decorated
for 2 atria and large ornamental gardens, as well as slave quarters. The average domus held between 8-13
rooms, having an integrated workshop and decorated atrium, tablinum and peristyle. Larger workship
residences held 2-7 rooms, some with decorated atriums, and shops or workshops held 1 or 2 rooms and
served the main purpose for trade in the society. Famous Pompeiian housing structures include the House
of the Faun, House of the Vettii, and House of the Tragic Poet, hosting richly decorated atria and
fountains in their peristyles. The House of the Tragic Poet contains a mosaic of a chained, snarling dog
with the words ‘Beware of dog’ kept in the small room for the doorkeeper, reinforcing the detail and
emphasis that Pompeiian citizens placed on their housing structures and decoration of these. Herculaneum
displays The House of the Papyri, an imperial residence built for leisure, a vastly decorated property
containing 1800 scrolls of papyri, and 87 marble and bronze sculptures.

Leisure activities were of high regard in the Vesuvian cities, with various activities practised by citizens
evidenced by archaeological evidence of building structures and statues. The specific building structure,
the Palaestra, was found in both Pompeii and Herculaneum, hosting an open air sports ground for sports
such as javelin, discus and wrestling, as well as athletic competitions or Youth games that highlights the
extent of leisure practised in the region. Theatrical drama and performance was evidence through
archaeological remains of theatre and amphitheatres in Pompeii and Herculaneum, these structures being
the most impressive building in the town, extravagant and holding equestrian statues and bronzes of
actors or performers in the Theatre of Herculaneum. Musical leisure being practised is evidenced by
frescoes depicting citizens sitting on floors with musical instruments, predicted to be used as a leisure
activity for religious ceremonies as well as pure leisure. The baths of Pompeii and Herculaneum were a
key source of entertainment and leisure for citizens, providing a social occasion that allowed relaxation
and physical activity. Building structures reveal evidence of the different areas of the baths, additionally
providing evidence surrounding the hygiene and sanitation of Vesuvian citizens. Sanitation was poor, with
evidence of water baths being irregularly cleaned, and shared poles used in toilets. Finally gambling was a
key aspect of leisure activities in Pompeii and Herculaneum, often associated with men drinking and
gambling on gladiatorial contests and cockfights, evidenced by a Mosaic of a cockfight from the House
of Faun.

Food and dining was a large commodity in the Vesuvian region, due to the wide range of agricultural
produce allowed by the fertile region’s soil. This is revealed by evidence of dining rooms, Triclinia, in
Pompeii and Herculaneum, and building structures of thermopolis across the cities used as snack stores,
demonstrating the surplus of food produced gained by the city to have ‘snack’ stores away from necessary
meals and rations. Food remains and frescoes indicate the wealth of citizens engaging in dinner parties,
and affording to waste food, demonstrating the wealth of access to food and luxury dining.

Clothing in Pompeii and Herculaneum consisted of the Toga for men’s formal occasions, the Laticlavius
tunic for those of high ranks, and the Angusticlavius tunic for those of lower rank. The Stola was worn by
women, distinguishing elements of this included vittae, wooden hair beads, worn by more respectable and
higher rank women, and veils were worn by women to represent their pudicitia, meaning her chastity and
modesty. These unique Roman pieces of clothing are evidenced throughout Pompeii and Herculaneum
through frescos, statues, and wall paintings, such as a Fresco from a fullers shop at Pompeii showing the
laundering and dying of cloth that suggested that the tunic was worn for daily wear, and a wall painting
from the House of Julia Felix showing the toga work in the marketplace by men, suggesting it was a male
item of clothing. Evidence from herculaneum includes the Statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus depicting the
Roman toga worn on a male body, reinforcing the commonality of Roman clothing worn throughout the
Campanian region.

Archaeological examination of human remains and medicinal instruments at Pompeii and Herculaneum
point to a developed practice of medicine in the region. Bronze medical instruments including a slender
sleeve holding medical tools that could be a probe or lance, ear drill and squared needles were found in
the House of the Surgeon at Pompeii, revealing an advanced understanding of medicine held by the
society. Studies of human remains at the Herculaneum boat sheds provided a plethora of insight into the
health of the city, with examination of teeth within body remains seeming quite healthy due to a high
seafood diet incorporating calcium, however gum disease was evidently prominent with the amount of
worn teeth, possibly caused by grindstone in bread they ate. Human bone remains suggest lead poisoning
was a prevalent cause of death due to the lead pipes throughout the cities, however lead was found to have
been used in herculaneum as medication to treat things such as bleeding, ulcers and other wounds. Other
health issues such as Tuberculosis and Malaria were found to be common among the Vesuvian cities,
evidenced by examination of bodily remains.

Water supply and sanitation varied in Pompeii and Herculaneum, as Herculaneum’s site reveals well
developed underground sewerage, while Pompeii did not have any form of sewerage and rather used
stepping stones across roads to avoid citizens stepping in sewage waste. A disregard for sanitation and
hygiene is evident in Pliny the Elder’s comment that soap was “an invention of the Gauls” and thus was
rarely used in bathrooms. Pompeii and Herculaneum lacked basic hygiene, such as no toilet paper, and
rather used sponges on sticks, and Pompeii’s waste material was disposed of through faeces and garbage
thrown out of windows. Poor sanitation is additionally evident in the Pompeian baths, holding large
amounts of water that had no way of being filtered out or in.

→ Religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs

The Vesuvian cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum show heavy participation in religious practice, in the
form of temples, household gods, tombs and foreign cults. Takacs suggests “...the primary purpose of the
traditional Roman religion was not to satisfy emotional needs… but the maintenance of a favourable
reciprocal relationship between gods and humans,” suggesting a strong reliance of the cities on religious
connection and worship on the maintenance of their society’s well being.

The many temples constructed in the Campanian region were concentrated within Pompeii, with 10
identified temple structures in Pompeii and none found at Herculaneum, excluding a religious cult,
College of the Augustales. The primary functions of the Roman temples were to house and worship the
image of the gods, and host the rituals carried out by priests to honour and celebrate the gods. Temples at
Pompeii include the Temple of Jupiter, Temple of Apollo, temple of Venus, Temple of Asclepius, Temple
of isis, Sanctuary of the public Lares, Doric temple, Temple of Fortuna Augusta, and Temple of
Vespasian.The close proximity of all these temples to the Forum in Pompeii hints at the importance of
temples within the everyday life of a Pompeian citizen. The Romans believes it was a crucial to perform
the rituals within a temple very carefully, thus was only done by a priest venerating the gods with
processions and sacrifices

Household gods in Pompeii and Herculaneum were worshipped through the use of a Lararium, a shrine to
the guardian spirits of the Roman household. the Laraias varied in sizes across Roman households, and
poorer families could have plain, undecorated Larariums or go to the Temple of the Public Lares to pray
for the protection of their homeWorship and offerings were given to the household gods by the
paterfamilias, the father or eldest male member of the household as a chief priest. They would conduct
regular daily offerings and special celebrations, offering portions of meals such as fruit or eggs, and
crumbs left on the floor, as an act of worship to ask for the protection and prosperity of the household.
Cicero highlights the importance of the household gods, stating that “the most sacred, the most hallowed
place on earth is the home of each and every citizen. There are his sacred hearth and his household gods,
there the very centre of his worship, religion and domestic ritual”. The various household gods included
the Lares, the main domestic guardian spirit usually depicted as a pair of dancing youths in short tunics.
Other household gods included Penates, protector of the stores, Genius, guardian spirits of the family,
Snake and Altar, spirits bringing fertility to the family, Bacchus, god of wine and fertility, and Mercury,
messenger of the God Jupiter and god of commerce. A wall painting from a Lararium in the House of the
Vettii at Pompeii depicts a figure representing the Genius of the household offering to the Lares and a
serpent symbol representing peace and prosperity. Use of Larariums in places other than households to
protect building structures is evidenced by a Laraium found at a thermopolium depicting Dionysus and
Mercury, being the gods of commerce and wine, illustrating a use of household gods to bring prosperity
and wealth to businesses.
Foreign cults at Pompeii and Herculaneum include the Cult of Isis, servicing twice a day at the Temple of
Isis and symbolising the rebirth of the god Osiris.Fresco in Herculaneum additionally depicts the Cult of
Isis, suggesting strong prominence of this cult across Pompeii and Herculaneum, the fresco detailing
singing and dancing ceremonies, the High Priest holding a jar of sacred water from the Nile River in order
to conduct a crucial ritual, priests wearing traditional fringed tunics holding sistrums, and a strong
worshipping participation from women with 1 third of participants being women.

Tombs in Pompeii and Herculaneum were decorated structures used to commemorate the dead, with
variation such as chamber tombs, cube tombs, bench, niche, altar shapes and aedicule tombs found in the
Vesuvian cities. Archaeological remains of a large family tomb was found outside Pompeii, and Hagen
states that “the reason for building a tomb was usually to commemorate oneself, a friend or a loved one…
it could also be utilised to reflect political ambitions. There are examples of freedmen constructing tombs
to honour their patron, husbands honouring their wife, and vice versa, parents commemorating their
children, siblings commemorating each other etc.”

→ The influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architecture

Greek and Egyptian cultural influence into the Campanian region is evident through various statues,
architecture and religious practices seen in Pompeii and Herculaneum, including the name of
Herculaneum derived from Greek god Herakles. This influence is assumed to be as a result of direct
Greek influence from Greek colonies in southern Italy, influence through trade and settlement as Rome’s
territory expanded, and influence through Egypt’s initial control by Greeks and Romans. The Greek
image of Hercules depicted widely across Pompeii and Herculaneum is seen in the form of statues.
Statues of Hercules are seen at Pompeii in the Triangular Forum and at the Temple of Isis, and at
Herculaneum in a public fountain, at the House of the Deer, and a statue of Greek Apollo in the House of
Apollo. Heavy influence from Greek architecture is evident throughout Vesuvian buildings, including the
peristyle gardens in houses, Hellenistic style palaces, and use of greek columns in public and private
buildings, the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian styles. Large and small theatres in Pompeii point to influence
from Greek architecture, as well as the Palestra of Pompeii built in Hellenistic style,

Reconstructing and conserving the past

→ Changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies

Changing interpretations of the archaeological sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum are the result of new
research and technologies, evolving in recent decades to reveal new information about the ancient sites.As
a result of advanced technologies and evolution in methods of research and archaeological practise,
interpretations of the cities of Vesuvius have changed through varying perspectives and niche specialists
that reveal new truths about the ancient society. This includes Jashemski’s analysis of pollen in the soil
and ash, and casting of plant roots that led to identification that plants were grown in open areas,
revealing an aspect of everyday life in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Further societal details were revealed
by Fabian Kanz who examined human remains from the Villa at Oplontis that displayed an evident wealth
divide.

New technologies include digital multi spectral imaging to reveal writing on carbonised scrolls, CT scans
used to examine human remains in the form of resin casts of bodies, 3D laser reconstructions to safely
examine sites, forensic medicine to determine ways in which people died, DNA testing to determine sex
and hereditary illnesses of victims, and microscopy to determine the points of origins of building
materials found in Pompeii. Advancements in technology have worked alongside the evolving field of
archaeology to allow for improvements in the excavation and research practices that protect the historical
sites.

Evolution in the field of archaeology involves development of specialist practice, further deepening our
understanding of archaeology and what it reveals about the ancient world of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
These specialists include photographers, artists, architects and urban designers who record findings
meticulously and carefully, chemists and physicists focused on the study of material composition,
geneticists, forensic archaeologists, and anthropologists who study the human remains, volcanologists,
seismologists and geologists specialising in the eruption to explore the niche area of archaeology that the
Vesuvian cities fall under with the context of a volcanic natural disaster. Further niche specialists include
those studying water and drainage systems to determine the everyday lives of Vesuvian citizens, botanists,
zoologists and agricultural scientists studying the natural environment and surroundings, historians who
study the written archaeological sources, computer experts who record and cross reference the finds, and
curators who store archaeological findings ethically and responsibly.

→ Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities

Issues of conservation and reconstruction at the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum are extremely
prevalent with damage caused by both natural and anthropogenic factors over long periods of time. The
deterioration of the Vesuvian sites following the eruption of 79AD are evident through effects of tourism,
earthquake aftershock, exposure to pollution, light, and fauna, vandalism and theft as part of tourism,
failed conservation and neglect of important archaeological evidence such as frescos, a result of poor site
management. The condition of these important archaeological sites sparked international concern,
prompting financial aid given to the Italian government by the European Economic Community and the
European Union, then joint venue partnerships being conducted to halt new excavations, undertake new
projects to stabilise structures at the sites, and conduct repairs to conserve archaeological evidence. In
1997, Pompeii and Herculaneum were added to the World Heritage List, and following this the Italian
government passed a law to allow all gate receipts from tourism at the site to go to the Archaeological
Superintendency of Pompeii. Individual conservation and reconstruction projects include collaboration of
UNESCO and the Italian government, working to restore the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum that had
collapsed under harsh weather conditions. The Herculaneum Conservation Project was conducted from
2004 to 2012 with use of international aid, using technology aid to capture photographs, documentation
and catalogue of buildings, and systematic moving of pottery, capitals, decorations, statuary to museums
and reconstructed versions produced to maintain the popularity of tourism in the Vesuvian cities. Other
international contributions include the Anglo American Project that employed methods such as 3D
surveying and using the services of graphics experts to meticulously excavate and spread the task of
conservation and reconstruction. The Philodemus project was an international cooperation between
American and British researchers.

→ Ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains

Ethical issues surrounding the excavation and conservation of archaeological remains have been
extremely prevalent in the study and display of human remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum with
changing cultural perspectives and rates of tourism. Approaches to the study of skeletal remains has
developed to become more cautious in nature, taking into consideration the ethical responsibility of
archaeologists working with the human remains of the Vesuvian eruption. Human remains were originally
displayed through unorganised storage in buildings, studied by Estelle Lazer.

→ Value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions

The historical sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum host up to 3 million tourists a year, seeing heavy
deterioration of the archaeological site, needing more revenue for conservation and protection. Problems
faced by the Vesuvian sites include inadequate site management, with high rates of theft within the area
impacting the archaeological evidence’s preservation. Tourism presents various problems with lack of
guide’s supervision of the public leading to theft and vandalism, graffiti on delicate surfaces, damage
caused by foot traffic and climbing on buildings. Developed solutions to maintain and preserve the
archaeological sites while allowing tourism include management plans being introduced to provide
rotational ‘rest’ to different parts of the site, to decrease regular foot traffic and damage caused in the
same areas. Delicate sections of insulae, roads and buildings were sectioned off, with barriers used to
reinforce this. Improved measures for training and programs have been implemented such as legal
requirement for guides to display badges of authority and undergo intensive training, and unauthorised
tours were forbidden to ensure the professionality and high standard of management. Luca Papi states
“with the help of integrated technologies, the protection of one of the most significant archaeological sites
in the world, the Pompeii Archaeological Park in Italy, has been taken to a new level. The purpose is to
prevent danger and vandalism while also limiting environmental impact.”

SPARTAN SOCIETY TO THE BATTLE OF

LEUCTRA 371 BC
Survey
The historical and geographical context, including:
→ Geographical setting, natural features and resources of ancient Sparta
Sparta’s geographically isolated setting from the rest of Greece maintained their rigid social structure and
prominence as a powerful state, Lawless et al stated that the region was “isolated by choice rather than
necessity”. The region was surrounded by mountain ranges, and situated along the Eurotas River
providing a wealth of natural resources and trade opportunities. Mountain ranges surrounding Sparta
included the Taygetus mountain range to the west, Parnon mountain range to the east, and Arcadian
mountains to the north, providing a natural defensive barrier to the region against enemy territories. The
wealth of natural resources gained from the lush mountain ranges across Sparta include materials such as
marble, limestone, iron, lead and clay quarried from Mount Taygetus, animals such as sheep, goats, pigs,
chickens, bees and wild boar, and a plethora of flora providing growth of crops such as barley, figs, olives
and grapes, Cartledge stating that Sparta had “five vine growing districts”. The rich, alluvial volcanic soil
from the mountainous region created “much arable land… a land of fine fruit and watered by innumerable
streams” as stated by Euripedes, additionally providing a defensive barrier to the region that benefited and
enhanced the society’s success.

→ Significant sites: Sparta

The significance of the Laconian site of Sparta is evidenced in its rich, alluvial plains that held a town
centre, an Acropolis, and 5 villages making up the entirety of the Spartan society. Fitzhardage comments
that the state was “More like a cluster of rural villages than a city”.

Focus of Study
Social structure and political organisation, including:
→ The Great Rhetra: the issue of Lycurgus

The Great Rhetra was a Spartan revolution put into action through oracle by Lycurgus the Lawgiver, a
figure sparking debate over the reliability of his existence. A vague time period between 900 BC and 600
BC is when he was predicted to have possibly lived, according to Plutarch, “generally speaking it is
impossible to make any undisputed statement about Lycurgus the lawgiver” with conflicting accounts of
his existence across written and archaeological sources. The life of Lycurgus is evidenced through
fragmentary biographies from ancient writers of the time, Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon, Herodotus,
Thucydides, and modern writers Forrest, Andrews, Rawson and Fitzhardinge. The Great Rhetra involve
constitutional changes to the government structure, “ordinances such as these, then, Lycurgus called
rhetras because they were considered to come from the god and to be oracles”, Plutarch comments, as
Lycurgus claimed to obtain this oracle from Delphi.

The need for change within Spartan society prompting the Great Rhetra included a period of turmoil and
stress during the Messenian Wars, along with paranoia within the society of revolt from the slave class of
helots. Eunomia, meaning maintenance of good order, described the state to which Spartan society strived
for, involving a functioning economic system in which citizens did not work, a political system with a
mixed constitution of assembly, euphorate, dual kingship and gerousia, and a social system teaching state
ethic through the agoge, syssitia and hoplite training and service. The reforms brought about by Lycurgus
included the structure of the Gerousia, a senate of 30 men, 2 kings and 30 elders, curbing the authority of
the king. Land distribution was reinstated through a Lycurgus reform, to equally distribute land among
citizens, aiming to eliminate wealth disparity. Helots were to perform all manual labor while Spartans
were full time warriors, eliminating the need for citizens from making money to work through focus on
slave work and military training and duties. The Syssitia was a common mess
→ Roles and privileges of the two kings
→ Government: Ephorate, Gerousia, Ekklesia
→ Social structure and occupations: Spartiates, periokoi, helots
→ The Spartan army: training, agoge composition
→ Control of the helots: the military, syssitia, krypteia
→ Role and status of women: land ownership, inheritance, education

The economy, including:

→ Land ownership: agriculture, kleroi, helots
→ Technology: weapons, armour, pottery
→ Economic roles of the periokoi and helots
→ Economic exchange: use of iron bars, trade

Religion, death and burial, including:

→ Gods and goddesses: Artemis Orthia, Poseidon, Apollo
→ Myths and legends: Lycurgus and the Dioscuri
→ Festivals: Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia, Kameia
→ Religious role of the kings
→ Funerary customs and rituals

Cultural and everyday life, including:

→ Art: sculpture, painted vases, bone and ivory carving
→ Architecture: Amyklaion, Menelaion, the Sanctuary of Artemic Orthia
→ Writing and literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus
→ Greek writers’ views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle, Pausanias, Plutarch
→ Leisure activities
→ Marriage customs

HATSHEPSUT PERSONALITY STUDY

Survey
The historical context, including:
→ Geography, topography and resources of Egypt and its neighbours

Egypt’s region was divided into Upper and Lower Egypt, to its immediate north being the mediterranean
sea, the western desert separating Egypt from Libya to the west of Egypt, and Nubia its south. The Nile
River was the most prominent geographical feature of Egypt, responsible for the abundance of
agricultural produce in the region, as well as being a means of communication and transportation. The
natural resources of Egypt included building materials such as stone, granite, mudbrick, sandstone and
limestone. An abundance of crops was evident in production of barley, cucumber, figs, grapes, onions,
lettuce, pomegranate and dates, with extensive fish and poultry produced such as carp, duck, geese and
wild fowl. Domesticated animals indicating extensive livestock production is evident with pigs, sheep,
cattle and fowl remains. Egypt’s importations utilising the Nile River and sea access through the
Mediterranean Sea is evident in the resources imported such as Timber by Byblos, Pottery from islands of
Aegean, as well precious stones, gold, ebony and other high luxury products like panther skin and ostrich
feathers from Nubia to the south of Egypt.

→ An overview of the early Eighteenth Dynasty

→ An overview of the social, political, military and economic structures of the early New Kingdom
period
→ Relationship of the King to Amun
→ An overview of religious beliefs and practises of the early New Kingdom period

Focus of Study
Background and rise to prominence, including:
→ Family background

→ Claim to the throne and succession: Divine Birth and Coronation reliefs

→ Political and religious roles of the king and queen in the Seventeenth Dynasty and early Eighteenth
Dynasty

The political and religious roles of a queen in the 17th and early 18th Dynasty included a queen regent, a
king’s Great Wife, a king’s mother, and a king’s wife. The roles taken on by queens suggested an
acceptance of their woman as capable of holding prominent religious and political roles, evidenced by a
stela erected by Herson, “she rallied the Theband troops. Eliminated rebels and pacified Upper Egypt”,
referring to queen Ahhotep’s strength during her regency. Many prominent queenly roles are evidenced
through this period, such as Tetisheri, honoured by King Ahmose as deserving of high status due to her
strength, and his wife Ahmose-Nefertari who was the first to receive the prestigious religious position of
God’s Wife of Amun, continuing to be passed down through this bloodline of powerful queens.
Ahmose-Nefertari held the highest religious status of any 18th Dynasty queen, acting as regent to his son
Amenhotep I until he came of age, until Hatshepsut claimed the title of the first female Pharaoh.

→ Marriage to Thutmose II

Hatshepsut’s marriage to her half-brother, Thutmose II occurred following the death of their father,
Thutmose I, in order to sustain the royal bloodline of the family. Thutmose II and Hatshepsut had a
daughter named Neferure, and Thutmose II’s other children by concubine Isis included Sitiah and
Tghutmose III who was destined to assume the throne upon the death of his father. During her husband’s
reign, Hatshepsut was a conventional queen consort, a stela from the Temple of Amun at Karnak
depicting her with Thutmose II and her Mother, Queen Ahmose, wearing the traditional regalia of the
great royal wife to evidence this stage of her early life. As the chief consort of the Pharaoh, Hatshepsut
took on the religious role of God’s Wife of Amun during this period of her early life.

Key features and developments, including:

→ Titles and changes to her royal image over time

Tefnin’s thesis The Statuary of Hatshepsut demonstrates a process of evolutionary phases of Hatshepsut’s
royal image transforming from the first phase of traditional femininity, to an androgynous phase, and a
fully masculinised phase in her royal title and image. Statues of Hatshepsut throughout her period of reign
clearly depict her shifting royal image and titles, demonstrating symbolic use of iconography and
pharaonic depiction that reveal the evolution of her self portrayal as an unconventional female pharaoh

→ Foreign policy: military campaigns and expedition to Punt

→ Building program: Deir-el-Bahri, Karnak, Bani Hasan (Speos Artemidos) and her tombs
→ Religious policy: devotion to Amun and promotion of other cults
→ Relationship with Thutmose III; co-regency and later defacement of her monuments

Evaluation, including:
→ Impact and influence on her time
→ Assessment of her life and reign
→ Legacy
→ Ancient and modern images, and interpretations of Hatshepsut

ONE particular source or type of source: Divine Birth and Coronation Inscriptions; Deir el Bahri for
Hatshepsut, including:
→ The value and limitations of this source
→ An evaluation of the source in the context of other available sources, including problems of evidence

NEW KINGDOM EGYPT HISTORICAL PERIOD

STUDY
Survey
The chronological and geographical context of Egypt in the Near East, key powers in the region and
the nature of contact with other societies

Focus of Study
Internal developments, including:
→ Impact of the Hyksos: political, economic, technological
→ Establishment of the Eighteenth Dynasty: wars against the Hyksos, reunification of Upper and Lower
Egypt
→ Role of queens: Tetisheri, Ahhotep II, Ahmose-Nefertari
→ Development and importance of the cult of Amun
→ Political and religious significance of building programs
→ Role and contribution of: Ahmose, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep
II, Thutmose IV
→ Role and contribution of prominent officials within Egypt and the ‘empire’

Expansion of Egypt’s boundaries, including:

→ Development and role of the army
→ Relations with Nubia, Syria-Palestine, Mitanni
→ Establishment of ‘empire’: military campaigns in Nubia, Syria-Palestine
→ Image of the ‘warrior pharaoh’
→ Administration of the ‘empire’: Nubia and Syria-Palestine
→ Nature of Egyptian imperialism
→ Maintenance of the ‘empire’: Amenhotep II, Thutmose IV