19/01/2023

Research Writing 1 & 2

Lecture by:

MS. JHASMIN MARIE BORCES-MENDOZA

MSCJ, RCrim., LPT

About the lecturer

• Ph.D. student at De La Salle University-
Dasmariñas (dissertation phase)
• Became a Licensed Professional Teacher in
Sept 2019;
• MSCJ; Universidad de Manila (2018)
• Baccalaureate Degree in Teaching;
Philippine Normal University (2017)
• BSCrim; Universidad de Manila – Magna
cum Laude
• Taught Criminological Research for more
than 4 years and serves as the Head of BS
Crim Research Dept. at OCT (2017)
• Awarded as “Best in Social Developmental
Research in 2018” – National Entry
• Presented in International Conference301
• AQRA 4.0 (2018) Cebu City, Philippines
• Attended numerous seminars in Research
Writing;

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Table of Contents

Key Concepts of Methodology

01 03
Research
Rudiments of research, Guides the implementation
ethics and types of research of research

02 Review of Literature 04 Analyzing Data & Conclusions

Review process, research Analysis/patterns & themes from
writing standards & research collected data, to writing the summary
framework of findings, conclusions & reliability

I. Key Concepts
of Research

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OPENING QUESTIONS:
1. Research Must be hurriedly conducted.

2. There should be enough data before conducting research.

3. Research must observe a step-by-step process.

4. The researcher must have the final say in his or her findings.
5. The researcher must avoid listening to another research to have an
objective view of his or her study.

What is
Research?
● Research follows a step-by-step process of investigation that
uses a standardized approach in answering questions or
solving problems (Polit & Beck, 2004).

● Research is a continuous undertaking of making known the

unknown (Sanchez, 2002).

● Research is a very careful investigation of something that

purports the contribution of additional or new knowledge
and wisdom (Bassey, 2002).

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"Research is creating new knowledge."

-Neil Armstrong

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Research paradigm guides the researcher in formulating and

implementing the research. It ensures that the research foundations and
methodology are well-defined and organized.

Research foundations refer to the fundamental components of research

such as the research problem, purpose, specific questions to be addressed,
and the conceptual framework to be applied.

Methodology of the research includes the review of literature, research

approach and design, data collection, methods of analysis and conclusions.

The purpose of literature review is to assess the body of the

literature, to synthesize previous works, and to locate gaps.

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01
Different types of
Research

A. Types of Research
Basic Applied Action
• Primarily aims to test • The focus is on
• Sometimes known as
pure research. It is done theories and concepts immediate solution of
for the development of developed for verification, the problem without
theories of principles. application, development necessarily using
and support and their scientific principles in
relationships to the order to find solutions
existing fund of to a problem.
knowledge.

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B. General Forms of Research

Scientific Research Research in Humanities Artistic Research

• Explain naturally • Define purpose of human • Conducting practical
occurring phenomena; existence by historical and methods as substitutes
• Systematic process that future possibilities; for fundamental &
involves formulating • Natural and social theoretical ones;
hypothesis, testing sciences; • Purpose: expound on
predictions using • Derived from explanations current concepts & open
relevant data from human experiences them to further
• Requires rational and that cannot be simply interpretation
statistical evidence to measured by facts and
draw conclusions figures

C. Research should be:

1. SYSTEMATIC
2. OBJECTIVE
3. FEASIBLE
4. EMPIRICAL
5. CLEAR

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D. AS A RESEARCHER:

one can play the role of a principal

investigator, a member of a research
team, an identifier of researchable
problems, an evaluator of research
findings, a user of research findings, a
patient or client advocate during study,
and a subject/respondent/participant.

E. Research is very important.

It provides scientific basis for any discipline and its

continuous development. It helps develop tools to improve
the effectiveness of solving various problems, and formulate
solutions to problems concerning almost all issues. It also
allows the evaluation of alternative approaches to the
educational aspects of any discipline.

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The goals of conducting research are to produce

evidence-based practice, to establish credibility
in the profession; to observe accountability for
the profession; and to promote cost-
effectiveness through documentation.

H. ETHICS IN RESEARCH
1. Ethics in research promotes the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and
credibility; helps ensure research accountability; and builds public
support for the study.
2. Some of the ethical codes are honesty, care, confidentiality,
objectivity, openness, respect intellectual property, and
responsible mentoring.
3. Participants in a research have the rights to voluntary
participation, Informed consent, freedom from risk of harm,
confidentiality and harmony.
4. For writing to be considered as ethical, the writing should be clear,
accurate, fair, and honest.

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The following are reminders for ethical writing:

1. honest with professional colleagues

2. protection from harm and
3. right to privacy.

I. PLAGIARISM
is the claiming of other works as one’s own work.

Acts that Constitute Plagiarism

• Idea plagiarism (Ideas received from others and use I in papers or
constructing on one’s ideas without citation)
• Not citing the source
• Reprinting any diagram; illustration or chart and pictures
• Buying, stealing or borrowing paper
• Using papers from previous classes- submitting papers to an instructor
containing substantially the same content for credit in more than one
course
• Hiring someone to write own paper

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The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines or R.A 8293

contains provision regarding published works and copyright
ownership.

Some tips to avoid plagiarism are to collect hard copies of all the relevant
references; read all the references carefully and highlight important
areas; and place sufficient attribution while using the ideas of others.

J. RESEARCH TITLE, SOURCES, AND

CONSIDERATIONS
Title of the research should summarize the main idea, and include the major
variables and the participants of the study.

The chosen topic or problem in research must pass different external and
internal criteria.
• The external criteria include novelty, availability of subjects, support of the academic
community, availability and adequacy of resources, and ethical considerations.

• The internal criteria consist of experience, training and qualifications of the researcher,
motivation, interest and curiosity, time factor, and cost and returns.

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The general problem can be followed by specific problems or sub-

questions which must satisfy the following criteria:
1. They must be in question form.
2. They should define the population and the samples of the study (respondents).
3. They should identify the variables being studied.

Questions in qualitative research usually ask how or what questions.

The two general types of research questions are researchable and
non-researchable questions.
These are further classified into four (4) types: factor-isolating, factor-elating,
situation-relating, and situation-producing questions.

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K. THE INTRODUCTION
The introduction of the problem has the following elements; rationale, setting, literature
foundation, proof of urgency, general research objectives, and general purpose.

The rationale is formulated not only by stating the reasons of the conduct but also
narrating incidences from international to local scenarios.
The setting of the problem describes the distinctive characteristics of the geographical
location of the place where the study is to be conducted.
The definition and the description of the major variables must be done through
analyzing literatures.
The urgency of the problem must be proven by citing statistical evidences.
The general objective of the study is the major task of the researcher and is the general
statement of the problem.
The general purpose is the general benefit or significance of the study.

L. THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In writing a good qualitative general problem or central question, the
following criteria should be considered:

It should be written in a single sentence.

It should include the purpose of the study.
It should include the central phenomenon.
It should use qualitative words.
It should identify the participants in the study.
It should specify the research site.

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M. THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study is determined by the major variables of the study while
sub-variables serve as the delimitation.

The delimitation of the study identifies and describes the limitations

encountered by the study. The limitations of the study may arise from the
research design and methodology and the specific limitations encountered by
the researcher in the conduct of the study.

Scope
the boundaries in terms of time, samples,
location, etc.

Limitations
the weakness of the study beyond the control of
the researcher.

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The significance of the study discusses the benefits of the study

to the society in general, and to its beneficiaries in particular.

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
A Framework is defined as “a set of ideas that provides support to something.”
In the case of research, it serves as the building blocks for the basis of the
study.
The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theoria, which means
“vision”
A Theory is non- observable construct that is inferred from observable facts
and events that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study
and is primarily concerned with determining cause-effect relationships among
variables.

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The theoretical framework is formulated from existing theories and serves

as the foundation of the study. It points out, through its cited theories,
which specific variables will be focused in the study.

The Conceptual framework is derived from the combination of theories or

parts of theories . This framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the
different theories used in formulating a new one.
The elements of the theoretical framework are the relevant theories, review
of the related literatures, and review of related studies and paradigm of
the study.

Theoretical Framework

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Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 illustrates
the interplay of nature of
bullying as a basis for policy
study. It presents the system
approach model showing the
relationship of the profile, the
forms of bully and attitude of
the respondents.

Hypothesis VS. Assumptions

ASSUMPTIONS (Qualitative Research)
An assumption is a self-evident truth which is based upon a known fact or phenomenon

HYPOTHESES (Quantitative Research)

A hypothesis is A tentative conclusion or answer to A specific question raised at the
beginning of the investigation.

Two forms of hypotheses:

1.Operational form states that there is a difference between two phenomena.
2. Null form states that there is no difference between the two phenomena.

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Definition of Terms

• Either lexical or operational definition or a combination of both.

• Arranged in alphabetical order.

02
Review of
Literature

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A. THE REVIEW PROCESS

Review of Literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and
evaluating what others researchers have written on written on
certain topic.

The purpose of reviewing literature are to help place the work being reviewed
in its context; described the relationship of each work to the research being
undertaken; identify new days to interpret various gaps based from previous
researches; solve conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies;
identify topic that are subjects of previous studies; and point out new topics
for a study.

The levels of reading are elementary reading, systematic

skimming, critical reading, and comparative reading.
1. elementary reading.
Most common type of reading. Recognition of basic letters & sounds. Little
comprehension.
2. systematic skimming.
Demands a lot of reading. Need to establish a system to maximize time researching.
3. critical reading.
“Analytical Reading.” Reader asks what, how, who?
4. comparative reading.
Highest level of reading. Reader able to place what he is currently reading in relation
to other materials

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The three steps in conducting the review of literature:

1) finding relevant literatures, 2) actual reading, and 3) note-taking.

1) Finding Relevant Literatures.

Enriched by reading literatures thru visiting library to look for
materials.
2) Actual Reading.
After pre selection, thorough critique the contents of the materials
3) Note-taking.
Save time and effort. Taking notes means putting only the important
data.

The three strategies in viewing literature:

1) previewing, 2) highlighting, and 3) annotating
1) Previewing.
Reading to get the general idea
2) Highlighting.
Physically marking the text
3) Annotating.
Recording of reader’s reaction as
marginal notes

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B. THE STANDARD STYLES OF WRITING

✓ The three common writing formats are the American Psychological
Association (APA) Style, Modern Language Association (MLA) Style, Turabian,
and Chicago Style of Writing Style.
✓ MLA published the first edition of its manual in 1985 and the third edition in
2008.
✓ The origin of MLA STYLE is in the Purdue University in New York City.
✓ The APA manual was first published in 1952 and at present, it is the most
popular standard for writing academic papers used by most universities and
colleges.
✓ The Chicago Style manual was first published in 1906 by the University of
Chicago Press.
✓ Kate Turabian, a senior disquisition assistant in University of Chicago, published
the second handbook, A Manual for Writers of term papers. Theses and
Dissertations, as a supplement to the Chicago Style manual.

Formatting a Paper Using the APA style

By: Peter Gallagher and Brian Scott

• Abbreviations. Avoid using abbreviations in your paper.

• Hyphenations. Do not separate and hyphenate words at the end of a line.
• Indentions. Indent paragraphs within the primary text of the paper one-half
inch. Do not indent in these unique circumstances; the abstract, block
quotation, figure captions, notes, reference list entries, table titles, and titles
or headings.
• Margins. Use 1 inch margins on all four sides of the paper: top, bottom, right,
and left.
• Page numbering. Number nearly every page in the paper, including the little
page. Put the number in the upper-right corner of the page, and use only
Arabic numbers. Put the number “1” on the title page and the number “2” on
the abstract page. Begin the main body of the text on the page number “3”.
• Paper type. Use regular white, 20 pound bond paper that has measurements
of 8.5 by 11 inches

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• Parentheses. Aim to restrict parentheses to separate or divide items

• Punctuation. In most cases, use single space after all common punctuation
marks, such as periods, commas, colons, and semicolons.
• Short Title. A short title is a two-or three-word introduction of the main title.
Put it on every page in the top right corner, except for pages that consist of
only numbers or illustrations. The short title should appear slightly to the
left of the page number.
• Slash mark. Do not uses slash marks in your paper.
• Spacing. Use double spacing throughout the whole paper.
• Text alignment. Always format the next flush left.
• Title. Center the title on the title page, creating a combination of uppercase
and lowercase letters. If the title is long enough to warrant a second line,
double space between the lines.
• Typeface. Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size.

RELATED LITERATURE
• The related literature serves to clarify the different variables being studied and
the central concepts of the research study.
• Through a review of literature, the major variables of the study, sub-variables,
and indicators are defined and clarified.
• A literature review is specific type of research paper that focuses on published
literature on a given topic. It serves as the initial step I doing a research.
• The stages involved in writing the literature are problem formulation, literature
search, data evaluation, analysis, and interpretation.
• The common format in writing the literature review includes an introduction, a
body, and a conclusion.
• The following tips can be followed in literature review: choose refereed sources
and check electronic sources; select sources based on their contribution;
described relationships among source; and identify areas of prior scholarship.

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RELATED STUDIES
• Related studies serve as the basis of the analysis of results because it
allows the researcher to compare and contrast his or her findings with
those of past studies.
• Studies are related when they used the same variables, sub-variables,
concepts or construct, and they have the same subject or topic of the
study.
• In writing a review of related study, the following data must be indicated;
the name of the author, the date and the setting as in when where the
study was conducted; the title; and the salient findings.

03
Methodology

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F. THE RESEARCH DESIGN

enables the researcher to organize the components of his or

her research in an orderly and coherent manner. This will
ensure that the research or study will effectively address
the research topic or problem. The research design is also a
template for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data.

G. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE research

are two broad categories of research
approaches:

Qualitative research aims to discuss and analyze the

underlying concepts and theories related to the
study. Quantitative research, meanwhile, uses
statistical data to explain a phenomenon.

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DRAWING PATTERNS AND THEMES

Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and
interpretation of patterns and themes in textual data that answer the stated
questions.

The following steps are involved in data analysis: getting to know the data,
focusing on the analysis; coding; entering and organizing the data, cleaning the
data; identifying meaningful patterns and themes; and interpreting the data.

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METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN FOR

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• The phenomenological design examines human experiences through the
eyes of the subject/s and with the help of a process called bracketing.
• The historical design concerns the identification, evaluation, and synthesis
of the data from the past to confirm or rejects a hypothesis.
• The case study design is an in depth examination of an individual, group of
people, or entity, and usually does not intend to generalize its conclusions
to greater populations.
• The grounded theory design involves a rigorous, systematic collection of
rich data and formulating a theory based on that data.
• Action research seeks to improve practice through the implementation of
interventional actions and study the effects of those actions.

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• There are five steps in planning the design: establishing the

purpose, methodological location, scoping, nature of the data,
and thinking ahead.

• The stages of the project are as follows: conceptualizing stage,

setting up and managing a data management system, sampling
and theoretical sampling, collecting and generating data, and
analysis.

SAMPLING FOR RESEARCH

• The individual participants in a study are referred to as subjects, respondents, or
elements. Subjects are those who are the focus of the study, and may or may not be
the sources of the data. Respondents are sources of data, but may or may not be
subjects themselves. Elements are objects, entities, or non-human subjects.

• A population is the complete set of persons, entities, or objects that possess some
common characteristics that are of interest to the researcher and are the focus of
the study. Populations are classified into target populations and accessible
populations.

• A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a population.

• A statistic is a numeric characteristic of a sample.

• A sample is a subset of the entire population and serves as respondents of the

study.

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• The factors in determining sample size are homogeneity of the

population, degree of precision, and the types of sampling
procedure.

The types and subtypes of sampling include:

• probability sampling, where all the elements of the population
are given equal chances to be included in the sampling, and

• Non-probability sampling, where not all elements of the

population are given with equal chances to be part of the
sampling.

DATA COLLECTION
The most frequently used data collection methods are: individual interview,
group interviews, observations, and questionnaires.

Individual interviews are conversations designed to obtain specific

information. Interviews schedules are the tools used for interviewing.
Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.

Group interviews are discussions among several respondents simultaneously.

Topic guides are used to facilitate group interviews and keep them on track
while giving respondents room to discuss.

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Observation is an immersive method of collecting information or data

on natural phenomena or behavior as it occurs. Observation guides
or checklists are instruments used to facilitate observations.

Surveys or questionnaires are the most commonly used instrument

in research, and are made of a list of planned written questions or
statements of a particular topic. They are both a method and an
instrument, and can be structured or unstructured.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

1. Validity refers to the quality of the instrument of being functional
only within its specific purpose.
2. The types of validity are face validity, content validity, construct
validity, and criterion-related validity.
3. Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument
in repeated trials.
4. The methods in testing reliability are test-retest or stability test and
internal consistency test.
5. The other criteria used to assess validity and reliability is sensitivity,
specificity, comprehensibility, precision, speed, range, linearity, and
reactivity.

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04
Analyzing Data
& Conclusions

THE FORMULATION OF THE SUMMARY OF

FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Summary of findings serves as a brief statement of the components of the
research paper.

• Conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings of each problem

which answer the questions presented at the beginning of the research
paper.

• Recommendations are identified essentially to serve as practical

suggestions for future research among similar fields.

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