Course Name: CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS I

Course Code: CIV2102

Course Level: 1

Credit Units: 4

Course Description

This course focuses on developing students to embrace understanding of the properties of

Engineering materials, behavioural effect while in use.

Course Objectives/Learning Outcome

Upon completion of this course, students must be able to:

 Describe each engineering materials, main physical and chemical attributes.

 Describe material’s manufacturer process including the effects on its properties and

quality control testing.

Course Content

1. Introduction to building materials

 Origin and classification

 Engineering properties of materials, their measurements and relevancy to design

2. Soils;

3. Timber;

4. Building Stones;

5. Metals

6. Plastics and Polymers

7. Paints;

8. Building glass.

9. Lime, Mortar and Plasters

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Introduction

The engineering structures are composed of materials. These materials are known as the
engineering materials or building materials or materials of construction. It is necessary for the
civil engineer to become conversant with the properties of such materials before making final
selection of any building material for a particular use.

Classification of Engineering materials

The factors which form the basis of various systems of classifications of materials in engineering
may be

(i) the chemical composition of the material,

(ii) the mode of the occurrence of the material in the nature,

(iii) the refining and the manufacturing process to which the material and possibly

(iv) the industrial and technical use of the material.

Common engineering materials may be classified into one of the following groups:

(i) Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) and alloys

(ii) Ceramics

(iii) Polymers

(iv) Composites,etc.

Properties of Engineering Materials

It is possible to classify material properties as follows- :

1- Physical properties:

Density, specific gravity, porosity, water absorption, etc....

2- Mechanical properties:

Tensile strength, compressive strength, rigidity, hardness. Creep, fatigue ...... etc.

3- Thermal properties:

Thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and other.......

4- Chemical properties:
Resistance to acids, alkalis, brines and oxidation.

5- Aesthetic properties:

Color, surface smoothness, the reflection of light…

The mechanical properties of a material describe how it will react to physical forces.

The deformation that takes place is called the STRAIN, while the force causing the deformation
is known as the STRESS.

Stress – Strain Relationship

The relation between stress and strain is an extremely important measure of a material’s
mechanical properties. Stress - strain curve is graphical representation of it.

The strain may be a change in size (length, area or volume), while the stress may be :

• forces of tension (that tend to increase length),

• compression (that tend to reduce length), or,

• shear (where parallel planes of a body tend to slide over each other.

A material is said to be ELASTIC if, when deformed by an applied force, it returns to its original
shape when the force is removed.

Ductility, Most metal possesses ductility. When a metallic rod or wire is stretched, it will
elongate. The diameter of rod or wire decreases continuously, this process is known as necking.
The material also shows ductile behavior due to increase in temperature.

Brittleness is opposite to ductility and involves materials that reach failure without any warning.
When the stress is applied more than the material's capacity to resist, it cracks or fractures.
Concrete, Glass, Ceramics and stones are considered to be brittle materials. Steel may also break
but it yields first to give warning prior to failure.

Toughness is the property of material to resist fracture. It means that material can absorb the
energy and resist the applied force. A tough material is one that has more strength and ductility

The hardness of materials is the resistance of surface against abrasion, indentation, and
scratching. Hardness is not a measure of structural strength. It is a parameter for surface finishes,
pavements, and runways. Diamond is considered the hardest material and is used for measuring
the hardness of any material by indentation and scratch test. Diamond is also used for cutting
rocks and drilling boreholes.

The property to the material to resist elastic deformation is called stiffness or rigidity. A rigid
material undergoes slight or almost zero deformation. Stiffness can be increased by increasing
the cross section. Different materials have different stiffness values. A steel beam will be stiffer
than an aluminum beam of the same cross section and applied loading. Stiffer is the member,
lesser will be the deflection

Long-term deformation due to sustained load is called creep. When a material is stressed for a
long time, it deformed permanently. This deformation continues slowly till it reaches its creep
failure. Structures such as bridges are exposed to heavy traffic loading, similarly, the industrial
building serves for impact and vibration. Deformation in such structure propagates from cracks
to rupture.

SOILS

Soil is defined for engineering purposes as a natural aggregate of mineral grains that can be
separated easily as for example by agitation of water, soil is the cheapest and most widely used
material in civil engineering projects either in its natural form, gravel, or in its processed form,
stabilized.

Soils contain three components, which may be characterized as solid, liquid, and gas. The solid
components of soils are weathered rock and (sometimes) organic matter. The liquid component
of soils is almost always water (often with dissolved matter), and the gas component is air.

Origins of soils from rocks

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust:

 igneous rocks ; crystalline bodies of cooled magma

 sedimentary rocks ; layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in
bodies of water (seas, lakes, etc.) e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale,
conglomerate
  metamorphic rocks ;formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous
intrusions (e.g. marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g.
slate, schist, gneiss).

Formation of Soils:

The interior of the earth is in molten state, called magma. Rocks are formed due to cooling of
molten magma and these rocks being broken down in soil and soil being converted back in rock.

Rocks are the parent material for soils. Soils are formed by the disintegration and decomposition
of rocks.

The disintegration of rocks is caused by:

(i) Mechanical weathering

(ii) Chemical decomposition

(iii) Biological decomposition.

(1) Mechanical Weathering:

It is also known as physical disintegration. In this process, disintegration of rocks is caused by

physical agencies such as plant roots, frost, thermal expansion etc.

(2) Chemical Decomposition:

It is also called chemical weathering. In this process, the identity of mineral particles is destroyed
and new chemical compounds are formed through the following processes: Oxidation (process in
which oxygen ion combines with ferrous ion to from ferrous oxide. Iron containing rocks are
subjected to chemical decomposition by oxidation), Hydration (the process in which rock
minerals combine with water to form a new compound which will be different from the parent
minerals), Carbonation (process in which carbon dioxide (CO2) present in the atmosphere
combine with water to form carbonic acid. This carbonic acid reacts with rock minerals causing
decomposition). Hydrolysis, (Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering affecting silicate minerals. In
such reactions, pure water ionizes slightly and reacts with silicate mineral).Leaching (Leaching is
the removal of soluble materials by dissolving them away from solids. In this process some
minerals dissolved out of the rocks and deposited separately causing decomposition).

(3) Biological Decomposition:

The breakdown of organic matter in soils is done entirely by the microorganisms. Bacteria’s and
other microorganisms induce chemical changes in their surroundings by producing organic acids,
which helps in weathering of so

On geological basis, soils fall in two groups:

(i) Residual soils

(ii) Transported soils.

Residual Soils:

Soils which remain at the place of their formation are called residual soils.

Transported Soils:

Transported soils are soils which are carried away from their place of formation to some other
place by the transporting agencies. Transporting agencies may be glaciers, water, wind or
gravity.

Water Transported Soils:

The materials transported and redeposit by action of water is known as “alluvium”.

Soils carried by water are classified as:

Alluvial Soil Lacustrine soils, Marine soils:

The soil transported by flowing water and deposited in ocean is known as marine soil.

Wind Transported Soils (Aeolian Soils):

Wind is another important medium for transportation of soil. Soils transported and deposited by
wind are called Aeolian soils. Aeolian soils are of two types:

Loess:

Loess is deep deposits of silts made by wind. Such deposits are often found downwind of deserts.

Sand dunes:

The low irregular hills formed by accumulations of sand along some beaches and in some desert
areas are called sand dunes.

Gravity Deposited Soils:

These soils are also known as colluvial soils.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

Soil classification systems are used to class soils into groups and subgroups based on their
engineering behavior Systems
Engineers, typically geotechnical engineers, classify soils according to their engineering
properties as they relate to use for foundation support or building material..

Classification systems are used to group soils according to their order of performance under
given set of physical conditions. Soils that are grouped in order of performance for one set of
physical conditions will not necessarily have the same order of performance under some other
physical conditions. Therefore, number of classification systems have been developed depending
on the intended purpose of the system. Soil classification has proved to be a very useful tool to
the soil engineer. It gives general guidelines in an empirical manner for making use of the field
experience of others. Soil may be broadly classified as follows:

(i) Grain size classification system:

Grain size classification systems were based on grain size. In this system the terms clay, silt,
sand and gravel are used to indicate only particle size and not to signify nature of soil type. There
are several classification systems

(ii) Textural Classification:

The classification of soil exclusively based on particle size and their percentage distribution is
known as textural classification system. This system specifically names the soil depending on the
percentage of sand, silt and clay. The triangular charts are used to classify soil by this system.

Soil texture

The look and feel of a soil is referred to as SOIL TEXTURE and is determined by the size and
type of particles that make up the soil (including the organic but mostly referring to the inorganic
material).

A few of these soil characteristics related to texture are water-holding capacity, permeability, and
soil workability.

Simple test for identifying texture;

To work out what your soil is made up of, put some into a jar of water, shake it up and let it
settle out. The sand and large particles fall to the bottom first. Mark this level. Leave the jar for a
few hours, check it again, this new level is the silt component. Mark this layer. Now leave the jar
undisturbed for 24 hours. When the water is clear, mark the top layer which will show you the
clay content. From the 3 marks on your jar you can work out the percentage of Sand to Silt to
Clay and using the chart below - you can classify your soil.

Soil Classification and Identification

The behaviour of soil under external loads depends mainly on its particle size and arrangement
of particles. It is therefore very important to study the size, shape and gradation of soil particles.
Particle Size:

Individual solid particle in a soil can have different sizes and this characteristic of soil can have a
significant effect on its engineering properties The soil particles coarser than 0.075 mm
constitute the coarse fraction of soils. Particles finer than 0.075 constitute the finer fraction of
soils. Coarse fractions of soil consist of gravel and sand. Silt and clay are the fine fractions of
soils.

Particle Shape:

Shape of the particles helps in determining the property of soil. The shape of particles varies
from very angular to well round.

Depending upon the ratio of length, width and thickness, the particles are classified as:

(i) Bulky particles: ii) Clay particles

When the length, width and thickness of particles are of same order of magnitude, the particles
are called bulky. Cohesion less soils has bulky particles.

Gradation of Soil:

Gradation describes the distribution of different sizes of individual particles within a soil sample.
The particle size distribution curve is used to define the grading of soil.A soil sample may be
either: (a) Well graded (b) Poorly graded (c) Gap graded

A soil sample is said to be well graded if it has all sizes of materials present in it, Poorly graded
soil is a soil sample in which most of the particles are approximately of the same size,A soil
sample is said to be gap graded if at least one particle size is completely missing in it.

Influence of Gradation on Engineering Properties of Soils:

Gradation of soils affects the engineering properties like shear strength, compressibility, etc.
Well graded soils have more interlocking between the particles and thus a higher friction angle,
than those that are poorly graded. The compressibility of well graded soils is almost none and
that of poorly graded soils are more than that of well graded soil. Hence permeability of poorly
graded soil will be more than that of well graded soil. Well graded soils are more suitable for
construction than the poorly graded soils.

For measuring the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample, it is necessary to conduct
different particle-size tests.

Wet sieving is carried out for separating fine grains from coarse grains by washing the soil
specimen on a 75 micron sieve mesh.
Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75 micron. Samples (with fines
removed) are dried and shaken through a set of sieves of descending size. The weight retained in
each sieve is measured. The cumulative percentage quantities finer than the sieve sizes (passing
each given sieve size) are then determined.

The resulting data is presented as a distribution curve with grain size along x-axis (log scale) and
percentage passing along y-axis (arithmetic scale).

Properties Of Soils

Physical ( Related to or describe the physical nature of soil like texture, structure, colour,
porosity etc. Engineering (related to or describe the strength properties of soil when loaded i.e.
compressibility, permeability, stiffness, shear strength) and index properties (that help in
identification and classification of soil i.e. Water content, Specific gravity, Particle size
distribution, In situ density (Bulk Unit weight of soil), Consistency Limits and relative density).

Engineering properties of soils.

1) Consistency and Plasticity:

Consistency is a term used to describe the physical states of soil i.e. the degree of coherence
between particles of a soil at given water content. Consistency is directly related to water content
of soil, but it has been found that at the same water content different soils may have different
consistency.

Plasticity:

It is the ability of soil to change shape on application of load and to retain the new shape after
removal of the load. Fine soil particles like clays exhibit plastic behaviour.

The water contents at the boundaries between adjacent states of soil are termed as consistency
limits. Atterberg limits and related indices are very useful for soil identification and
classification.

Atterberg limits are of three types:

The water content which marks the boundary of the liquid and plastic states of the soil is called
its liquid limit, WL- Liquid limit of the soil is defined as minimum water content at which a
specified small disturbing force is required for the soil to flow. At this water content, the soil has
very small value of shear strength.

(ii) Plastic Limit:

The water content which marks the boundary of the plastic state and semi-solid state of the soil is
called its plastic limit, Wp. Plastic limit of the soil is the minimum water content at which soil
can be rolled into a thread of 3 mm without cracking. At this water content, the soil can be
deformed plastically.

(iii) Shrinkage Limit:

The water content which marks the boundary of the semi-solid and solid state of the soil is called
is shrinkage limit, Ws. It is defined as the maximum moisture content below which the soil
ceases to decrease in volume on further drying.

Plasticity Index Ip:

It is the difference between the numerical values of liquid limit, WL and plastic limit, WP of the
soil. It is denoted by IP. Plasticity index is the indicative of the range of water contents over
which the soil remains in plastic state.

IP = WL-WP

Plasticity index of a soil depends upon its fineness: finer the soil, more is its plasticity index

2) Compressibility

Weak soils do consolidate when subjected to loads due to the extrusion of moisture contained in
the voids. Compressibility is the measure of the property of a soil to allow consolidation to take
place under external load.

3) Shrinkage and swelling(expansion)

Clays undergo changes in volume due to changes in moisture content. When moisture content
decreases due to drying, the soil contracts and is said to shrink and when moisture increases, soil
swells and expands. Such soils are called expansive soils.

4) Permeability.

Is the measure of the rate at which water pases through the porous medium of the soil stratum.

Soil strength properties of soils.

The strength properties of soils are it`s internal friction and cohesion. For an engineer,
knowledge of these two is extremely important since structures lay on soils. The internal friction
component of soil strength is derived from the interlocking of large soil particles such as gravel
and sand. The particle shape, size , texture determine the amount of internal friction developed.
Sand and gravel have a high angle of internal friction due to their particles well as clay is the
opposite.

The main source of strength in fine grained soils is cohesion which is the attraction experienced
by soil particles in a soil mass. It is largely due to the amount of water in the soil. A thin film of
water in clay causes cementation of the particles but as water increases this is lost due to the over
saturation of the soil.

Soil description and classification

It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe
the various materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be comprehensive
(covering all but the rarest of deposits), meaningful in an engineering context (so that engineers
will be able to understand and interpret) and yet relatively concise. It is important to distinguish
between description and classification:

Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a
description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual examination, simple tests,
observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.

Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behaviour.

Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock fragments, etc.) with water and air in the voids
between grains. The water and air contents are readily changed by changes in conditions and
location: soils can be perfectly dry (have no water content) or be fully saturated (have no air
content) or be partly saturated (with both air and water present). Although the size and shape of
the solid (granular) content rarely changes at a given point, they can vary considerably from
point to point.

First of all, consider soil as a engineering material - it is not a coherent solid material like steel
and concrete, but is a particulate material. It is important to understand the significance of
particle size, shape and composition, and of a soil's internal structure or fabric.

Engineers are primarily interested in a soil's mechanical properties: strength, stiffness,

permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water
content and unit weight.

Aids to size identification

Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to size identification
in the field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following:

SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.

SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and boots.

CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be scraped or
washed off hands and boots.
Basic characteristics of soils

The majority of soils may be regarded as either SANDS or CLAYS:

There are major differences in engineering behaviour between SANDS and CLAYS (e.g. in
permeability, compressibility, shrinking/swelling potential). The shape and size of the soil grains
has an important bearing on these differences.

Shape of grains

SAND and larger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized and larger)
have different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on the amount of wear
during transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in manufactured aggregates. They
have a relatively low specific surface (surface area).

• Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported sediments

• Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges; glacial sediments (sometimes sub-divided
into 'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular')

• Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges; residual soils, grits

• Flaky: Thickness small compared to length/breadth; clays

• Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness; scree, broken flagstone

• Flaky & Elongated: Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists and slates

CLAY particles are flaky. Their thickness is very small relative to their length & breadth, in
some cases as thin as 1/100th of the length. They therefore have high to very high specific
surface values. These surfaces carry a small negative electrical charge, that will attract the
positive end of water molecules.

Structure or fabric

Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content and nature
of grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these.

The arrangement and organisation of particles and other features within a soil mass is termed its
structure or fabric. This includes bedding orientation, stratification, layer thickness, the
occurrence of joints and fissures, the occurrence of voids, artefacts, tree roots and nodules, the
presence of cementing or bonding agents between grains.

Structural features can have a major influence on in situ properties.

• Vertical and horizontal permeabilities will be different in alternating layers of fine and
coarse soils.

• The presence of fissures affects some aspects of strength.

• The presence of layers or lenses of different stiffness can affect stability.

• The presence of cementing or bonding influences strength and stiffness.

Particle size tests

The aim is to measure the distribution of particle sizes in the sample. When a wide range of sizes
is present, the sample will be sub-divided, and separate tests carried out on each sub-sample
Particle-size tests

• Wet sieving to separate fine grains from coarse grains is carried out by washing the soil
specimen on a 60mm sieve mesh.

• Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on particles > 60 mm. Samples (with fines
removed) are dried and shaken through a nest of sieves of descending size.

• Sedimentation is used only for fine soils. Soil particles are allowed to settle from a
suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at time intervals. Sizes are
determined from the settling velocity and times recorded. Percentages between sizes are
determined from density differences.

Particle-size analysis

The cumulative percentage quantities finer than certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size sieve
mesh) are determined by weighing. Points are then plotted of % finer (passing) against log size.
A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these points is called a grading curve. The position and
shape of the grading curve determines the soil class. Geometrical grading characteristics can be
determined also from the grading curve.

In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the particles rather than their
size that has the greater influence on engineering properties. Clay soils have flaky particles to
which water adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.

SOIL STABILISATION

Stabilization is the process of mixing a stabilizer, for example cement, with a soil or imported
aggregate to produce a material whose strength is greater than that of the original unbound
material. The use of stabilization to improve the properties of a material is becoming more-
widespread due to the increased strength and load spreading ability that these materials can offer.

Mechanical Stabilization
The most basic form of mechanical stabilization is compaction, which increases the performance
of a natural material. Mechanical stabilization of a material is usually achieved by adding a
different material in order to improve the grading or decrease the plasticity of the original
material. The physical properties of the original material will be changed, but no chemical
reaction is involved. For example, a material rich in fines could be added to a material deficient
in fines in order to produce a material nearer to an ideal particle size distribution curve.

This will allow the level of density achieved by compaction to be increased and hence improve
the stability of the material

Chemical Stabilization

Chemical stabilization of sub grade soils can increase their strength and bearing capacity, and
improve their shrink/swell and freeze/thaw characteristics.

1) Lime Stabilization

The principal changes to a soil stabilized with lime include: reduction in plasticity index (PI) and
volume change; flocculation of clay particles, making the soil more friable and allowing the clay
clods to readily disintegrate; increase in optimum moisture content, permitting compaction under
wetter conditions and allowing the soils to dry out more rapidly; increase in strength and stability
through a cementing action; and resistance to water absorption and capillary rise. These physical
and chemical changes result in a more moisture-resistant barrier and a stronger all-weather
working platform for construction.

2) Cement Stabilization

Portland cement stabilization is commonly referred to as soil cement. Soil cement is a mixture of
Portland cement, water and soil compacted to a high density. When cured, the soil cement
mixture becomes a hard, rigid base material. The cement hardens the soil material and structural
strength is primarily obtained from the cementing action rather than from internal friction,
cohesion, chemical ion exchange and/or waterproofing of the materials.

3) Bitumen Stabilisation

Stabilization of soils and aggregates with asphalt differs greatly from cement and lime
stabilization. The basic mechanism involved in asphalt stabilization of fine-grained soils is a
waterproofing phenomenon. Soil particles or soil agglomerates are coated with asphalt that
prevents or slows the penetration of water which could normally result in a decrease in soil
strength. In addition, asphalt stabilization can improve durability characteristics by making the
soil resistant to the detrimental effects of water such as volume. In non-cohesive materials, such
as sands and gravel, crushed gravel, and crushed stone, two basic mechanisms are active:
waterproofing and adhesion. The asphalt coating on the cohesionless materials provides a
membrane which prevents or hinders the penetration of water; thereby reducing the tendency of
the material to lose strength in the presence of water. The second mechanism has been identified
as adhesion. The aggregate particles adhere to the asphalt, which in turn acts as a binder or
cement.

MORTAR

Mortar is a workable paste prepared by mixing water to the mixture of binding material like
Cement or Lime and fine aggregate like Sand.Mortar is used to bind construction blocks together
and fill the gaps between them. The blocks may be stone, brick, fly ash blocks, etc. Mortar
becomes hard when it sets, resulting in a rigid aggregate structure.Mortar can also be used to fix,
or point, masonry when the original mortar has washed away.The durability and strength of
mortar will depend on the quality of ingredientof the mortar. The proper selection of mortar for
masonry is very important.Choosing the right mortar type can lead to a durable masonry wall.
Improper selection of mortar types for a particular masonry job can result in a leaky wall or
deteriorating mortar. Mortar is the bonding agent that transforms the masonry unit and the mortar
into a lasting masonry wall. It has to be durable, capable of keeping the masonry intact, and resist
moisture penetration.

Properties of good mortar:

 It should develop good bond between the layers of bricks and stones.
• It should be durable.
• It should develop impervious layer for heat and rain water.
• It should be easily workable.
• It should be cheap.
• It should not adversely affect the durability of the other building materials.

• It should be capable of developing desired stresses.

• It should harden in reasonably short period of time.

• It should accept and maintain the colour of the paint or wash for a longer period of time.

Qualities of a Good Mortar

Strength of Mortar

A mortar is said to be good in strength only after its hardening. But the use of good quality
material in good proportions lead to good strength mortar.

Mobility

The consistency of a mortar is indicated by the term mobility. The consistency is categorized into
different types as stiff, dense, loose, fluid etc. Mobility of mortar is dependent of composition of
mortar ingredients.
Placeability

The ability to Place a mortar layer economically on the surface of structure is called Placeability
of mortar. Placeability purely depends up on consistency or mobility of the mortar.

Water Retention

A good quality mortar has strong water retention capacity. A mortar should not lose its water
content especially during transportation. If the water gets separated from the mix, then it is
difficult to get harden and strength of mortar also reduced. The mortar cannot develop strong
bond with the surface without sufficient water in it. Several types of plasticizers are available for
enhancing water retention of mortar.

Classification of Mortars

Lime Mortar

The uniform paste prepared by mixing water to sand and lime in suitable proportion is known as
lime mortar.

Lime mortar is of two types; Hydraulic Lime Mortar

Hydraulic lime is used as binding material in this mortar.

Fat Lime Mortar

Fat lime is used as binding material in this mortar. The usual proportion of

Lime: Sand of this mortar is 1:1 or 1:2.

Gypsum Mortar

Gypsum mortar consists of plaster and soft sand as binding material and fine aggregate.

Cement Mortar

In this type of mortar, cement is used as binding material. It is widely used for all important
works due to its strength and other superior qualities.

This mortar is used in the construction of pipes, foundations, dams, bridges, canal lining,
flooring, plastering, pointing, etc.

Gauged / blended Mortar

Gauged mortar is a type of mortar where cement and lime both are used as binding material and
sand is used as fine aggregate. Basically, it is a lime mortar where cement is added to gain higher
strength.

Mud/ clay Mortar

Mud mortar is a type of mortar where mud is used as binding material and saw dust, rice husk or
cow-dung is used as fine aggregate.

Choice of Mortar

When choosing a mortar, strength is not the only consideration. The interaction between the
masonry units and the mortar is at least as important. For good interaction, the mortar must be
smooth and easily worked. The mortar should have about the same strength as the masonry units.
If the mortar is much stronger, there is always a risk for cracking. The absorbency of the
masonry units is important for laying them, for adhesion and for the setting of the mortar. If they
have very low absorbency, and the main component of the mortar is lime, it will take a long time
for the joint to set. This could mean that the units lie and “float” in the fresh mortar, leading to
large deformations in the wall. On the other hand if the units are very absorbent, a cement-rich
mortar can lose so much mixing water that curing stops. Much too great absorbency could even
cause the mortar to set before the units can be put in their final position.

When choosing a mortar, one should:

1 Decide a suitable strength

2 Adjust the mortar to the absorbency of the masonry units.

The basic principle in the choice of the binder is: • choose a lime-rich binder for weak, highly
absorptive units; • choose a cement-rich binder for strong, low-absorption units.

Following are some of the precautions to be taken while using mortar:

1. The cement mortar should be used within 30 minutes after it is prepared since the cement
starts setting. The lime mortar should be used within 36 hours after its preparation and it should
be kept wet. The ganged mortar should be used within 2 hours after the addition of cement.

2. The Bricks or Cement blocks should be soaked well in water just before

the erection of walls or any other structure. Otherwise, water in the mortar will be absorbed by
the bricks and the mortar will become weak.
3. Use of seawater should be totally avoided with cement or pure lime mortar. The use of sea
water will lead to efflorescence. In the absence of pure water, sea water may be used with
hydraulic lime.

4. The water used should be clean and free from alkalies, oils, dust or any other dirt.

5. The size of the sand should be less than 3 mm.

6. The mortar should be mixed well with adequate quantities of ingredients as specified.

7. The mortar should not contain excess water; else its workability is affected.

8. The setting action of cement is affected in cold weather due to frost action. Hence during
frosty weather, the work should be stopped.

9. The construction work carried out by mortar should be kept damp or wet by sprinkling water
for about 7 to 10 days to avoid rapid drying of mortar.

PAINT

The base, usually a metallic oxide, is the principal constituent of the paint. It makes the paint
film opaque and also possesses binding properties which reduce the shrinkage cracks in the film
on drying

Pigment(s), impart colour and hide surface imperfections, opacity too, are finely ground particles
or powders that provide color and coverage. to no surprise, provides the paint's colour and
opacity and control gloss

Binder (resin)/ vehicle, a polymer, often referred to as resin, forming a matrix to hold the
pigment in place, plastic like polymers to binder and hold the pigment particles together and
provide adhesion to the surface paint.

Extender s are larger pigment particles added to improve adhesion, strengthen the film and save
binder

Solvents (sometimes called a thinner) are either an organic solvent or water is used to reduce the
viscosity of the paint for better application.

Additives, used to modify the properties of the liquid paint or dry film. For example, matting
agents are added to give the paint a more matt finish, and wetting agents are added to make the
product flow better. Depending on the type of paint and intended use, additives may include:

• dispersants - to separate and stabilise pigment particles

• silicones - to improve weather resistance
• thixotropic agents - to give paints a jelly-like consistency that breaks down to a liquid
when stirred or when a brush is dipped into it
• driers - to accelerate drying time

Paints are formulated according to their proposed use - primer, undercoat, special finishes (matt,
gloss, heat resistance, anti-corrosion, abrasion resistance). The pigment powder is broken down
into individual particles which are coated by and dispersed in the binder (resin) - known as
'wetting out'. Solvent is then added to give the required consistency. Each batch of ingredients is
thoroughly mixed in large, stirred containers with the required additives

Manufacturing;

The manufacturing process may involve five critical steps:

a) Accurate measurement of ingredients

b) Mill-base preparation and pigment dispersion

c) Let-down

d) Finished product and in process laboratory testing

e) Canning

When testing is completed the batch is passed for canning.

Binders in paints

The most important binders (resins) used in modern paints are:

a) Acrylic polymers (resins)

Acrylate polymers are a group of polymers noted for their transparency, resistance to breakage,
and elasticity. They are also commonly known as acrylics or polyacrylates

The polymers used in these paints are carried in water (water-borne emulsion paints). Emulsion
paints are so-called as they are made by a process known as emulsion polymerization, in which
the liquid monomers to be polymerized are first dispersed in water, as an emulsion.

b) Vinyl resins

Vinyl polymers are polymers made from vinyl monomers; that is, small molecules containing
carbon-carbon double bonds. Vinyl polymers are polymers made from vinyl monomers; that is,
small molecules containing carbon-carbon double bonds.

Polyvinyl Chloride or Vinyl compound is chiefly made from two basic substances - Salt and
Crude Oil. The salt is used to obtain chlorine through a process called electrolytic disassociation
of salt. The crude oil, petroleum, or natural gas, is used to obtain Ethylene.
Once the chlorine and ethylene are obtained, the manufacturing procedure of Vinyl is started,
which is made up of three main steps.

Alkyd polymers (resins)

An alkyd is a polyester modified by the addition of fatty acids ( Oils) and other components. The
term alkyd is a modification of the original name "alcid", reflecting the fact that they are derived
from alcohol and organic acids. The inclusion of the fatty acid confers a tendency to form
flexible coating. Alkyds are used in paints and in moulds for casting. They are the dominant resin
or "binder" in most commercial "oil-based" coatings

Paint drying

As the paint dries, a film is formed which adheres to the surface of the material to which it is
being applied. Emulsion paints dry by a physical process involving the evaporation of water
followed by coalescence of the polymer droplets and their subsequent integration into a hard
polymer matrix that acts as a binder for the pigment.

On applying gloss paints, the alkyd polymer cross-links by an oxidation reaction with oxygen in
the air once the solvent has largely evaporated. This reaction is accelerated using salts of
transition metals. The transition metal ion catalyses cross linking of the polymer chains,
producing a hard surface film to the paint.

Sheen

Paint comes in a number of different finishes, from flat to high gloss. Paint sheen or finish refers
to the amount of light that paint reflects from its surface. These sheens can be broken down into
two categories:

• Paints without a sheen, referred to as flat or matte, absorb light.

• Paints with a semi-gloss or glossy sheen reflect light.

No and low-gloss sheens: No and low-gloss paint sheens absorb light more than they reflect it.

Semi-gloss and glossy sheens: Unlike lower-gloss sheens, semi-gloss and glossy paint sheens
reflect light, providing a bright, shiny look. Both require more prep work and sanding to ensure
smooth application, but once applied and dried, these paints can be scrubbed and are easy to
clean.

How paint sheens are determined

Paints with glossier finishes, like satin, have higher levels of resin and lower levels of
pigmentation, while paints with an eggshell finish have higher levels of pigmentation and lower
levels of resin. Choosing the sheen that suits a room depends on what the space is primarily used
for and how you want it to look.

Types of Interior Paint Finishes

Flat/Matte
• Provides a non-reflective, smooth appearance that hides surface blemishes like nail holes
and patches.
• Matte paint requires less coats than higher gloss paints and is easier to touch up.
Eggshell
• One of the most popular sheens, it provides an elegant low sheen and a soft, smooth
finish just like eggshell.
• Perfect for low- to mid-traffic areas like hallways, living rooms, entryways and family
rooms.
Satin
• The most commonly chosen finish, a satin paint finish provides an elegant, almost pearl-
like, finish and soft sheen.
• Ideal for indoor and outdoor use, it resists mildew and fading and is easier to clean that
lower-gloss finishes.
Semi-Gloss
• Even more reflective than satin with a smooth sheen, semi-gloss paint gives rooms a
shiny, sleek appearance.
• Because they offer high resistance to moisture, they work well in areas with higher
humidity such as bathrooms, kitchens and laundry rooms as well as high-traffic spaces like doors
and utility rooms.
High-Gloss
• Offering the highest level of reflection.
• Gives a high-shine, glass-like finish that is ideal for doors, cabinets, moulding and trim.
Guide before paint application to any surface
• Examine your background. Sometimes just knowing or it`s existing paint formula will
help you select the right paint for a new coat or color. For already painted surfaces you may wipe
the surface with alcohol. If the rag picks up the paint, it's water-based. If no paint rubs off on the
rag, it's likely oil-based.”
• Determine the level of durability you need.

• Decide how often you plan on painting.

• Weigh your sheen options. Sheens indicate how glossy a paint. Glossy paints are shinier
and reflect more light, but matte paints diffuse the light to make the surface less shiny. Reflective
sheens, like satin and semi-gloss, clean easily but show more imperfections on the wall. Non-
reflective sheens show fewer imperfections but are not typically as easy to clean. Overall, matte
finishes are good for low-traffic areas like bedrooms, while other sheens are better for high-
traffic areas like kitchens or bathrooms.”

• Note the Details. After you’ve selected the paint, read the label to understand its binders,
pigments, and liquids. This final step will give you a comprehensive understanding of the can
you’re about to buy, so that you know exactly what’s going to cover your walls.

Volume solids, PVC and hiding power

Volume solids

The volume solids of a paint is a reasonably good measure of the paint’s quality compared to
another brand. Volume solids is a measure of the volume of solid film forming ingredients in a
can of paint - the material that is left behind when the paint has dried. In other words it is a
measure of the volume of real paint in a can. It may be used to determine the dry film build of
the paint when it is applied at specified spreading rates.

Understanding volume solids of paint provides many benefits:

• It allows you to compare the true cost of different paints.

• It allows you to predict how much paint must be applied to obtain adequate coverage.
• It allows you to control the quality of the paint job.
• It allows you to avoid production delays because thick layers of paint dry more slowly.

Pigment volume concentration (PVC)

Pigment volume concentration or PVC as we like to shorten it to, simply gives us an idea of how
much pigment there is in the paint compared to the amount of binder. It is useful to know this
because the binder has the very important job of binding all the pigment and other raw materials
into the paint.

PVC = (Volume of the pigment) x 100 / ( Volume of pigment + Volume of solid binder)

Hiding power

Hiding power or ‘opacity’ or ‘coverage’ are words that refer to a paint’s ability to completely
obliterate the colour of the surface it is applied over. A paint with excellent hiding power may
completely hide words written in black paint on a white background in one coat. Hiding power
relies mainly on prime pigments.

Defects

a) Peeling and blistering;

b) Checking
c) Cracking
d) Flaking
e) Chalking

PLASTICS

Plastic is an organic material prepared out of resin. It may or may not contain fillers, plasticizers
and solvents. Plastic may be defined as a natural or synthetic organic material having the
property of being plastic at some stage of their manufacture when they can be molded to required
size and shape.

Types of Plastics; Thermosetting Plastics: It needs momentary heated condition and great
pressure during shaping. When heated cross linkage is established between the molecules and
chemical reaction takes place. During this stage shape can be changed with pressure. This change
is not reversible. Thermoplastic: In this variety, the linkage between the molecules is very loose.
They can be softened by heating repeatedly. This property helps for reuse of waste plastic.

Properties of Plastics

1. Colour: Some plastics are completely transparent. Using pigments plastics of any attractive
colour can be produced.
2. Dimensional Stability: It is dimensionally stable to a great extent.
3. Durability: Plastic offers great resistance to moisture and chemicals and hence more durable.
4. Electrical Insulation: The plastics possess excellent electrical insulating property.
5. Fire Resistance: The phenol-formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde plastics resist fire to a great
extent and hence they are used as fire proofing materials.
6. Strength: The plastics are reasonably strong. Their strength may be increased by reinforcing
with various fibrous materials. Attempts are being made to produce structurally sound plastics.
7. Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of plastics is very low and hence convenient to handle.
8. Ductility: The plastics are not ductile and hence they fail without giving warning.
9. Fixing: Plastics can be bolted, drilled, glued, clamped or simply push fitted in position.
10. Maintenance: There is no maintenance cost for plastic articles i.e., they do not need painting
and polishing.
Fabrication of plastics

Plastics are available in the form of bars, tubes, sheets, coils, and blocks, and these can be
fabricated to specification. However, plastic articles are commonly manufactured from plastic
powders in which desired shapes are fashioned by compression, transfer, injection, or extrusion
molding.

Compression Moulding
Transfer Moulding
Injection Moulding
Blow Moulding.
Casting

Composition of Plastic

The constituents of plastics are resin, plasticizer, filler, pigment and dye, lubricant and catalyst.

A plastic is made up principally of a binder together with plasticizers, fillers, pigments, and other
additives. The binder gives a plastic its main characteristics and usually its name. Thus,
polyvinyl chloride is both the name of a binder and the name of a plastic into which it is made.
Binders may be natural materials, e.g., cellulose derivatives, casein, or milk protein, but are more
commonly synthetic resins

Resin acts as binder for holding different constituents together.

Plasticiser modifies plastic to impart desirable combination of strength, flexibility and toughness.
Plasticizers, which are mostly liquids, are usually organic compounds or resins possessing very
low vapour pressure

Filler is added up to 50 per cent of the moulding mixture to increase the hardness, tensile
strength, bond, opacity, finish and workability besides reducing the cost, shrinkage on setting,
and brittleness of the final product. Some of the fillers are wood flour, asbestos fibres, mica,

Pigment is added to achieve desired colour of the plastic and should be resistant to the action of
sunlight.

Lubricant is used to make the moulding of plastic easier to prevent sticking of materials to the
mould for a flawless finish. The examples are stearates, oleates and soaps.

Catalyst is added only in the case of thermosetting plastics to accelerate the polymerization of
fusible resin during moulding operation into cross-linked infusible form.

POLYMES

Polymers may be naturally found in plants and animals (natural polymers) or may be man-made
(synthetic polymers)..

Classification of Polymers based on the Source of Availability

Natural Polymers:
They occur naturally and are found in plants and animals. To add up, we also have biodegradable
polymers which are called biopolymers.
Semi-synthetic Polymers:
They are derived from naturally occurring polymers and undergo further chemical modification.
For example, cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate.
Synthetic Polymers:
These are man-made polymers. Plastic is the most common and widely used synthetic polymer.
It is used in industries and various dairy products. For example, nylon-6, 6, polyether’s
Organic and Inorganic Polymer:

A polymer whose backbone chain is made up of carbon atom is known as organic polymer. A
polymer whose backbone chain is made up of only inorganic molecules and not of carbon atom
is known as inorganic polymers. E.g. Glass, silicone, rubber etc.

b) Classification of Polymers based on the Structure of the Monomer Chain

This category has the following classifications:

Linear Polymers

The structure of polymers containing long and straight chains fall into this category. PVC, i.e.
poly-vinyl chloride is largely used for making pipes and electric cables is an example of a linear
polymer.

Branched-chain Polymers

When linear chains of a polymer form branches, then, such polymers are categorized as branched
chain polymers. For example, Low-density polythene.

Cross-linked Polymers

They are composed of bifunctional and trifunctional monomers. They have a stronger covalent
bond in comparison to other linear polymers. Bakelite and melamine are examples in this
category.

Other Ways to Classify Polymers

c) Classification Based on Polymerization

• Addition Polymerization: Example, poly ethane, Teflon, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

• Condensation Polymerization: Example, Nylon -6, 6, perylene, polyesters.

d) Classification Based on Monomers

• Homomer: In this type, a single type of monomer unit is present. For example,
Polyethene
• Heteropolymer or co-polymer: It consists of different type of monomer units. For
example, nylon -6, 6

e) Classification Based on Molecular Forces

• Elastomers: These are rubber-like solids with elastic properties, weak interaction forces
are present. For example, Rubber.

• Fibres: Strong, tough, high tensile strength and strong forces of interaction are present.
For example, nylon -6, 6.

• Thermoplastics: These have intermediate forces of attraction. For example, polyvinyl

chloride.

• Thermosetting polymers: These polymers greatly improve the material’s mechanical

properties. It provides enhanced chemical and heat resistance. For example, phenolics, epoxies,
and silicones.

Properties of Polymers

Physical Properties

• As chain length and cross-linking increases the tensile strength of the polymer increases.

• Polymers do not melt, they change state from crystalline to semi-crystalline.

Chemical Properties

• Compared to conventional molecules with different side molecules, the polymer is

enabled with hydrogen bonding and ionic bonding resulting in better cross-linking strength.

Optical Properties

• Due to their ability to change their refractive index with temperature they are used in
lasers for applications in spectroscopy and analytical applications.

How is the Polymerization Reaction Classified?

Types of Polymerization Reactions

Addition Polymerization

This is also called as chain growth polymerization. In this, small monomer units joined to form a
giant polymer. In each step, length of chain increases.

Condensation Polymerization
In this type small molecules like H2O, CO, NH3 are eliminated during polymerization (step
growth polymerization). Generally, organic compounds containing bifunctional groups such as
idols, -dials, diamines, dicarboxylic acids undergo this type of polymerization reaction. For
example, Preparation of nylon -6, 6.

TIMBER

Timber refers to wood used for construction works.

Hardwood vs. Softwood

The term hardwood designates wood from broad-leaved (mostly deciduous) or angiosperm trees
(plants that produce seeds with some sort of covering).

Softwood is a generic term used in woodworking and the lumber industries for wood from
conifers. The term softwood designates wood from gymnosperm trees (plants having seeds with
no covering).

HOW WOOD GROWS

As the cambium grows, it generates two types of wood cells. Most of these are long, narrow
longitudinal cells that align themselves with the axis of the trunk, limb, or root. These are what
give the wood its grain. The cambium also produces a smaller number of ray cells that line up in
rays extending out from the pith, perpendicular to the axis.

As the wood grows outward, the living protoplasm inside the cells dies and deteriorates, leaving
behind just the cell walls. These walls are composed mostly of cellulose fibers, which give the
wood its strength. The fibers are bound together with lignin, a glue-like substance

TYPES OF GRAIN
Because of the manner in which wood grows, every board has a definite grain direction, parallel
to the length of the longitudinal cells. The grain appears differently depending on how the board
is sawed.
Cut wood parallel to the grain direction and tangent to the growth rings, and you’ll see plain
grain (also called tangential or flat grain).
Cut it parallel to the grain direction but through the radius of the growth rings to see quarter grain
(also referred to as radial grain).
Open-grained and close-grained wood refers to the size of the pores; woods with large visible
pores are ‘open-grain’, and those with pores too small to see clearly are ‘closed-grain’. When the
wood’s sawn, large pores can split and this will decide whether timber needs a filler to achieve a
smoother finish.

Defects in timber; Various defects which are likely to occur in timber may be grouped into the
following three:
(i) Defects due to Natural Forces: The following defects are caused by natural forces:
(a) Knots (b) Shakes (c) Wind cracks (d) Upsets

(b) Shakes: The shakes are cracks in the timber which appear due to excessive heat, frost or
twisting due to wind during the growth of a tree.

(c) Wind Cracks:

These are the cracks on the outside of a log due to the shrinkage of the surface.
 (ii) Defects due to Defective Seasoning and Conversion: If seasoning is not uniform, the
converted timber may warp and twist in various directions. Sometimes honey combining and
even cracks appear.

(iii) Defects due to Fungi and Insects Attack:

Dry-rot fungus is often thought of as a building cancer, rampaging through buildings and rapidly
destroying any timber in its path. The fungus, which thrives in moist unventilated conditions,
will penetrate brickwork to get to more timber and can cause widespread destruction of structural
timbers, skirting boards and door frames, and wood flooring.

Compared with dry rot, wet rot is hardly a problem ! It is basically the timber decaying naturally
in the presence of high levels of moisture. There is almost always a structural defect causing the
problem, it may be that the wall adjacent to the timber is suffering from damp, or water
collecting on the timber.

Timber seasoning

As a hygroscopic material, timber fluctuates in moisture content relative to its surrounding

environment. It is therefore important to dry timber prior to use in order to match the anticipated
moisture content within a building environment and avoid excess movement as the timber
naturally dries to its equilibrium service condition. This embodied moisture is generally
represented as a percentage of the dry weight of timber.

The various methods of seasoning used may be classified into:

(i) Natural Seasoning: It may be air seasoning or water seasoning.

(ii) Artificial Seasoning:

(a) Boiling
(b) Kiln seasoning
(c) Chemical seasoning
(d) Electrical seasoning.

Conversion of timber

There are two main methods of converting timber:

Through and through (or Plain or Crown sawn) which produces tangential boards and

Quarter Sawn which produces radial boards.

MOISTURE CONTENT AND MOVEMENT

Wood moves as its moisture content changes. As the green wood dries, the free water evaporates
first, then the bound water. The wood is dimensionally stable (it doesn’t shrink or swell
noticeably) as it loses free water, but once it begins to lose bound water, it contracts.The
moisture content of the wood varies with the relative humidity of the surrounding air. Once the
wood has been dried, the moisture content never again rises above 28 percent (its fiber saturation
point) from the effects of humidity alone. For this to happen, the wood must be immersed in
water.

DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT

Although it’s constantly expanding and contracting, wood does not move equally in all
directions. The grain structure causes it to move differently in three different directions.

Wood is fairly stable along its longitudinal direction, parallel to the grain. Wood moves much
more across the grain, tangent to the growth rings. But it shrinks only half as much (4 percent) in
the radial direction.For this reason, quartersawn wood is more stable than plain-sawn lumber.
Quartersawn is cut radially and moves only half as much across its width as plain-sawn lumber,
which is cut tangentially. Wood is fairly stable along its length, moving only 0.01 percent as it
loses its bound water. However, (on the average) it moves 8 percent tangentially and 4 percent
radially.

CHANGING SHAPE

The difference in tangential and radial movement has other important consequences. Depending
on how it’s cut from the tree, a board may change shape as it dries:

If the annual rings run side to side in square stock, the stock will shrink to a rectangle.

If the rings run diagonally from corner to corner, the stock will become diamond-shaped.

Round stock becomes oval as the tangential diameter shrinks more than the radial diameter.

Plain-sawn lumber tends to cup in the opposite direction of the growth rings because the outside
face (the face farthest from the pith) shrinks a little faster than the inside face.

In quartersawn lumber, both faces shrink equally and the board remains flat.

Because of the difference in tangential and radial movement, boards change shape as they
expand and contract. The way in which they change depends on how they are cut from the tree.

Classification of timber

Various bases are considered for the classification of timbers. The following are the important
basis:
(i) Classification Based on Modulus of Elasticity: Young’s modulus is determined by conducting
bending test.

(ii) Classification Based on Durability: Durability tests are conducted

(iii) Classification Based on Grading (see employing timber below)

Concepts of Stress and Strain

Wood can undergo a certain load, or stress, before breaking. When stress is applied to a rigid
body like a block of wood, distortion of the wood occurs. A large stress will cause the wood to
fail and break. Low stresses will cause the wood to distort (bend or shrink) without actually
breaking. The change in length divided by the original length is is called strain. This stress and
deformation is called elastic if when the stress is removed the wood goes back to it's original
shape. This “recoverable distortion” is a unique and very useful property of wood.
However, with enough stress (force applied) the wood fibers will break. When this happens, the
wood is said to have reached its proportional limit. Having an understanding of the relationship
of stress and strain below this limit is important in characterizing how a piece of wood will
respond to loads.

For bending, the concepts of elasticity and stress and strain are slightly more complicated than
for simple compression. Think of a deck board that is supported on either end. A force applied to
the middle of the board will cause compression on the upper face of the board, while the bottom
face undergoes tension (stretching).

Wood: Strength and Stiffness

Strength is how well a material can carry applied loads or forces without failing (breaking or
permanently deforming). The properties of material that determine its strength are also referred
to as its mechanical properties.The elastic properties of wood are those produced at low stress
levels and are completely recoverable after the loads are removed.

Strength Properties measured like compression, shear, bending and tension are when wood is
loaded to higher stress levels beyond the elastic range and plastic deformation or failure occurs.
A good indicator of a wood’s strength is its density — the weight for a given volume. This is
measured by its specific gravity

The stiffness or modulus of elasticity indicates how much the wood will deflect when a load is
applied perpendicular to the grain.

The hardness reveals how resistant the surface of the wood is to scratches, dents, and other
abuse.

Orthotropic Nature of Wood Properties

The cellular structure of wood and the physical organization of the cellulose chain within the cell
wall make the physical and mechanical properties of wood dependent upon the direction of
loading .Wood may be described as an orthotropic material; that is, it has unique and
independent mechanical properties in the directions of three mutually perpendicular axes . The
longitudinal axis L is parallel to the cylindrical trunk of the tree and therefore also to the long
axis of the wood fibers (parallel to the grain). The tangential axis T is perpendicular to the grain
but tangent to the annual growth rings, and the radial axis R is normal to the growth rings.
Collectively, the tangential and radial directions are referred to as being perpendicular to the
grain. The properties of wood parallel to the grain are higher than those perpendicular to the
grain, since the grain direction is also the direction of the primary bonds of the major chemical
constituents of the wood cellwall

Wood is much stronger parallel to the grain rather then perpendicular because, when the stress is
applied parallel to the grain, the fibers of the wood are oriented in such a way that the whole
lengths of the fibers can resist the stress whereas, when the stress is applied perpendicular to the
grain, the fibers are oriented so that the widths, obviously much shorter than the lengths of the
fibers, resists the stress.

Employing timber

In order to ensure that processed timber materials are able to support anticipated maximum loads
as part of a structure in service, it is necessary to strength grade each piece of dimensional timber
to BS EN. This grading standard permits a structural engineer to specify a chosen strength class
of timber and use the characteristic strength values of that class in their design calculations.

Strength grading consists of two types: visual strength grading (VSG) and machine strength
grading (MSG) according to the standard BS. VSG is defined by a set of rules describing a series
of weakness related features such as knots on the timber surface and any splits or related defects
that may occur as a result of drying. MSG tests the characteristic values of stiffness and density
for the strength classes by feeding individual timber lengths through a set of calibrated rollers.
The wood is then classified ‘C’ (softwoods) or ‘D’ (hardwoods) into various strength classes,
each designated by a number indicating the value of bending strength in N/mm2, e.g. ‘C14’
(weakest) to ‘C50’ (strongest) defined by European standard, BS EN 338

Families of these materials include but not limited to;

Glulam; Defined as a structural timber member composed by at least two essentially parallel
laminations which may comprise of one or two boards side by Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT):
Timber panels that are made of a minimum of three layers of sawn softwood stacked on top of
one another at right angles and glued to form a thickness in the range 50–500 mm suitable for
floor, wall and roof elements of up to 13.5 m in length

I-Joists: Whilst these are more expensive and deeper than solid timber joists for an equivalent
strength and stiffness, composite I-Joists are more dimensionally stable due to their
homogeneous OSB web and the relatively small dimension of the solid timber

METALS

Metals are the most useful building materials. They exist in nature as compounds like
oxides, carbonates, sulphides and phosphates and are known as ores. Metals are derived from
ores containing high percentages of a particular metal by removing the impurities.

A compound is a substance formed when two or more chemical elements chemically bonded
together. Example, Pure water is a compound made from two elements - hydrogen and oxygen.
The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in water is always 2:1. Each molecule of water contains two
hydrogen atoms bonded to a single oxygen atom.
Metals can be either ferrous or non-ferrous. Ferrous metals contain iron while non-ferrous metals
do not. Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals are divided into pure metals and alloys.
1) Nonferrous

Examples of non-ferrous metals are:

Aluminum: Aluminum is mainly obtained from bauxite ore.Aluminum is a very common
component (about 8 percent ) of the earth crust, the most common ore of aluminum
is Bauxite (Al2O3. n H2O), Lightweight, low-strength, easily shaped, It is silvery-white metal and
shows brilliant luster when fresh.
Copper: Copper is extracted from copper ores such as copper pyrites .Highly malleable with high
electrical conductivity; It is reddish-brown in color.

Lead: Lead is extracted from three chief ore minerals. Galena, Cerrussite, Anglesite, Heavy, soft,
malleable metal; low melting point, low strength, It has typically brilliant luster.

Tin: Soft, malleable, low tensile strength metal often used to coat steel to prevent corrosion
Zinc: medium-strength metal with low melting point widely used in galvanizing to prevent rust
on iron or steel

2) Ferrous metals

Types of iron

Pig iron
Basic raw iron is called pig iron because it's produced in the form of chunky molded blocks
known as pigs. Pig iron is made by heating an iron ore (rich in iron oxide) in a blast furnace:
Cast iron

Pig iron is remelted with limestone (flux) and coke and refined in a furnace. It is then poured into
moulds of desired size and shape. The product is known as cast iron containing about 2–4% of
carbon. Cast iron is simply liquid iron that has been cast: poured into a mold and allowed to cool
and harden to form a finished structural shape, such as a pipe, a gear, or a big girder for an iron
bridge.
Methods of casting
Sand casting
involves pouring molten metal into a cavity in a mass of packed sand. Wooden patterns
are used for moulds which are removed when the sand has dried. Each mould has a hole for
casting through which the molten iron is poured. Air and hot gases escape through another
hole. Cast material is taken out by breaking the mould after iron cools down.

Properties

Cast iron is hard and brittle. It can neither be riveted nor welded. It is strong in compression but
weak in tension and shear.

Wrought iron
Cast iron assumes its finished shape the moment the liquid iron alloy cools down in the mold.
Wrought iron is a very different material made by mixing liquid iron with some slag (leftover
waste). The result is an iron alloy with a much lower carbon content. Wrought iron is softer than
cast iron and much less tough, so you can heat it up to shape it relatively easily, and it's also
much less prone to rusting
Wrought iron considered to be pure iron, is produced by removing the impurities of cast iron.
The total impurities are limited to 0.5 per cent with a maximum percentage of carbon as 0. 15,
silicon 0.15–0.2%, Phosphorus 0.12–0.16%, sulphur 0.02–0.03% and manganese 0.03–0.1%.

Steel

Steel is the world's most popular construction material because of its unique combination of
durability, workability, and cost. It's an iron alloy that contains 0.2-2 percent carbon by weight

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and sometimes other elements. Because of its high tensile
strength and low cost, it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships,
automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Iron is the base metal of steel
It is the interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that
gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties.

Introduction to the extraction of metals (metallurgy)

The Earth's crust contains many different rocks, Rocks are a mixture of minerals and from some
we can make useful substances. A mineral can be a solid metallic or non–metallic element or
a compound found naturally in the Earth's crust.

Mineral ores are naturally occurring rocks that provide an economic starting point for the
extraction and manufacture of metals for a huge variety of purposes ie a metal ore is rock
containing sufficient metal to be worth extracting the metal from it.

The simplest definition of an ore is a mixture of a metal containing mineral and other materials
('minerals') from the surrounding rocks, which can be described as impurities with respect to
what you want from the ore.

Ores are often oxides, carbonates or sulphides because these non-metals readily combine with
many metals.

 e.g. iron + oxygen ===> iron oxide ores

  Fe + O2(air) ===> Fe2O3 or Fe3O4 (not balanced equations, just
the idea!)

In extracting metals from ores you have to reverse the process e.g. by heating the ore with carbon
(coke or charcoal) in a very hot smelting furnace e.g. in a blast furnace to make iron.

 iron oxide ore + carbon ===> free iron + carbon dioxide waste
gas
 Fe3O4 + 2C ===> 3Fe + 2CO2
 The iron oxide is reduced (oxygen loss) and the carbon reducing
agent is oxidised (oxygen gain).

Since the majority of metals are found combined with non–metals like oxygen (oxide ion) or
sulfur (sulfide ion) or the carbonate ion, chemical reactions are needed to free the metal from its
mineral source.

Process;

1) Crushing and grinding of the ore

Metal ores are obtained by mining and that this may involve digging up and processing large
amounts of rock.

2) Concentration / dressing of ore

Most ores are mined have to be concentrated to remove rocky and silicious impurities like clay,
sand etc. which may interfere before the metal is extracted and purified;

a) Hydraulic Washing

This method is usually applicable to oxide ores in which the ore particles are heavier than the
impurities. The powdered ore is washed with running stream of water. The lighter impurities are
washed away leaving behind the heavier ore particles. Native metals such as gold can be
separated from sand and gravel by shaking and washing of earth with water in pan or sieve. The
process is known as panning.

b) Magnetic Separation of Impurities: This method is usually employed when either the ore
or the gangue is capable of being attracted by the magnetic field. For example, tungstates of
iron and manganese from tin stone are separated by this method. The powdered ore is
dropped over the belt revolving around the rollers, one of which is magnetic. The magnetic
roller attracts the magnetic part of
the ore and they are collected in the form of a heap near it. The non-magnetic part of the ore
flies off and forms a heap away from the impurities.

3) Reduction
In order to extract a metal, the ore or compound of the metal must undergo a process called
REDUCTION to free the metal i.e.

o The oxide/sulfide loses oxygen/sulfur, to the free metallic atoms, or

o the positive metal ion gains negative electrons to form the neutral metal atom.
o The chemical that removes the oxygen from an oxide is called the reducing
agent i.e. carbon, carbon monoxide or sometimes hydrogen.

After the preliminary treatment, the ore may be subjected to reduction process by one of the
following methods depending upon its nature:

 Smelting or Reduction with Carbon. In this process, the roasted or calcined ore is
mixed with suitable quantity of coke or charcoal (which act as reducing agent) and is
heated to a high temperature above its melting point. During reduction, an additional
reagent is also added to the ore to remove the impurities still present in the ore. This
additional reagent is called flux. Flux combines with the impurities to form a fusible
product called slag.
 Reduction with Aluminium. Certain metal oxides are not easily reduced with carbon. In
such cases is used as reducing agent because it is more electropositive than chromium or
manganese.
 Auto-reduction. Certain metals are obtained from their ores roasting without using any
reducing agent. For example, mercury is directly obtained by roasting its ore
 Electrolytic Reduction. The highly electropositive elements such as alkali metals,
alkaline earth metals and aluminium cannot be extracted by carbon reduction methods.
They are extracted by the electrolysis of their fused salts
 Displacement Method . Some metals like gold and silver are extracted from their
concentrated ores by leaching. They are dissolved in suitable reagents like acids or bases
leaving behind insoluble impurities. The metal is recovered from the solution by
displacement with some more electropositive metal such as zinc. For example, silver ore
is leached with dilute solution of sodium cyanide.

4) Refining of metals

The process of purification of impure metals is known as refining.

Making of Steel:

(1) Molten iron from the blast furnace is mixed with recycled scrap iron

(2) Then pure oxygen is passed into the mixture and the non–metal impurities such as silicon or
phosphorus are then converted into acidic oxides (the BOS oxidation process) ..

e.g. Si + O2 ==> SiO2, or 4P + 5O2 ==> P4O10

(3) Calcium carbonate (a base) is then added to remove the acidic oxide impurities (in an acid–
base reaction). The salts produced by this reaction form a slag which can be tapped off
separately.

e.g. CaCO3 + SiO2 ==> CaSiO3 + CO2 (calcium silicate slag)

Reactions (1)–(3) produce pure iron.

Calculated quantities of carbon and/or other metallic elements such as titanium, manganese or
chromium are then added to make a wide range of steels with particular properties.

The major iron-bearing raw materials for steelmaking are blast-furnace iron, steel scrap, and
direct-reduced iron. Liquid blast-furnace iron typically contains 3.8 to 4.5 percent carbon (C), 0.4
to 1.2 percent silicon (Si), 0.6 to 1.2 percent manganese (Mn), up to 0.2 percent phosphorus (P),
and 0.04 percent sulfur (S).
Oxidation reactions; The most important chemical reactions carried out on these materials
(especially on blast-furnace iron) are the oxidation of carbon to carbon monoxide, silicon to
silica, manganese to manganous oxide, and phosphorus to phosphate, as follows:

The products of the above reactions, the oxides silica, manganese oxide, phosphate, and ferrous
oxide, together with burnt lime (calcium oxide; CaO) added as flux, form the slag

Finally, it's time for manufacturing, fabrication, and finishing. Secondary forming techniques
give the steel its final shape and properties. These techniques include:

 Shaping (cold rolling), which is done below the metal's recrystallization point, meaning
mechanical stress not heat affects change
 Machining (drilling), Machining is the process of cutting, shaping, or removing material
from a workpiece using a machine tool.
 Joining (welding)
 Coating (galvanizing)
 Heat treatment (tempering)
 Surface treatment (carburizing),Carburizing, also referred to as Case Hardening, is a heat
treatment process that produces a surface which is resistant to wear, while maintaining
toughness and strength of the core. This treatment is applied to low carbon steel parts
after machining, as well as high alloy steel bearings, gears, and other components
Making steel products

Liquid steel made by one of these processes is cast into huge bars called ingots, each of which
weighs anything from a couple of tons (in typical steel plants) to hundreds of tons (in really big
plants making giant steel objects). The ingots are rolled and pressed to make three types of basic
steel "building blocks" known as blooms (giant bars with square ends), slabs (blooms with
rectangular ends), and billets (longer than blooms but with smaller square ends).

These blocks are then shaped and worked to make all kinds of final steel products. The basic
shaping process usually involves hot or cold rolling.

Hot-rolling refers to a mill process in which you roll the steel at a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature; a heat that typically exceeds 1000° F.

When steel is heated past its recrystallization point, it becomes more malleable and can be
properly formed and shaped. It also allows for the ability to produce larger quantities of steel.
The steel is then cooled at room temperature.
When the steel cools off, it will shrink non-uniformly, which gives slightly less control on the
overall size and shape of a finished hot-rolled product.

Hot-rolled steel typically has a scaly surface finish. For situations in which the appearance of the
material is a concern, the scales can be removed by several techniques: pickling, grinding, or
sand-blasting.

These properties make hot-rolled steel most suitable for structural components and other
applications where incredibly precise shapes and tolerances are of less importance, such as:

Cold-rolled steel refers to steel that is pressed with the pressure of a roller at room temperature.
Compared to hot-rolled steel, cold-rolled steel has a nearly 20% increase in strength through the
use of strain hardening. It’s through a series of breakdown, semi-finishing, sizing, semi-
roughing, roughing, and finishing that cold-rolled steel shapes can be created.

Cold-rolling steel allows for the creation of very precise shapes. Since the process is performed
at room temperature, the steel will not shrink as it cools, as it does in the hot-rolled process.

The exterior finish of cold-rolled steel is very desirable when aesthetics and visual appeal are a
priority in your project.

However, the applications of cold-rolled steel are somewhat limited to a couple of shapes –
square, round, flat, and variations thereof like Strips, Bars, Rods.

Shaped steel can be further treated in all kinds of ways. For example, "tins" for food containers
(which are mostly steel) are made by electroplating steel sheets with molten tin using the process
of electrolysis. Steel that needs to be especially resistant to weathering can be galvanized (dipped
into a hot bath of molten zinc so it acquires an overall protective coating