Map projections 1: principles

How can we ‘project’ a 3D globe onto a 2D display?

..only a globe maintains all spatial qualities without distortion

https://imgur.com/t/science_and_tech/53iqEMC
What is a Map Projection?

a mathematical expression giving the 3D surface on a 2D map

This process always results in distortion

Why don’t planes fly on straight lines – well they do …

flight routes are 'great circles' … straight line in 3D space – but curves here
The world could be mapped like orange peel …
- not a problem locally, but it is for large areas
 the strips would still have some curvature
.. and gaps between the strips

http://boehmwanderkarten.de/kartographie/is_netze_globussegmente.html
12 pieces

48 pieces

becoming like
UTM zones !
Or they can be made by literally ‘projecting’ the globe onto a map …

Azimuthal (planar) projections

The earliest projections

were by the ‘ancient’ Greeks
Projection Terms

1. Scale Factor (SF)

SF = scale at any location /

divided by the 'principal scale'

e.g. if scale = 1:2 million and principal scale = 1:1 million

then SF at that point = 1/2million divided by 1/1million

= 1/2 (0.5)

Canadian NTS maps: ‘scale factor 0.9996 at UTM zone edge’

 Then Plate Carree projection
e.g. where every line of latitude is equal in length

SF along lines of latitude are: equator SF = 1;

at 60°N/S, SF =2 at 90°, SF = ∞ ‘undefined’
90N

60N

The SF in the other direction (along meridians) is 1

2. Developable surfaces:
A two dimensional surface onto which the globe is projected

Conic Cylindrical Azimuthal (planar)

 3. Standard Line

Distortion increases with distance between the ‘globe’ and the surface

The standard line has a scale factor = 1

(it is often the line of contact)
4.
5. Distortion: …. compare to the graticule:

Lines of latitude are 'parallel' and evenly spaced.

Meridians converge at the poles,

(half the distance at 60º N/S).

Scale factor is 1 in all directions.

6. Projection properties

A projection can preserve

Shapes or

Areas or

Distances (but not all)

…..but never more than one of these

 a. Shape
A projection that maintains shape is ‘conformal’
For example a 2x2 square becomes a 1x1 or 4x4 square. Stretching in one
direction is matched by stretching in the other: that is, the scale factors
are equal at a point in the two directions (i.e. there is 'equal-stretching').

Circles (“Tissot’s Indicatrix”) ->

These indicate the relative area

compared to a standard area at the
equator (the standard line)
 b. Area
A projection that maintains area is equal area
This is achieved by sacrificing shape: stretching in one direction to counter
for earth curvature must be compensated by compression in the other.

In other words, the product of the two Scale factors at any point in the two
directions (N-S and E-W) = 1.0 (e.g 1 x 1, 2 x 0.5 etc..)

Lambert Equal-
Area projection
Hence a projection CANNOT preserve both shape AND area
(equal versus compensating stretching)
Projection
properties:
c.Distance
Distances can be
correct in one
direction from a
line or in all
directions from
a point

In these cases,
the projection is
‘equidistant’

Azimuthal
equidistant
Projection types (based on the developable surface)
I. Azimuthal projections

Great circles= straight lines Conformal (shape) ‘View from space’

Thales 500BC Ptolemy 125BC Hipparchus 150BC
Gnomonic
projection
Probably the
world’s oldest map
projection – 6th
century BC

– the only one

that shows all
great circles as
straight lines

(but cannot show one

entire hemisphere)
First map of Mars, 1867- equatorial stereographic

Dark / light = land / ‘sea’ .. Lines were called ‘canals’ … names from geography
Photomosaic 1960 (pre-NASA): Orthographic projection
Like Earth,
longitude zero is
arbitrary – a
feature is chosen

The Prime
Meridian of the
Moon lies directly
in the middle of the
face of the moon
visible from Earth.
Azimuthal
equidistant
centred on
St. John’s, NL
II. Cylindrical Projections 16th century

for early world maps

-They fill a rectangular shape

Plate Carrée
‘Great circles’ are straight lines in 3D space
e.g. meridians, equator, flight lines … but not any other parallels

Of all projections, only the gnomonic retains all great circles as straight lines

e.g. Equidistant rectangular projection

Mercator’s Projection 1569 – conformal = shape-preserving
All ‘straight lines’ have constant compass bearings
= Rhumb lines (but the dashed line is the shortest route)
It became known as the “Navigator’s friend”

Scale bar –
scale increases away
from the equator
Mercator (1569) ‘normal’ Transverse Mercator (1772)

The TM projection is the basis for

the (Universal) UTM system
- Adopted by Canada post WWII,
- SYSTEM of 60 TM projections
(1885) Gall-Peters projection (1972) – equal-area

Corrects for area distortion, but note the impact on shape

III. Conic projections – 18th century

The cone opens along a line of longitude

CONIC projections … are all ‘normal orientation’
(e.g. Albers)

They can be varied by :

A: angle of the cone B: 1 or 2 standard lines

IV. Pseudo-cylindrical Projections
-19th century (and 20th)

These are geometrically constructed. The parallels are generally equally spaced
but are made more proportional to their real length to minimize distortion.

Mollweide, 1805
Robinson projection (1963) adopted by National Geographic 1988
Poles drawn as lines to create better shapes

http://www.mapsofworld.com/projection-maps/robinson/world-political-light.html
The Winkel tripel (Winkel III) by Oswald Winkel in 1921, adopted by NatGeo
in 1998. The name Tripel refers to Winkel's goal of minimizing three kinds of
distortion: area, direction (shape), and distance.
IVa. Interrupted pseudo-cylindrical (e.g. Goode’s, 1923)
 https://southernwoodenboatsailing.com/
news/the-spilhaus-projection-a-world-
map-according-to-fish

Dr. Athelstan Spilhaus

Spilhaus projection 1942
Projections websites:
https://gisgeography.com/map-projections/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_map_projections

Friday:
projections
in GIS / the
digital world

Quiz3 to follow:
The Moocator Projection