Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information A HISTORY OF MODERN SUDAN Sudan's modern history has been consumed by revolution and war. The country attracted international attention in the BGI as a breeding round of amie reorism, and recently tensions beoween the prosperous center and the periphery, becween the North and the South, have exploded in Darfur. In his latest book, Robert Collins, a frequent visitor to and veteran scholar of the region, traces Sudan's history across 200 years to show how many of the tragedies of today have been planted in its past. The story begins with che conquest ‘of Muhammad ‘Ali in 182x and moves through the Anglo-Egyprian ‘Condominium to independence in 1956, It then focuses on Sudanese rule in the post-independence years, when the fragile democracy estab- lished by the British collapsed under sectarian strife. Ivis these religious and ethnic divides, the author contends, in conjunction with failed leadership, that have prolonged and sustained the conflict in Sudan. ‘The author is a forthright and engaging expositor and is not afraid to tackle some difficult themes. The book will make a singular and important contribution to the history of this ravaged country. ROBERT 0. COLLINS is Emeritus Professor of History at che Uni- versity of California, Santa Barbara. His recent publications include Civil Wars and Revolution in the Sudan: Essays on the Sudan, Southern Sudan and Darfur, 1962-2004 (2005), Darfier: The Long Road to Disas ter (2006), and A History of Sub-Saharan Afviea (with James M. Burns, 2007) ©Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.orgCAMBRID! Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information A HISTORY OF MODERN SUDAN ROBERT O. COLLINS University of California, Santa Barbara CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org,CAMBRIDGE Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information ‘Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sio Paulo, Delhi Cambridge Universcy Press ‘The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cma 8x, UK ‘Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, Now York. worwccambridge org Information on this title: wwrw.cambridge.org!9780521674959 @ Robere O. Collins 2008 ‘This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception, and co the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, ro reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. Fire published 2008 Printed in the United Kingdom at the Universiy Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publicason is availble from the British Library Lebrary of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Collins, Robert 0, 1933~ history of modem Sudan / Robert ©. Collins bem. Includes bibliographical references and index san 978-0-52-820-5 (hardback) ~ 10s 978-0-521-67495-9 (pbk) 1. Sudan-History-igs6— I. Tite, mis7.3.€65 2008 g6r4o4-derr 200803211 ISBN 978-0-521-8;820-5 hardback 1san 978-0-521-67495-9 paperback ‘Cambridge University Press has no tesponsibily for the persistence ot accuracy of URL: for external or third-party internet websites referred t© in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, of wil remain, accurate ot appropriate, © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org,CAMBRIDGE Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information In memory of Louise J. Collins, my beloved Mither, who throughout her long life told me to seek out remote places and write about their past, which I have done for fifty years © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org,Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert O. Collins Frontmatter More information Contents List of figures page ix List of maps xi Preface xii Abbreviations xv Glossary xx Introduction 1 1 The making of modern Sudan: the nineteenth century 10 “The Tushiya, x82x-1885 10 ‘The Mabdliya, 1885-2898 Ps 2. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium 3 Consolidation and reaction, 1899-1936 3 Nationalism and independence, 1936-1956 46 3 Parliamentary and military experiments in government, 1956-1969 69 The first parliamentary and military governments 6 ‘The short, unhappy Lives ofthe transitional and second parliamentary governments & 4. The government of Ja‘afar Numayri: the heroic years, 1969-1976 4 ‘The May Revolution 94 Southern politicians, Anya-Nya, Addis Ababa, and auronomy 103 ‘The SSU, the constitution, and prosperity us 5 The government of Ja’afar Numayri: the years of dismay and disintegration, 1976-1985 125 © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert O. Collins Frontmatter More information viii Contents July 1976, National Reconciliation, and regionalism ‘The rise and fll of the Southern Regional Government The conversion of Ja‘afar Numayri, Muslim Brothers, and economic 6 The Transitional Military Council and third parliamentary government ‘The TMC The patliamentary government of Sadiq al-Mabdi “The realities of civil war Enigmatic foreign affairs and economic degradation 7 The Islamist revolution: the Turabi years, 1989-1996 The Popular Arab and Islamic Congress ‘War againse the South and civil wars within ‘The NDA, PAIC Three, and a failed assassination 8. The Bashir years: beleaguered and defiant, 1996-2006 “The downfall of Hasan al-Turabi Oil: curse and boom: Anatomy of foreign policy 9 War and peace in southern Sudan The SPLA takes the offensive Slouching toward a sertement 10 Disaster in Darfur Darfur in historical perspective Insurrection in Darfur Abuja and afier Epilogue Notes Select bibliography Index ns 3 us 57 “57 62 178 194 28. a8 a8 238 245 25 260 272 287 293 300 303, 305 320 © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information Figures 1 General Charles Gordon Pasha. SAD 872/4/1, R. B.S. Elderton Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 2 Colonel H. H. Kitchener. SAD/A89/22, G. G. Hunter Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 3 Egyptian army officers. SAD/Au/s2, W. R. G. Wollen Collection, Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 4 Students of the Gordon Memorial College. SAD 844/5/3, M. W. Parr Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 5 Kordofan tribal court. SAD 718/36/9, A. R. C. Bolton Collection. Reproduced by permission of Duzham University Library. 6 Leaders of the White Flag League. SAD 474/t0/1, R. J ‘Wedd Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 7 Nuer chiefs, SAD 484/16/12, H.C. Jackson Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 8 Construction of the Sennar Dam, SAD 1/21/60, W. J. R. Andrews Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 9. Missionary sisters with some of their young pupils. SAD you!t6/12, M. J. Wheatley Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 10 Governor-General Sir Hubert Huddleston, SAD 2/14/103, K. D. D. Henderson Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. page 23 30 31 37, 38 39 42 44 48 2 © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information x List of figures 1 Four Nuer local government officials. SAD 771/3/1, J. S. R. Duncan Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 12. Policemen supervising voters in Juba. SAD 674/5/14, C. W. M, Cox Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 13, Independence Day celebrations. SAD 747/8/17, Thomas Collection, Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 14 Sayyid Isma‘il al-Azhari and Sayyid Muhammad Ahmad Mahjub. SAD 711/r4/3, D. M. H. Evans Collection, Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 15 Sayyid “Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi and ‘Abd Allah Khalil SAD 747/4/37, G. F Thomas Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 16 President Numayri with Sharif al-Tuhami and a group of military officers. SAD 747/5/3, G. E Thomas Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 17 Mahmud Muhammad Taha. SAD 747/6/13, G. F. Thomas Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 18 Followers surrounding Sayyid Sadiq al-Mahdi. SAD 7471613, G. B. Thomas Collection. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library. 19 Sadiq al-Mahdi © Bettmann/Corbis. 20 Hasan al-Turabi @ Beatrice Mategwa/Reuters/Corbis, ax ‘Umar al-Bashir and Hasan al-Turabi © Reuters/Corbis 22 ‘Umar al-Bashir © Antony Njuguna/Reuters/Corbis. 23 Dr. John Garang © Tore Bergsaker/ Corbis. 24 ‘Ali ‘Uthman Muhammad Taha and John Garang tony Njuguna/Reuters/Corbis, 56 63 66 7° 8 163 163 195 aa 224, 259 270 © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCAMBRID! Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert O. Collins Frontmatter More information Maps 1 The Nile Basin ‘page xxiv 2. The Turkiya u 3 ‘The Mahdiya 26 4 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 34 5 Peoples of northern Sudan nm 6 The riverine heartland of Sudan 96 7 Peoples of southern Sudan 32 8 The Sudanese Nile 158 9 Sudan 186 10 The southern Sudan civil wars 202 11 Concessions for oil exploration and pipeline to Marsa Bashayir 230 12. Southern Sudan 246 13 Conflict for control of the oil fields between GOS and the SPLA, 2002 357 14 Darfur 2 xi © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org,Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information Preface My subsequent obsession with Sudan first began during the academic year 1953-54 at Dartmouth College while writing a history honors the- sis about Emin Pasha (Eduard Schnizter) and his administration of the Turco-Egyptian Province of Equatoria in the upper Nile valley (1878-89). I did not arrive in Sudan to continue my research until several months after independence on 1 January 1956. During the next fifty years I returned reg- ularly to live, travel widely in every part of Sudan, and conduct historical research in the archives and the field. During these carly decades one was fice to travel without restraint and to probe the voluminous archives in the National Record Office in Khartoum, “the House of Abu Salim,” and to conduct extensive research in the provincial and district records in southern Sudan. During these same years I was present when many of the events in the following narrative took place; when I returned to Sudan others were the subject of long hours of discussion in the cool of the evening with scores of Sudanese friends. I personally knew some of the prominent polit- ical players; those I did not were the subject of vigorous gossip and candid opinions during my visits. Now in the twilight zone of my life I have sought to bring to fruition my search for the Sudanese past in a comprehensive and readable history for the general public in which my insights, interpre- tations, and anecdotes are the culmination of my many books, articles, and essays supported by a voluminous compendium of memories accumulated during a half-century of experience, inquiry, and intellectual challenge. Spelling can be a curse that often results in chaos, particularly when the documentation for a book, like this one, comes in many languages. Moti- vated by familiarity, practice, or ethnic pride, Afticans, Arabs, and. peans have spelled the name ofa person, place, or event in a transliteration that reflects their own parochialism, patriotism, and panache. The result is often confusion rather than clarity. The only legitimate principle is consis- tency in the text. Consistency, however, is not a universal virtue and docs not always guarantee clarity, in the search for which I have consequently ro © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information xiv Preface Anglicized or given the English equivalent for people, place-names, and events recorded in different languages. Place-names ate spelled for under- standing rather than in the local patois. Personal names are more precisely retained because they are complex, for everyone spells their name to their own satisfaction and not according to standardized rules of transliteration. If spellings are a curse, abbreviations are a necessary evil. When the name of the organization is first presented, the abbreviation is placed in parentheses, eg: Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). In a few instances where the abbreviation appears in a later chapter I refresh the reader's memory by repeating the full name of the organization. I wish to convey my special thanks to Alan Goulty who, as in the past, hhas read much of the manuscript to offer encouragement, corrections, and his thougheful commentary. Jan Hogan, the ever helpful Keeper of the Sudan Archive at Durham University and co-author of Images of Empire, has graciously selected the illustrations. Steve Brown has, once again, employed his cartographic skills to fashion superb maps. ROBERT 0. COLLINS Santa Barbara, California © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter Moreinformation Abbreviations se Egyptian pounds sterling gS Sudanese pounds sterling AACC All-African Council of Churches ACROSS African Committee for the Relief of the Southern Sudanese AFESD Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development AGI Arab Group International for Investment and Acquisitions Co. Ltd. (Saudi Arabia) ALF Azanian Liberation Front AMIS African Union Mission to Sudan ‘ANAF ‘Anya-Nya National Armed Forces APG Anyidi Provisional Government AU African Union BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BOAC British Overseas Airways Corporation bopd barrels of oil per day CARE Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere CBC Canadian Broadcasting Company ccr Compagnie de Constructions Internationales chief executive officer Central Intelligence Agency (United States) Church Missionary Society China National Oil Development Corporation China National Petroleum Corporation Convention Organizing Committee Chevron Overseas Petroleum Incorporated (United States) Comprehensive Peace Agreement Civilian Protection Monitoring Team Council for the Unity of Southern Sudan © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information xvi Abbreviations district commissioner Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure (France) Darfur Liberation Front Declaration of Principles Darfur Peace Agreement Democratic Unionist Party Equatoria Central Committee of Intellectuals Eritrean People’s Liberation Front Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front Economic Recovery and Development Programme European Union Forces Armées du Nord (Army of the North, Chad) Forces Armées Nationales T'chadiennes (National Armed Forces of Chad) FIS Islamic Salvation Front (Algeria) FOP Front of the Opposition Parties FROLINAT Front de Libération Nationale du Tchad (National Liberation Front of Chad) GDP gross domestic product GDR (East) German Democratic Republic GIA Groupe Islamique Armé (Armed Islamic Group, Algeria) GNOPC Greater Nile Operating Petroleum Company (Sudan) Government of Sudan Government of South Sudan GPLE Gambella People’s Liberation Front HEC High Executive Council (southern Sudan) IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) ICE Islamic Charter Front IcG International Crisis Group ICP Islamic Committee for Palestine wp internally displaced person IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development IGADD Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development IMF International Monetary Fund INEC Interim National Executive Committee (SSIM/A) INLC Interim National Liberation Committee (SSIM/A) ISI Inter-Services Intelligence (Pakistan) © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information Abbreviations wwii Is-SOR Internal Security/Islamic Security Service, al-amn al-dakbil (Sudan) ITCZ, Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone JEM Justice and Equality Movement (Sudan) JEO Jonglei Executive Organ (Sudan) JIM Joint Implementation Mechanism (UN) JMC Joint Military Commission (UN) JMM Joint Monitoring Mission (UN) LRA Lord's Resistance Army MEC ‘Mcchanized Farming Corporation (Sudan) MP Member of Parliament MPS ‘Movement Patriotique du Salut (Patriotic Salvation Movement, Chad) MSF Médecins Sans Frontidres NAS Alliance of Professional Organizations and Trade Unions (Sudan) NASC National Alliance for the Salvation of the Country (Sudan) NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NC National Convention (SPLM/A) NCDJCA National Council for the Development of the Jonglei Canal Area (Sudan) NCO non-commissioned officer NcP National Congress Party (Sudan) NDA National Democratic Alliance (Sudan) NGO, non-governmental organization NIF National Islamic Front (Sudan) NPG Nile Provisional Government (Sudan) NRE ‘National Redemption Front (Darfur) NSRCC National Salvation Revolutionary Command Council (Sudan) NSS National Security Service NUP National Unionist Party (Sudan) OAU Organization of African Unity oc Organization of the Islamic Conference OLE Oromo Liberation Front (Ethiopia) OLs Operation Lifeline Sudan ONGC Oil and National Gas Corporation (India) OPEC Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries Oso Other Shades of Opinion (Sudan) © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information will Abbreviations Oxfam Oxford Famine Relief PAIC Popular Arab and Islamic Congress PCM Provisional Council of Ministers (Sudan) PDE People’s Defense Force (Sudan) Ppp People’s Democratic Party (Sudan) pyTC Permanent Joint Technical Commission (Egypt and Sudan) PLO Palestine Liberation Organization PMHC Political~Military High Command (SPLM/A) PNC Popular National Congress (Sudan) pvo private voluntary organization Qc Queen's Counsel RCC Revolutionary Command Council (Sudan) SACDNU. Sudan African Closed Districts National Union (southern Sudan) SAF Sudanese Allied Forces SALE Sudan African Liberation Front SAM Sayyid ‘Ali al-Mirghani SANU Sudan African National Union SAR Sayyid ‘Abd al-Rahman SCA Sudan Christian Association scc Sudan Council of Churches scp Sudan Communist Party SEDA Sudan Federal Democratic Alliance SLM/A Sudan Liberation Movement/Army SNP Sudanese National Party SNWA. Sudanese Nationals Working Abroad SPAF Sudan People’s Armed Forces SPAFF Sudan Pan-African Freedom Fighters SPCC State Petroleum Corporation of Canada SPDF Sudan People’s Democratic Front SPLA-Nasir Sudan People’s Liberation Army-Nasir SPLM/A, Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army SPLM/A-United Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army-United SPS Sudan Political Service SRP Socialist Republican Party (Sudan) SRRA Sudan Relief and Rehabilitation Association of the SPLM/A SRWU Sudan Railway Workers’ Union SSB Sudan Security Bureau © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information Abbreviations xix SSDF South Sudan Defense Force SSIMIA South Sudan Independence Movement/Army SSIM Southern Sudan Liberation Movement SSPA Southern Sudanese Political Association SSPG Southern Sudan Provisional Government ssu Sudan Socialist Union SSUM/A South Sudan Unity Movement/Army Sudapet Sudan National Petroleum Corporation SUNA Sudan News A SWTUF Sudan Workers’ ‘Trade Union Federation TMC ‘Transitional Military Council (Sudan) TNA ‘Transitional National Assembly (Sudan) TNC ‘Transitional National Council ‘TPLE Tigray People's Liberation Front UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNRA United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration us United States USAID United States Agency for International Development USAP Union of Sudan African Parties VMT Verification and Monitoring Team WAA Workers’ Affairs Association (Sudan) wcc World Council of Churches WNBF West Nile Bank Front © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information Glossary ‘abd (pl.‘abid) slave ajawiid muatamarat al-subl the traditional conference in Darfur used by rival ethnic groups to settle disputes amir military commander ansar (Ansat) pastisans of Islam ashigga’ (Ashiqga) brothers by the same father and mother ashrafkinsmen of Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi awlad al-babr people of the river awlad al-gharib people of the west baliila boiled, tasteless grain bayt al-mal house of wealth, treasury bay'a Islamic oath of allegiance bazingir armed slave troops of individual traders in southern Sudan in the latter half of the nineteenth century bilad al-sudan “Land of the Blacks,” the term used by medieval Muslim geographers for the great Sudanic plain stretching from the Red Sea to the Atlantic dahabiah large sailing vessel with cabins, used on the Blue and ‘White Niles dar homeland, territory dar al-harb country of wat dar al-islam the Muslim community dura sorghum, traditional grain for bread effendi Turkish name given to an educated bureaucrat in the Turkiya and civil servant during the Condominium feddan (faddan) 1 feddan = 1.038 acres ‘faki holy man ‘falasha Exhiopian Jews fashir a Fur royal encampment © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information Glossary xxi (fellahin small farmer of agricultural laborer in the Middle East, specifically Egypt habub sandstorm common throughout northern Sudan harab bandicry harakat al-tahrir al-islami hiwar the Islamic Liberation Movement debate hizb political party hudud Islamic punishment for crimes, usually amputation hiikiimdar Turkish governor-general jah Fur customary taxes jjma‘a consensus of the community ijtihad independent interpretation ikbwan brethren in a teligious or military brotherhood ird inherited property of women itthadiyyin those who support Union, i.e. hizb al-itthadiyyin, Unionist Party jabal bill, small mountain jabal hadid ironstone plateau in southwest Sudan jakab Fur steugele; a Fur fighter with an automatic weapon supplied by Chad jallaba northern Sudanese petty traders janjawiid ghostly rider; evil horsemen jaysh al-salaam jiech mabor army of peace (Fartit militia) the ‘White Army (Nuer) jihad. sccuggle in the cause of God jibadiyya government slave soldiers hafirin unbeliever, infidel hariyat al-salaam Peace Villages in southern Sudan kasha forced deportation Khalifs “steward,” commonly used title for the leader of the Islamic community (mma), often rendered in English as Caliph khalifie stewardship, commonly used for the leader of Islam (Caliph) Hhalwa _\slamic primary school khawadja Turkish “sit,” but in Sudan a colloquialism for pale people, ie “Americans and Europeans hisra Sudanese bread made from dura kokora Bari to divide equally kurtab Sudanese secular primary school kwer-kong permanent grasslands east of the Sudd and the Echiopian escarpment © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information wii Glossary lukiko chiefs’ court mahdi an inspired holy man who will come at the End of ‘Time to bring justice and revive the glory of Islam majlis council, legislative assembly makk powerful Sudanese chief mamur Egyptian or Sudanese administrative assistant marahil im Darfur, a demarcated migratory pathway between settled farming land marisa beer mudir governor of a province in Sudan mufii one who interprets Islamic law and can issue a fatwa mujadid a reformer of Islam, one who renews the Islamic faith mujahidiin warriors engaged in jihad for Islam mulazimiyya a corps of mercenary soldiers, bodyguards murahiliin Arab militiamen musalaha reconciliation specific to the National Reconciliation between Sadiq al-Mahdi and President Numayri on 7 July 1977 mutathaggifia urban intellectuals nas ordinary Sudanese folk nazir head of a tribe or large clan nizam al-jadid New Model Army pasha Turkish the highest tile in the Ottoman and Egyptian courts gadi \slamic judge ga'id al-'amm commanding officer qiyas analogy goz sand and scrub Qur'an recitation for the book of divine guidance to be the literal word of Allah revealed to the Prophet Muhammad razzia raid Reth King of the Shilluk (Chollo) Sadana Sudanese slang for the cabal of officials surrounding President Numayti sadd barrier, obstacle applied to the great swamps of the Nile, the Sudd salafist “predecesors,” a generic term for the Sunni school of thought that takes the pious ancestors (salaf) of early Islam as a model for the contemporary revival and reformation of Islam shari‘a \slamic Divine Law shartai a district chief in the sultanate of Darfur and during the Condominium shaykh lord, revered wise man, Islamic scholar © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.orgCAMBRIDG! Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert 0. Collins Frontmatter More information Glossary xxii shura consultation, council, consultative body sirdarcommander-in-chief of the Anglo-Egyptian army sufi (sufism) Islamic mystic sug market tahjir name of forced migration of Baqgara by the Khalifa in 1889-90 taifiya Sudanese sectarian political parties talib a student attached to an Islamic reformer tariga (pl. turug)_teligious brotherhood tawali al-sayast political alliances tobe traditional flowing robe of Sudanese women toic rich, green pastures of southern Sudan that emerge as the flood-waters of the Sudd recede after the rains tukl grass home, hut ‘ulama’ community of legal scholars of Islam and sharia ‘unda mayor of a town, head of a large village waliya sufi holy men zakat alms tax zariba stockade of thorn bushes or stakes zawiya lodge, usually of a sufi brotherhood zurug (pl. zurga). dark blue, darkness, a pejorative term in Darfur meaning “Black Africans” © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org,Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85820-5 - A History of Modern Sudan Robert O. Collins Frontmatter More information o | uinva |e + SAUDI ARABIA CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC emis Sa DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC. OF THE CONGO. ‘Map r The Nile Basin © Cambridge University Press wwnw.cambridge.org