Chapter 4

Network Layer

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Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 4: network layer
chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network layer
services:
 network layer service models
 forwarding versus routing
 how a router works
 routing (path selection)
 broadcast, multicast
 instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-2

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-3

Network layer
application
 transport segment from transport
network
sending to receiving host data link
physical
 on sending side network
network
data link
network
data link

encapsulates segments data link

physical
physical physical

into datagrams network

data link
network
data link
physical
physical
 on receiving side, delivers
segments to transport network
data link
network
data link
layer physical
network
data link
physical

 network layer protocols in physical

every host, router

application
network transport
data link network network
 router examines header network
data link
physical data link
physical
data link
physical
fields in all IP datagrams physical

passing through it

Network Layer 4-4

Two key network-layer
functions
 forwarding: move analogy:
packets from router’ s
input to appropriate  routing: process of
router output planning trip from
source to dest
 routing: determine
route taken by packets  forwarding: process of
from source to dest. getting through single
interchange
 routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-5

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table forwarding table determines

header value output link local forwarding at this router
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-6

Connection setup
 3rd important function in some network
architectures:
 ATM, frame relay, X.25
 before datagrams flow, two end hosts and
intervening routers establish virtual connection
 routers get involved
 network vs transport layer connection service:
 network: between two hosts (may also involve
intervening routers in case of VCs)
 transport: between two processes

Network Layer 4-7

Network service model
Q: What service model for “ channel”
transporting datagrams from sender to
receiver?
example services for example services for a
individual flow of datagrams:
datagrams:  in-order datagram
 guaranteed delivery delivery
 guaranteed delivery  guaranteed minimum
with less than 40 msec
delay bandwidth to flow
 restrictions on changes
in inter-packet spacing

Network Layer 4-8

 Network layer service models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no

Network Layer 4-9

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-10

Connection, connection-less
service
 datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
 virtual-circuit network provides network-layer
connection service
 analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-oriented /
connectionless transport-layer services, but:
 service: host-to-host
 no choice: network provides one or the
other
 implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-11

Virtual circuits
“ source-to-dest path behaves much like
telephone circuit”
 performance-wise
 network actions along source-to-dest path

 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “ state” for
each passing connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable
service)

Network Layer 4-12

VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along
path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
 packet belonging to VC carries VC number
(rather than dest address)
 VC number can be changed on each link.
 new VC number comes from forwarding table

Network Layer 4-13

 VC forwarding table
12 22 32

1 3
2
VC number
interface
forwarding table in number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

VC routers maintain connection state information!

Network Layer 4-14
Virtual circuits: signaling
protocols
 used to setup, maintain teardown VC
 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’ s Internet

application
6. receive data application
transport 5. data flow begins transport
network 4. call connected 3. accept call
network
data link 1. initiate call 2. incoming call
data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-15

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “ connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host
address

application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams 2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-16

Datagram forwarding table
4 billion IP addresses,
routing algorithm so rather than list
individual destination
local forwarding table
address
dest address output list range of addresses
address-range 1 3 link
(aggregate table
address-range 2 2 entries)
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-17

 Datagram forwarding table
Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Q: but what happens if ranges don’ t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-18
Longest prefix matching
longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix
that matches destination address.

Destination Address Range Link interface

11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1
11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2
otherwise 3

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 4-19
Datagram or VC network: why?
Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)
 data exchange among  evolved from telephony
computers  human conversation:
 “ elastic” service, no strict  strict timing, reliability
timing req. requirements
 many link types  need for guaranteed
 different characteristics service
 uniform service difficult  “ dumb” end systems
 “ smart” end systems  telephones
(computers)  complexity inside
 can adapt, perform control, network
error recovery
 simple inside network,
complexity at “edge”

Network Layer 4-20

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-21

Router architecture overview
two key router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

forwarding tables computed, routing

pushed to input ports routing, management
processor
control plane (software)

forwarding data
plane (hardware)

high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer 4-22
 Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet  given datagram dest., lookup output
see chapter 5 port using forwarding table in input port
memory (“match plus action”)
 goal: complete input port processing at
‘ line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-23
Switching fabrics
 transfer packet from input buffer to
appropriate output buffer
 switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
 often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
 N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
 three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-24

Switching via memory
first generation routers:
 traditional computers with switching under direct control of CPU
 packet copied to system’ s memory
 speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per datagram)

input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)

system bus

Network Layer 4-25

Switching via a bus
 datagram from input port
memory
to output port memory via a
shared bus
 bus contention: switching
speed limited by bus bandwidth bus
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600:
sufficient speed for access and
enterprise routers

Network Layer 4-26

Switching via interconnection
network
 overcome bus bandwidth
limitations
 banyan networks, crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially
developed to connect processors
in multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells, crossbar
switch cells through the fabric.
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection
network

Network Layer 4-27

Output ports This slide in HUGELY important!

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)

 buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the transmission rate
 Datagram (packets) can be lost
scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for transmission

due to congestion, lack of buffers

Priority scheduling – who gets best

performance, network neutrality
Network Layer 4-28
Output port queueing

switch
switch
fabric
fabric

at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output

 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds output

line speed
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port buffer
overflow!

Network Layer 4-29

How much buffering?
 RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering
equal to “ typical” RTT (say 250 msec) times
link capacity C
 e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
 recent recommendation: with N flows,
buffering equal to
RTT . C
N

Network Layer 4-30

Input port queuing
 fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing
may occur at input queues
 queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
 Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at
front of queue prevents others in queue from moving
forward

switch switch
fabric fabric

output port contention: one packet time

only one red datagram can be later: green packet
transferred. experiences HOL
lower red packet is blocked blocking

Network Layer 4-31

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-32

The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection • addressing conventions
• RIP, OSPF, BGP • datagram format
network • packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”

link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-33

 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to options (if any) e.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
 20 bytes of TCP
(variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of IP
typically a TCP to visit.
 = 40 bytes + app
or UDP segment)
layer overhead

Network Layer 4-34

 IP fragmentation, reassembly
 network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) -
largest possible link-level
frame fragmentation:

…
 different link types, in: one large datagram
different MTUs out: 3 smaller datagrams
 large IP datagram divided
(“ fragmented” ) within net
 one datagram
becomes several reassembly
datagrams
 “ reassembled” only at
final destination …
 IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments

Network Layer 4-35

 IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte datagram
one large datagram becomes
 MTU = 1500 bytes several smaller datagrams

1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset

data field =1500 =x =1 =0

offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 =185

length ID fragflag offset

=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-36

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-37

IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
 IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host, 223.1.2.1

router interface 223.1.1.2

 interface: connection 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

between host/router
and physical link 223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
 router’ s typically have 223.1.2.2
multiple interfaces
 host typically has one or
two interfaces (e.g.,
wired Ethernet, wireless 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
802.11)
 IP addresses
associated with each
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
interface
223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-38

 IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are interfaces 223.1.2.1
actually connected?
A: we’ll learn about 223.1.1.2 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

that in chapter 5, 6.
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
intervening router)
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer 4-39

Subnets
 IP address: 223.1.1.1
 subnet part - high
order bits 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 host part - low order
bits 223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
 what’ s a subnet ?
 device interfaces with subnet
same subnet part of
223.1.3.2
IP address 223.1.3.1
 can physically reach
each other without
intervening router network consisting of 3 subnets

Network Layer 4-40

Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
recipe 223.1.1.1

 to determine the
223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
subnets, detach 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

each interface from 223.1.2.2

its host or router, 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

creating islands of subnet

isolated networks
223.1.3.2
 each isolated 223.1.3.1

network is called a
subnet 223.1.3.0/24

subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-41
Subnets 223.1.1.2

how many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-42

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

Network Layer 4-43

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

 Windows: control-panel->network->configuration->tcp/ip-
>properties
 UNIX: /etc/rc.config
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
 “ plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-44

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network server
when it joins network
 can renew its lease on address in use
 allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected/“ on” )
 support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “ DHCP discover” msg [optional]
 DHCP server responds with “ DHCP offer” msg [optional]
 host requests IP address: “ DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “ DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-45

DHCP client-server scenario

DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2 arriving DHCP

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
client needs
address in this
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2 network
223.1.1.3

223.1.2.0/24

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

223.1.3.0/24

Network Layer 4-46

DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover arriving
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
Broadcast: is there a
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
DHCPyiaddr:
server 0.0.0.0
out there?
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server! Here’s an IP
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction
address youID:can
654use
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll take
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
that IP address!
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: OK. You’ve
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
got that IPID:
transaction address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 4-47
DHCP: more than IP
addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP
address on subnet:
 address of first-hop router for client
 name and IP address of DNS sever
 network mask (indicating network versus host
portion of address)

Network Layer 4-48

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs
DHCP UDP its IP address, addr of
DHCP IP first-hop router, addr of
DHCP Eth DNS server: use DHCP
Phy
DHCP
 DHCP request
encapsulated in UDP,
DHCP DHCP 168.1.1.1 encapsulated in IP,
DHCP UDP encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
 Ethernet frame broadcast
Phy server built into (dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on
router LAN, received at router
running DHCP server
 Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP demuxed
to DHCP

Network Layer 4-49

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP
 DCP server formulates
DHCP UDP
DHCP ACK containing
client’ s IP address, IP
DHCP IP
address of first-hop
DHCP Eth router for client, name &
Phy IP address of DNS server

 encapsulation of
DHCP DHCP DHCP server, frame
DHCP UDP forwarded to client,
DHCP IP demuxing up to DHCP
Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
at client
DHCP
Phy server built into  client now knows its IP
router address, name and IP
address of DSN
server, IP address of
its first-hop router

Network Layer 4-50

 DHCP:
Wireshark output Message type: Boot Reply (2)
Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
reply
(home LAN) Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Message type: Boot Request (1) Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

Network Layer 4-51

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’ s
address space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer 4-52

 Hierarchical addressing: route
aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”

Network Layer 4-53

Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23

Network Layer 4-54

IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers http://www.icann.org/
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-55

NAT: network address
translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving datagrams with source or

local destination in this network
network have same have 10.0.0/24 address for
single source NAT IP source, destination (as usual)
address:
138.76.29.7,different Network Layer 4-56
NAT: network address
translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP address
as far as outside world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just
one IP address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local
network without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)

Network Layer 4-57

NAT: network address
translation
implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of

every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr

 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP

address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation
pair

 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in

dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding
(source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table

Network Layer 4-58

 NAT: network address
translation
NAT translation table 1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1, 3345 to …… ……
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

Network Layer 4-59

NAT: network address
translation
 16-bit port-number field:
 60,000 simultaneous connections with a
single LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by
app designers, e.g., P2P applications
 address shortage should instead be solved
by IPv6

Network Layer 4-60

NAT traversal problem
 client wants to connect to
server with address 10.0.0.1
 server address 10.0.0.1 local to client 10.0.0.1
LAN (client can’ t use it as
destination addr) ?
 only one externally visible 10.0.0.4
NATed address: 138.76.29.7
 solution1: statically configure 138.76.29.7 NAT
router
NAT to forward incoming
connection requests at given
port to server
 e.g., (123.76.29.7, port 2500)
always forwarded to 10.0.0.1
port 25000

Network Layer 4-61

NAT traversal problem
 solution 2: Universal Plug and
Play (UPnP) Internet Gateway
Device (IGD) Protocol. Allows 10.0.0.1
NATed host to: IGD
 learn public IP address
(138.76.29.7)
 add/remove port mappings
(with lease times) NAT
router

i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration

Network Layer 4-62

 NAT traversal problem
 solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
 NATed client establishes connection to relay
 external client connects to relay
 relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to 10.0.0.1
by client relay initiated
by NATed host
3. relaying
client established
138.76.29.7 NAT
router

Network Layer 4-63

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-64

ICMP: internet control message
protocol
 used by hosts & routers to
communicate network- Type Code description
level information 0 0 echo reply (ping)
 error reporting: 3 0 dest. network unreachable
unreachable host, 3 1 dest host unreachable
network, port, protocol 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
 echo request/reply (used 3 3 dest port unreachable
by ping)
3 6 dest network unknown
 network-layer “ above” IP: 3 7 dest host unknown
 ICMP msgs carried in IP 4 0 source quench (congestion
datagrams
control - not used)
 ICMP message: type, 8 0 echo request (ping)
code plus first 8 bytes of 9 0 route advertisement
IP datagram causing error 10 0 router discovery
11 0 TTL expired
12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-65

Traceroute and ICMP
 source sends series of  when ICMP messages
UDP segments to dest arrives, source records
 first set has TTL =1
 second set has TTL=2, etc.
RTTs
 unlikely port number
 when nth set of datagrams stopping criteria:
arrives to nth router:  UDP segment
 router discards datagrams eventually arrives at
 and sends source ICMP destination host
messages (type 11, code
0)  destination returns
 ICMP messages includes ICMP “ port unreachable
name of router & IP
address ” message (type 3,
code 3)
 source stops

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
Network Layer 4-66
 IPv6: motivation
 initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to
be completely allocated.
 additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-67

 IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “ flow.”
(concept of“ flow” not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver pri flow label
payload len next hdr hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)

data

32 bits
Network Layer 4-68
Other changes from IPv4
 checksum: removed entirely to reduce
processing time at each hop
 options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by “ Next Header” field
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additional message types, e.g. “ Packet Too Big”
 multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-69

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
 not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
 no “ flag days”
 how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
 tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in
IPv4 datagram among IPv4 routers

IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields

IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-70
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-71

Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E
dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 4-72
 IPv6:
adoption
 US National Institutes of Standards estimate
[2013]:
 ~3% of industry IP routers
 ~11% of US gov’t routers

 Long (long!) time for deployment, use

 20 years and counting!
 think of application-level changes in last 20 years:
WWW, Facebook, …
 Why?

Network Layer 4-73

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-74

Interplay between routing, forwarding
routing algorithm determines
routing algorithm
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding table
local forwarding at this router
dest address output
address-range 1 3 link
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-75

Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-76

 Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1, or
2
3
1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
1 2 or inversely related to
x 1
y
congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer 4-77

Routing algorithm classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or dynamic?
information?
global: static:
 all routers have complete  routes change slowly
topology, link cost info over time
 “ link state” algorithms
dynamic:
decentralized:  routes change more
 router knows physically-
connected neighbors, link
quickly
costs to neighbors  periodic update
 iterative process of  in response to link
computation, exchange of cost changes
info with neighbors
 “ distance vector” algorithms

Network Layer 4-78

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-79

A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’ s algorithm notation:
 net topology, link costs  c(x,y): link cost from
known to all nodes node x to y; = ∞ if not
 accomplished via “ link direct neighbors
state broadcast”
 all nodes have same info
 D(v): current value of
 computes least cost cost of path from source
paths from one node to dest. v
(‘ source” ) to all other  p(v): predecessor node
nodes along path from source
 gives forwarding table for to v
that node  N': set of nodes whose
 iterative: after k least cost path
iterations, know least definitively known
cost path to k dest.’ s

Network Layer 4-80

Dijsktra’ s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-81

Dijkstra’ s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

notes: 5 7
4
 construct shortest path tree
by tracing predecessor 8
nodes 3 w
u y z
 ties can exist (can be broken 2
arbitrarily)
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-82
 Dijkstra’ s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-83

 Dijkstra’ s algorithm: example (2)
resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-84
 Dijkstra’ s algorithm, discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
 e.g., support link cost equals amount of carried traffic:

1
A 1+e A A A
2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
1
C C 0 1
C 1+e C 0
1
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costsresulting in new costs
Network Layer 4-85
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-86

Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
v {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
cost from neighbor v to destination y
cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer 4-87
 Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 2 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x 1
y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer 4-88
Distance vector algorithm
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 node x:
 knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
 maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors.
For each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-89

Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F
equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 under minor, natural conditions, the estimate

Dx(y) converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-90

Distance vector algorithm
iterative, each node:
asynchronous: each
local iteration caused
by: wait for (change in local link
 local link cost change cost or msg from neighbor)
 DV update message
from neighbor
distributed: recompute estimates
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its
DV changes if DV to any dest has
 neighbors then notify changed, notify neighbors
their neighbors if
necessary

Network Layer 4-91

 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-92
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7

from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-93
 Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 1
 node detects local link cost y
4 1
change
x z
 updates routing info, 50
recalculates
distance vector
 if DV changes, notify neighbors
“ good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its
news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast” least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer 4-94

Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 60
 node detects local link cost y
4 1
change
x z
 bad news travels slow - “ count 50
to infinity” problem!
 44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: see text
poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :
 Z tells Y its (Z’ s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’ t
route to X via Z)
 will this completely solve count to infinity
problem?

Network Layer 4-95

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
message complexity robustness: what happens if
 LS: with n nodes, E links, router malfunctions?
O(nE) msgs sent LS:
 DV: exchange between  node can advertise
neighbors only incorrect link cost
 convergence time varies  each node computes only
its own table
speed of convergence DV:
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
O(nE) msgs  DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
 may have oscillations
 each node’ s table used by
 DV: convergence time varies others
 may be routing loops • error propagate thru
 count-to-infinity problem network

Network Layer 4-96

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-97

Hierarchical routing
our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “ flat”

… not true in practice

scale: with 600 million administrative

destinations: autonomy
 can’ t store all dest’ s in  internet = network of
routing tables! networks
 routing table exchange  each network admin may
would swamp links! want to control routing in
its own network

Network Layer 4-98

Hierarchical routing
 aggregate routers into gateway router:
regions, “ autonomous  at “ edge” of its own AS
systems” (AS)
 routers in same AS
 has link to router in
run same routing another AS
protocol
 “ intra-AS” routing
protocol
 routers in different AS
can run different intra-
AS routing protocol

Network Layer 4-99

Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d  forwarding table
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
Intra-AS Inter-AS routing algorithm
Routing Routing
algorithm algorithm  intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding
for internal dests
table  inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-100
 Inter-AS tasks
 suppose router in AS1 AS1 must:
receives datagram 1. learn which dests are
destined outside of reachable through
AS1: AS2, which through
 router should forward AS3
packet to gateway 2. propagate this
router, but which reachability info to all
one? routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-101

 Example: setting forwarding table in router
1d
 suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet x
reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c), but not via AS2
 inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all
internal routers
 router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that its
interface I is on the least cost path to 1c
 installs forwarding table entry (x,I)

3c … x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-102

Example: choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
which gateway it should forward packets towards for
dest x
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!

3c … x …
3b
3a …
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
?
Network Layer 4-103
 Example: choosing among multiple ASes
 now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that
subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
towards which gateway it should forward packets for
dest x
 this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
 hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.

use routing info determine from

learn from inter-AS hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet choose the gateway interface I that leads
protocol to determine
x is reachable via that has the to least-cost gateway.
costs of least-cost
multiple gateways smallest least cost Enter (x,I) in
paths to each
of the gateways forwarding table

Network Layer 4-104

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-105

Intra-AS Routing
 also known as interior gateway protocols
(IGP)
 most common intra-AS routing protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-106

 RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
 distance vector algorithm
 distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has cost 1
 DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response message (aka
advertisement)
 each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP addressing
sense)

from router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
w u 1
A B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer 4-107
RIP: example

z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-108
RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-109
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-110

RIP table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-
level process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets,
periodically repeated
routed routed

transport transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-111

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “ open” : publicly available
 uses link state algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 topology map at each node
 route computation using Dijkstra’ s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per
neighbor
 advertisements flooded to entire AS
 carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather
than TCP or UDP
 IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to OSPF

Network Layer 4-112

OSPF “ advanced” features (not in
RIP)
 security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion)
 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path
in RIP)
 for each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “ low” for best
effort ToS; high for real time ToS)
 integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same
topology data base as OSPF
 hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer 4-113

Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1
area 2

Network Layer 4-114

Hierarchical
OSPF
 two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only
know direction (shortest path) to nets in other
areas.
 area border routers: “ summarize” distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 boundary routers: connect to other AS’ s.

Network Layer 4-115

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
inter-domain routing protocol
 “ glue that holds the Internet together”
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
 eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information
from neighboring ASs.
 iBGP: propagate reachability information to all
AS-internal routers.
 determine “ good” routes to other networks based
on reachability information and policy.
 allows subnet to advertise its existence to
rest of Internet: “ I am here”
Network Layer 4-116
 BGP basics
 BGP session: two BGP routers (“ peers” ) exchange BGP
messages:
 advertising paths to different destination network prefixes (“ path
vector” protocol)
 exchanged over semi-permanent TCP connections

 when AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1:

 AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
 AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-117

BGP basics: distributing path
information
 using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to all routers
in AS1
 1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2 over 1b-
to-2a eBGP session
 when router learns of new prefix, it creates entry for prefix
in its forwarding table.

eBGP session
3a iBGP session
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-118

Path attributes and BGP
routes
 advertised prefix includes BGP attributes
 prefix + attributes = “ route”
 two important attributes:
 AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix
advertisement has passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to
next-hop AS. (may be multiple links from current AS
to next-hop-AS)
 gateway router receiving route advertisement
uses import policy to accept/decline
 e.g., never route through AS x
 policy-based routing

Network Layer 4-119

BGP route selection
 router may learn about more than 1 route to
destination AS, selects route based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-120

BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP
connection
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also
used to close connection

Network Layer 4-121

Putting it Altogether:
How Does an Entry Get Into a
Router’ s Forwarding Table?
 Answer is complicated!

 Ties together hierarchical routing (Section

4.5.3) with BGP (4.6.3) and OSPF (4.6.2).

 Provides nice overview of BGP!

How does entry get in forwarding
table?

routing algorithms

Assume prefix is
local forwarding table in another AS.
entry prefix output port
138.16.64/22 3
124.12/16 2
212/8 4
………….. …

Dest IP
1

3 2
How does entry get in forwarding
table?
High-level overview
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
2. Router determines output port for prefix
3. Router enters prefix-port in forwarding table
Router becomes aware of
prefix
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

 BGP message contains “ routes”

 “route” is a prefix and attributes: AS-PATH, NEXT-
HOP,…
 Example: route:
 Prefix:138.16.64/22 ; AS-PATH: AS3 AS131 ;
NEXT-HOP: 201.44.13.125
Router may receive multiple
routes
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

 Router may receive multiple routes for same

prefix
 Has to select one route
Select best BGP route to
prefix
 Router selects route based on shortest AS-
PATH

 Example: select

 AS2 AS17 to 138.16.64/22

 AS3 AS131 AS201 to 138.16.64/22

 What if there is a tie? We’ ll come back to

that!
Find best intra-route to BGP
route
 Use selected route’ s NEXT-HOP attribute
 Route’ s NEXT-HOP attribute is the IP address of the
router interface that begins the AS PATH.
 Example:
 AS-PATH: AS2 AS17 ; NEXT-HOP: 111.99.86.55
 Router uses OSPF to find shortest path from 1c
to 111.99.86.55

3c
3a 111.99.86.55
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
Router identifies port for route

 Identifies port along the OSPF shortest path

 Adds prefix-port entry to its forwarding table:
 (138.16.64/22 , port 4)

3c router
3a port
3b
AS3 1 2c other
1c 4 2a networks
2 3
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
 Hot Potato Routing
 Suppose there two or more best inter-routes.
 Then choose route with closest NEXT-HOP
 Use OSPF to determine which gateway is closest
 Q: From 1c, chose AS3 AS131 or AS2 AS17?
 A: route AS3 AS201 since it is closer

3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
How does entry get in forwarding
table?
Summary
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
 via BGP route advertisements from other routers
2. Determine router output port for prefix
 Use BGP route selection to find best inter-AS
route
 Use OSPF to find best intra-AS route leading to
best inter-AS route
 Router identifies router port for that best route
3. Enter prefix-port entry in forwarding table
 BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

 A,B,C are provider networks

 X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
 X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-132

 BGP routing policy (2)
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

 A advertises path AW to B
 B advertises path BAW to X
 Should B advertise path BAW to C?
 No way! B gets no “ revenue” for routing CBAW since neither W
nor C are B’ s customers
 B wants to force C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!

Network Layer 4-133

Why different Intra-, Inter-AS
routing ?
policy:
 inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
 intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions
needed
scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced
update traffic
performance:
 intra-AS: can focus on performance
 inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-134

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
4.3 what’ s inside a router  hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-135

Broadcast routing
 deliver packets from source to all other nodes
 source duplication is inefficient:
duplicate
duplicate R1 creation/transmission R1
duplicate
R2 R2

R3 R4 R3 R4

source in-network
duplication duplication

 source duplication: how does source determine

recipient addresses?
Network Layer 4-136
In-network duplication
 flooding: when node receives broadcast
packet, sends copy to all neighbors
 problems: cycles & broadcast storm
 controlled flooding: node only broadcasts pkt
if it hasn’ t broadcast same packet before
 node keeps track of packet ids already
broadacsted
 or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward
packet if it arrived on shortest path between node
and source
 spanning tree:
 no redundant packets received by any node

Network Layer 4-137

Spanning tree
 first construct a spanning tree
 nodes then forward/make copies only along
spanning tree

A A

B B
c c

D D
F E F E

G G
(a) broadcast initiated at A (b) broadcast initiated at D

Network Layer 4-138

Spanning tree: creation
 center node
 each node sends unicast join message to
center node
 message forwarded until it arrives at a node
already belonging to spanning tree

A A
3
B B
c c
4
2
D D
F E F E
1 5
G G
(a) stepwise construction of (b) constructed spanning
spanning tree (center: E) tree
Network Layer 4-139
Multicast routing: problem statement
goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers
having local mcast group members legend
 tree: not all paths between routers used group
 shared-tree: same tree used by all group members member
not group
 source-based: different tree from each sender to member
rcvrs
router
with a
group
member
router
without
group
member

shared tree source-based trees

Network Layer 4-140
Approaches for building mcast
trees
approaches:
 source-based tree: one tree per source
 shortest path trees
 reverse path forwarding
 group-shared tree: group uses one tree
 minimal spanning (Steiner)
 center-based trees

…we first look at basic approaches, then specific protocols

adopting these approaches

Network Layer 4-141

Shortest path tree
 mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest path
routes from source to all receivers
 Dijkstra’ s algorithm

s: source LEGEND
R1 2 router with attached
1 R4
group member
R2 5 router with no attached
3 4 group member
R5
i link used for forwarding,
R3 6
i indicates order link
R6 R7 added by algorithm

Network Layer 4-142

Reverse path forwarding

 rely on router’ s knowledge of unicast shortest

path from it to sender
 each router has simple forwarding behavior:

if (mcast datagram received on incoming link

on shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram

Network Layer 4-143

Reverse path forwarding:
example
s: source LEGEND
R1
R4 router with attached
group member
R2
router with no attached
R5 group member
R3 datagram will be forwarded
R6 R7
datagram will not be
forwarded

 result is a source-specific reverse SPT

 may be a bad choice with asymmetric links

Network Layer 4-144

Reverse path forwarding:
pruning
 forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast group
members
 no need to forward datagrams down subtree
 “ prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no
downstream group members
s: source
LEGEND
R1
R4
router with attached
group member
R2
P
router with no attached
R5 group member
P
R3 P prune message
R6 links with multicast
R7 forwarding

Network Layer 4-145

Shared-tree: steiner tree

 steiner tree: minimum cost tree connecting

all routers with attached group members
 problem is NP-complete
 excellent heuristics exists
 not used in practice:
 computational complexity
 information about entire network needed
 monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave

Network Layer 4-146

Center-based trees
 single delivery tree shared by all
 one router identified as “ center” of tree
 to join:
 edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed to
center router
 join-msg “ processed” by intermediate routers and
forwarded towards center
 join-msg either hits existing tree branch for this
center, or arrives at center
 path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of
tree for this router

Network Layer 4-147

Center-based trees: example
suppose R6 chosen as center:

LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
3 group member

R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6
R7

Network Layer 4-148

Internet Multicasting Routing: DVMRP

 DVMRP: distance vector multicast routing

protocol, RFC1075
 flood and prune: reverse path forwarding,
source-based tree
 RPF tree based on DVMRP’ s own routing tables
constructed by communicating DVMRP routers
 no assumptions about underlying unicast
 initial datagram to mcast group flooded
everywhere via RPF
 routers not wanting group: send upstream prune
msgs

Network Layer 4-149

DVMRP: continued…
 soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.)
“ forgets” branches are pruned:
 mcast data again flows down unpruned branch
 downstream router: reprune or else continue to
receive data
 routers can quickly regraft to tree
 following IGMP join at leaf
 odds and ends
 commonly implemented in commercial router

Network Layer 4-150

Tunneling
Q: how to connect “ islands” of multicast routers
in a “ sea” of unicast routers?

physical topology logical topology

 mcast datagram encapsulated inside “ normal” (non-

multicast-addressed) datagram
 normal IP datagram sent thru “ tunnel” via regular IP
unicast to receiving mcast router (recall IPv6 inside
IPv4 tunneling)
 receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get mcast
datagram Network Layer 4-151
PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
 not dependent on any specific underlying
unicast routing algorithm (works with all)
 two different multicast distribution scenarios :

dense: sparse:
 group members  # networks with group
densely packed, in members small wrt #
“ close” proximity. interconnected networks
 bandwidth more  group members “ widely
plentiful dispersed”
 bandwidth not plentiful

Network Layer 4-152

Consequences of sparse-dense
dichotomy:
dense sparse:
 group membership by  no membership until
routers assumed until routers explicitly join
routers explicitly prune  receiver- driven
 data-driven construction construction of mcast tree
on mcast tree (e.g., RPF) (e.g., center-based)
 bandwidth and non-  bandwidth and non-group-
group-router processing router processing
profligate conservative

Network Layer 4-153

PIM- dense mode
flood-and-prune RPF: similar to DVMRP
but…
 underlying unicast protocol provides RPF
info for incoming datagram
 less complicated (less efficient)
downstream flood than DVMRP reduces
reliance on underlying routing algorithm
 has protocol mechanism for router to detect
it is a leaf-node router

Network Layer 4-154

PIM - sparse
mode
 center-based approach
 router sends join msg to R1
R4
rendezvous point (RP) join
 intermediate routers R2
update state and join
forward join R5
join
 after joining via RP, R3
router can switch to R6
source-specific tree R7
all data multicast rendezvous
 increased from rendezvous point
performance: less point
concentration,
shorter paths

Network Layer 4-155

PIM - sparse
mode
sender(s):
R1
 unicast data to RP, R4
join
which distributes
R2
down RP-rooted tree join
 RP can extend R5
join
mcast tree upstream R3
to source R6
R7
 RP can send stop all data multicast rendezvous
msg if no attached from rendezvous
point
point
receivers
 “ no one is listening!”

Network Layer 4-156

Chapter 4: done!
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state, distance
datagram networks vector, hierarchical
routing
4.3 what’ s inside a router 4.6 routing in the Internet
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol  RIP, OSPF, BGP
 datagram format, IPv4
addressing, ICMP, IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing
 understand principles behind network layer services:
 network layer service models, forwarding versus
routing how a router works, routing (path selection),
broadcast, multicast
 instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-157