(BSc.

Mechanical Engineering UET, Lahore)

(MSc. Thermal Power Engineering UET, Lahore)

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Preface

The Mechanics of materials Laboratory Manual is written to describe the experiments in

Mechanics of Material Lab course. Each experiment procedure is explained thoroughly along
with related background. The experiments are selected to apply some concepts from mechanics
of materials such as analysis of materials properties based on tension, bending, and torsion.
Some complementary topics are also presented such as using of some measuring tools. The use
of these tools will help students to understand how to measure objects precisely, which is a
crucial skill in lab. Experimental data analysis techniques, such linear regression, are also
presented to help student to determine mathematical models based on data obtained.
Data Sheet is developed for each experiment to help student learn how to manage experimental
data obtained and make it handy during calculations. The data sheet provides tables listing
parameters and variable needed to be measured or obtained through experimental work. In
addition, Post-Lab Assignments are given to enhance student understanding of concepts being
applied practically.

Part of this manual is developed based on information obtained from books referenced at the last
section of the manual. A sincere appreciation and credit should be given to authors of these
books. Students are encouraged to check these resources for more information or interest in any
topic.

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General Instructions to Students
 The purpose of this laboratory is to reinforce and enhance your understanding to the strength
of materials. The experiments here are designed to demonstrate the applications of the
basic mechanics of materials principles and to provide a more intuitive and physical
understanding of the theory. The main objective is to introduce a variety of classical
experimental and diagnostic techniques, and the principles behind these techniques. This
laboratory exercise also provides practice in making engineering judgments, estimates
and assessing the reliability of your measurements, skills which are very important in all
engineering disciplines.
 Read the lab manual and any background material needed before you come to the lab. You
must be prepared for your experiments before coming to the lab. In many cases you
may have to go back to your fluid mechanics textbooks to review the principles dealt with in
the experiment.
 Actively participate in class and don’t hesitate to ask questions. Utilize the teaching
assistants. You should be well prepared before coming to the laboratory, unannounced
questions may be asked at any time during the lab.
 Carelessness in personal conduct or in handling equipment may result in serious injury to the
individual or the equipment. Do not run near moving machinery. Always be on the alert for
strange sounds. Guard against entangling clothes in moving parts of machinery.
 Students must follow the proper dress code inside the laboratory. To protect clothing from
dirt, wear a lab apron. Long hair should be tied back.
 Calculator, graph sheets and drawing accessories are mandatory.
 In performing the experiments, proceed carefully to minimize any water spills, especially
on the electric circuits and wire.
 Make your workplace clean before leaving the laboratory. Maintain silence, order and
discipline inside the lab.
 Cell phones are not allowed inside the laboratory.
 Any injury no matter how small must be reported to the instructor immediately.
 Wish you a nice experience in this lab

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Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................................................3
General Instructions to Students..............................................................................................................4
List of Figures..........................................................................................................................................9
List of Tables..........................................................................................................................................11
List of Experiments................................................................................................................................12
Lab Session 1.........................................................................................................................................13
1.1 Objective:.................................................................................................................................13
1.2 Apparatus.................................................................................................................................13
1.3.........................................................................................................................Summery of Theory: 13
1.5 Procedure.....................................................................................................................................15
1.6 Observations and Calculations.....................................................................................................15
1.6.1 Graph:....................................................................................................................................16
1.7 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................16
1.8 Comments.....................................................................................................................................16
Lab Session 2.........................................................................................................................................17
2.1 Objective:.....................................................................................................................................17
2.2 Apparatus......................................................................................................................................17
2.3 Summary of Theory.....................................................................................................................17
2.4 Procedure......................................................................................................................................19
2.5 Observations & Calculations........................................................................................................19
2.5.1 Graph:....................................................................................................................................20
2.5.2 Specimen Calculations..........................................................................................................20
2.6 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................21
2.8 Comments.....................................................................................................................................21
Lab Session No. 3..................................................................................................................................22
3.1 Objective......................................................................................................................................22
3.2 Apparatus......................................................................................................................................22
3.3 Summary of Theory.....................................................................................................................23
3.4 Procedure......................................................................................................................................24
3.5 Observations & Calculations........................................................................................................24
3.5.1 Graph......................................................................................................................................24

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 3.5.2 Specimen Calculations..........................................................................................................25
3.7 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................25
3.8 Comments.....................................................................................................................................25
Lab Session 4.........................................................................................................................................26
4.1 Objective......................................................................................................................................26
4.2 Apparatus.................................................................................................................................26
4.3..........................................................................................................................Summery of Theory 26
4.4...........................................................................................................................................Procedure 28
4.5 Observations and Calculations.....................................................................................................28
4.5.1 Graph:....................................................................................................................................29
4.5.2 Specimen Calculations..........................................................................................................29
4.6 Industrial Applications.................................................................................................................30
4.7 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................30
4.8 Comments.................................................................................................................................30
Lab Session 5.........................................................................................................................................31
5.1 Objective......................................................................................................................................31
5.2 Apparatus.................................................................................................................................31
5.3..........................................................................................................................Summery of Theory 31
5.4 Procedure......................................................................................................................................32
5.5 Observations and Calculations.....................................................................................................32
5.5.1 Graph:.....................................................................................................................................33
5.5.2 Specimen Calculations..........................................................................................................34
5.6 Industrial Applications.................................................................................................................34
5.7 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................34
5.8 Comments.....................................................................................................................................34
Lab Session 6.........................................................................................................................................35
6.1 Objective......................................................................................................................................35
6.2 Apparatus.................................................................................................................................35
6.3..........................................................................................................................Summery of Theory 35
6.3.1 Classification of beams..........................................................................................................35
6.3.2 Derivation of formula for deflection at mid span...................................................................37
6.4...........................................................................................................................................Procedure 37

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 6.5 Observations and Calculations.....................................................................................................38
6.5.1 Graph:....................................................................................................................................38
6.6 Industrial Applications.................................................................................................................39
6.7 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................39
6.8 Conclusion:...................................................................................................................................39
Lab Session 7.........................................................................................................................................40
7.1 Objective......................................................................................................................................40
7.2 Apparatus.................................................................................................................................40
7.3..........................................................................................................................Summery of Theory 40
7.4...........................................................................................................................................Procedure 40
7.5 Observations and Calculations.....................................................................................................41
7.5.1 Graph:....................................................................................................................................41
7.7 Industrial Applications.................................................................................................................41
7.8 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................42
7.9 Conclusion:...................................................................................................................................42
Lab Session 8.........................................................................................................................................43
8.1 Objective......................................................................................................................................43
8.2 Apparatus......................................................................................................................................43
8.3..........................................................................................................................Summery of Theory 43
8.3.1 Spring....................................................................................................................................43
8.3.2 Deformations in springs........................................................................................................43
8.3.3 Hooke’s law...........................................................................................................................44
8.3.4 Material of spring..................................................................................................................44
8.3.5 Types of springs according to loading conditions.................................................................44
8.3.5.4 Variable spring.......................................................................................................................46
8.3.6 Types of springs according to shapes....................................................................................46
8.4 Derivation of stiffness formula....................................................................................................48
8.5 Experimental Procedure...............................................................................................................49
8.6 Observations and Calculations.....................................................................................................49
8.6.1 Graph:....................................................................................................................................50
8.6.2 Slope from Graph:.................................................................................................................50
8.7 Industrial Applications.................................................................................................................51
8.8 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................51
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 8.9 Conclusion:...................................................................................................................................51
Lab Session 9.........................................................................................................................................52
9.1 Objective:.....................................................................................................................................52
9.2 Apparatus......................................................................................................................................52
9.3 Summary of Theory.....................................................................................................................52
9.4 Procedure......................................................................................................................................52
9.5 Observations & Calculations........................................................................................................53
9.5.1 Graph:....................................................................................................................................53
9.5.2 Slope from Graph:.................................................................................................................54
9.6 Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................................................54
9.7 Industrial Applications.................................................................................................................55
9.8 Conclusion:...................................................................................................................................55
Lab Session No. 10................................................................................................................................56
10.1 Objective....................................................................................................................................56
10.2 Apparatus....................................................................................................................................56
10.3 Summary of Theory...................................................................................................................56
10.3.1 Spring..................................................................................................................................56
10.3.2 Helical spring......................................................................................................................56
10.3.3 Helical Tension Springs......................................................................................................56
10.3.4 Helical Compression Springs..............................................................................................57
10.3.5 Torsion Springs...................................................................................................................57
10.3.6 Spiral Springs......................................................................................................................58
10.4 Procedure....................................................................................................................................58
10.5 Observations & Calculations......................................................................................................58
10.6 Statistical Analysis.....................................................................................................................60
10.7 Industrial Applications...............................................................................................................60
10.8 Conclusions................................................................................................................................60

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List of Figures
Figure 1. 1Young's Modulus of Elasticity Apparatus............................................................................13
Figure 1. 2 Load Extension Curve.........................................................................................................14

Figure 2. 1 Modulus of rigidity apparatus.............................................................................................17

Figure 2. 2 Distortion of a Rectangular Block.......................................................................................18
Figure 2. 3Shear Stress-Shear Strain Curve...........................................................................................19

Figure 3. 1Torsion of shaft Apparatus...................................................................................................22

Figure 3. 2Torsion of Shaft....................................................................................................................23

Figure 4. 1Simply Supported Beam.......................................................................................................26

Figure 4. 2Simply Supported Beam loaded at mid point.......................................................................27
Figure 4. 3Load-Deflection curve..........................................................................................................27

Figure 5. 1Fixed Ended Beam................................................................................................................31

Figure 5. 2Fixed Beam loaded at mid span............................................................................................32

Figure 6. 1Propped Cantilever Beam.....................................................................................................35

Figure 6. 2Cantilever beam....................................................................................................................35
Figure 6. 3One end overhanging beam..................................................................................................36
Figure 6. 4 Both ends overhanging beam...............................................................................................36
Figure 6. 5 Proped cantilever beam........................................................................................................36
Figure 6. 6 Fixed ended beam................................................................................................................37
Figure 6. 7 Continuous beam.................................................................................................................37

Figure 7. 1 Propped Cantilever Beam....................................................................................................40

Figure 8. 1 Compression spring apparatus.............................................................................................43

Figure 8. 2 Hooke’s law visual representation.......................................................................................44
Figure 8. 3 Extension spring..................................................................................................................44
Figure 8. 4 Compression spring.............................................................................................................45
Figure 8. 5 Torsion spring......................................................................................................................45
Figure 8. 6 Constant spring....................................................................................................................46
Figure 8. 7 Variable spring.....................................................................................................................46
Figure 8. 8 Coil Spring...........................................................................................................................46
Figure 8. 9 Flat Spring...........................................................................................................................47
Figure 8. 10 Machined Spring................................................................................................................47
Figure 8. 11 Serpentine Spring...............................................................................................................48

Figure 9. 1 Extension Spring Apparatus................................................................................................52

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Figure 10. 1 Coil Spring Apparatus........................................................................................................56
Figure 10. 2 Spiral Spring Configuration...............................................................................................58

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List of Tables

Table 1Calculation of Modulus of Elasticity.........................................................................................15

Table 2Calculation of Modulus of Rigidity...........................................................................................20
Table 3 Calculation of Modulus of Rigidity of a shaft..........................................................................24
Table 4Calculation of Modulus of Elasticity of S.S.Beam....................................................................28
Table 5Calculation of deflection of fixed beam.....................................................................................33
Table 6.1Variation in deflection with loads...........................................................................................38
Table 7 Variation in deflection with loads.............................................................................................41
Table 8 Calculations of stiffness of a compression spring.....................................................................51
Table 9 Calculations of stiffness of an extension spring........................................................................54
Table 10 Deflection variation on different number of active turns........................................................59

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List of Experiments

Experiment
Description
No.
To draw the load-extension curve of a metallic wire and hence to determine the
1 modulus of elasticity of the material of the wire.

To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for rubber
2 and to determine the modulus of rigidity of the material.

3 To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given material of circular shaft.

To determine the central deflection of a simply supported beam loaded by a

4 concentrated load at mid point and hence determine the modulus of elasticity of
the material of the beam.

To determine the central deflection of a fixed ended beam loaded at mid-span

5 by concentrated loads and to compare with theoretical value.

6 To determine the deflection at mid span of a propped cantilever beam and

compare with the theoretical values

To determine the deflection at three different points of a propped

cantilever beam using a brass beam and compare with the theoretical
7
values also find its comparison with aluminum beam used in lab session
6.

8 To measure the stiffness of a compression spring and compare it with

theoretical values.

9 To measure the stiffness of an Extension spring and compare it with

theoretical values.

10 To verify the relationship among load on spiral spring, number of turns

and degree of rotation of a coil spring

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Lab Session 1

1.1 Objective:
To draw the load-extension curve of a metallic wire and hence determine the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the wire.

1.2 Apparatus:
 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus
 Hangers
 Weights
 Meter Rod
 Micrometer

Figure 1. 1Young's Modulus of Elasticity

Apparatus

1.3Summery of Theory:
The Young’s Modulus of Elasticity apparatus consists of a wire attached to a fixed support.
The lower end of the wire is attached to the hanger with the help of a metallic plate. The
extension of the wire on loading can be measured from the scale present on metallic plate.

Normal stress in a solid body is defined as:

“The internal resistance force per unit area against the applied load or external force.” It is denoted by
σ. It can be tensile or compressive.
Mathematically,
Stress = Force/Area-----------(i)
Units of stress: Newton per square meter (N/m2) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)

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Normal strain in a solid body is defined as: “Change of length per Original Length.” It is denoted by
the symbol ε.
Mathematically,
Normal Strain = Change in length/Original length-----------(ii)
Strain is measured as inch/inch.

By Hooke’s law, we know that stress is directly proportional to the strain, whenever a material is
loaded within its proportionality limit. It is denoted by E.
Mathematically,
Stress α Strain (within proportionality limit)-----------(iii)
Units of E: Newton per square meter (N/m2) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)
Consider a body (wire) subjected to a tensile stress as shown in figure 1.1.

Let,
P = Load or force acting on the body
L = Length of the body
A = Cross-sectional area of the body
σ = Stress induced in the body
E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of the body
ε = Strain produced in the body
δl = Deformation of the body

From (i), (ii), and (iii)

σαε
σ=Exε
or
E = σ/ε

E = (p/ δl) (L/A)

1.4 Load-Extension Curve:

Figure 1. 2 Load Extension Curve

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1.5 Procedure:
1. Put the initial load of 2 lb to remove wrinkles in wire.
2. Measure length of wire using meter rod.
3. Measure diameter of the wire using micrometer.
4. Adjust main scale so that zeros of two scales coincide with each other.
5. Put a load of 5 lb in the hanger and measure extension.
6. Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings
on unloading.
7. Check the zeros at no load.
8. Calculate the “Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E)” of the material of the shaft.

1.6 Observations and Calculations:

Least Count of the scale of apparatus = mm

Least Count of micrometer = mm
Least Count of meter rod = mm
Length of wire (L) = mm
Dia of wire (d) = mm
Initial Load = N
X-area of wire (A= πd2/4) = mm2

Table 1Calculation of Modulus of Elasticity

Extension-δl Modulus of
P/δl
Elasticity
Effective Load-P
(in)
No. of Obs. (lb/inch) E=(P/δl)(L/A)
(lbs)
Loading Unloading Average
From Graph
(psi)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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1.6.1 Graph:

Deformation Vs Load

1.7 Statistical Analysis:

1.8 Comments:

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Lab Session 2

2.1 Objective:
To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for rubber and to determine
the modulus of rigidity of the material.

2.2 Apparatus:
 Modulus of rigidity of rubber apparatus
 Hangers
 Weights
 Steel rule
 Dial Indicator

Rubber Block Dial

Loading Plate

Base
Hang

Back
Figure 2. 1 Modulus of rigidity apparatus

A rubber block 12 x 4 x 1 inch is bonded to two aluminum alloy plates. One plate is screwed to a
wall, whilst the other has a shear load applied by a loaded weight hanger. A dial gauge measures
the deflection of the block.
This equipment is part of a range designed to both demonstrate and experimentally confirm basic
engineering principles. Great care has been given to each item so as to provide wide
experimental scope without unduly complicating or compromising the design.
Each piece of apparatus is self-contained and compact. Setting up time is minimal, and all
measurements are made with the simplest possible instrumentation, so that the student
involvement is purely with the engineering principles being taught.

2.3 Summary of Theory:

The force which tends to cut off or parts off one portion of the component from the other is called
shear force. Stresses produced on the area under shear, due to shearing forces, are called shearing
stresses. Shear stress is denoted by τ.
Mathematically,
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 Shearing stress = Shearing force/ Area under shear--------(i)
Units of shear stress: Newton per square meter (N/m2) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)

Shearing strain is the angle of distortion. It can be represented by γ--------(ii)

The constant of proportionality relating shear stress and shear strain is modulus of rigidity. It is
represented by G.
Mathematically,
G = Shear stress/ shear strain-------(iii)
Units of G: Newton per square meter (N/m2) = Pascal (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)

Let us consider the deformation of a rectangular block where the forces acting on the block are
known to be shearing stress as shown in the figure 2.2.
The change of angle at the corner of an originally rectangular element is defined as the shear
strain.

Let,
w
Ps = Shearing load or force acting on the body A C
l = Length of the body
c
A = Area under shear = l x t
τ = Shear stress induced in the body l
G = Modulus of rigidity for the material of the body
γ = Shear strain produced t
δs = Deformation of the body B
D
d δ

From the figure P

Cc = Dd = δs = Shear Deformation Figure 2. 2 Distortion of

tanγ = Dd/BD = δs/w a Rectangular Block

For smaller angles

tanγ = γ =Shear strain = δs/w

From the information in (i), (ii), and (iii)

G=τ/γ
or
G = (Ps / δs) (w/ l.t)

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Shear Stress-Shear Strain Curve:

γ
Figure 2. 3Shear Stress-Shear Strain Curve

2.4 Procedure:
1. Set the dial indicator so that its anvil rests on the top of the loading plate.
2. Set the dial indicator at zero.
3. With the hanger in position apply a load to the hanger and read the vertical displacement of
the loading plate relative to the fixing plate from the dial indicator (δs).
4. Repeat the experiment for increasing load and record the vertical displacement of the loading
plate in each case.
5. Unload and note the corresponding readings with the load decreasing.
6. Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity (G)” of the rubber material.

2.5 Observations & Calculations:

Length of rubber block (l) = mm

Width of rubber block (w) = mm
Thickness of rubber block (t) = mm
Least count of dial indicator = mm

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 Table 2Calculation of Modulus of Rigidity

Shear Deformation-δs
Modulus of
Load Shear Shear
Rigidity
No. (mm) Stress Strain
of Ps G =τ/γ G
Obs. τ =Ps/l .t γ = δs / w (N/m2)
Loading Unloading Average
(lbs) From
(N/m )2
(N/m2) Graph
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

2.5.1 Graph:

Shear stress vs Shear strain

2.5.2 Specimen Calculations:

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2.6 Statistical Analysis:

2.8 Comments:

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Lab Session No. 3

3.1 Objective:
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given material of circular shaft.

3.2 Apparatus:

 Torsion of shaft apparatus

 Hangers
 Weights
 Vernier Calipers
 Micrometer
 Steel rule

Figure 3. 1Torsion of shaft Apparatus

Torsion of shaft apparatus includes a shaft of circular section, two measuring scales and a pulley with
a frame.

The main purpose of the pulley with hanger is to apply some load on the circular shaft. Similarly, the
scales attached to the frame are used to measure the torsion in the circular shaft. Actually, two scales
are used, one at the front and one at the back.
The measuring arms (scales) are used to measure the magnitude of the torsion at the front and the
back of the circular shaft respectively. The front is the portion of the shaft that is near to the pulley
and the back is the portion of the shaft near the back support of the frame.
The main purpose of the frame is to support the shaft and balance the apparatus on the surface.

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3.3 Summary of Theory:
Torsion is the engineering word used to describe the process of twisting a member about its
longitudinal axis.

Consider a solid circular shaft of radius “r” and length “L” fixed at its back face as shown in figure(b).
A line AC is marked on the shaft. If a torque “T’ is applied at its free end, line AC will acquire the
shape of a helix and point A will move to A/.

L
Figure 3. 2Torsion of Shaft

Then from figure,

Angle of twist, θ = <AO A/

Now consider a longitudinal fiber at distance “ρ” from the axis of the shaft.
Deformation in longitudinal fiber, δs = AA/ = ρθ
Strain in longitudinal fiber, γ = δs /L = ρθ/L
Stress in longitudinal fiber, τ = Gθ

The shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft where ρ = r.

If J is the Polar moment of inertia of the shaft, then using above information the torsional
formula for a circular shaft can be written as:

T/J = τ/r = Gθ/L

` or
G = TL/ Jθ

The torsional formula describes the relation of applied torque with the angle of twist and stresses
produced in the shafts.

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3.4 Procedure:
1. Place the apparatus on a smooth horizontal surface.
2. Measure the effective length of the shaft using steel rule.
3. Measure the diameter of the shaft using micrometer.
4. Adjust the Zeros at 1st and 2nd measuring arms.
5. Put a load of ten N in the hanger.
6. Measure the 1st and 2nd angle of twist of the shaft.
7. Take a set of six readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on unloading.
8. Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity (G)” of the material of the shaft.

3.5 Observations & Calculations:

Effective length of shaft (L) = mm

Diameter of shaft (d) = mm
Diameter of torque pulley (D) = mm
Radius of torque pulley (R=D/2) = mm
Polar Moment of Inertia of the shaft (J=πd4/32) = mm 4

Table 3 Calculation of Modulus of Rigidity of a shaft

Angle of twist at 1st measuring arm Modulus of Rigidity

Load Torque
No.
W WR θ1 G=TL/Jθ
of
Obs. (rad) (N/m2)
(N) (Nm)
Loading Unloading Average
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

3.5.1 Graph

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3.5.2 Specimen Calculations:

3.7 Statistical Analysis:

3.8 Comments:

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Lab Session 4

4.1 Objective:

To determine the central deflection of a simply supported beam loaded by a concentrated load at
mid point and hence determine the modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam.

4.2Apparatus:
 Deflection of beam apparatus
 Hanger
 Weights
 Meter rod
 Dial indicator
 Vernier Calipers

Figure 4. 1Simply Supported Beam

Deflection of beam apparatus contains a metal beam and two knife-edge supports upon
which the beam is supported for this experiment and hence the beam becomes of a simply
– supported type.

4.3Summery of Theory:

Beams are structural members supporting loads applied at various points along the members. A
beam undergoes bending by the loads applied perpendicular to their axis of the structure. Beams
are of various types.

If the supports are at the ends such that one of them is pin and other is roller then such a beam is
called simply supported beam. The supports can be considered as simple wedges at the ends as shown
in figure 4.1.

Consider a simply supported beam AB of length “L” and carrying a point load “W” at the centre of
beam C as shown in figure 4.2.
The maximum deflection for simply supported beam will occur at half the distance from either
support (mid-point).

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 δ

L L
2 2
Figure 4. 2Simply Supported Beam loaded at mid point

Let,
δ = Deflection of beam at any point along the length of the beam
δc = Central deflection of beam
x = Variable distance from end B.

From the symmetry of the figure, we find that the reaction at A is:

R = R = W/2
A B

The maximum deflection (yc) at x = L/2 is given by:

δc = WL3/ 48EI
or
E= (W/ δc) (L3/ 48 I)
Where E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of
beam I = Moment of inertia of the beam

Load-Deflection Curve:

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δ

Figure 4. 3Load-Deflection curve

4.4Procedure:

1. Set the Deflection of Beam apparatus on a horizontal surface.

2. Set the dial indicator at zero.
3. Apply a load of 2N and measure the deflection using dial indicator.
4. Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings
on unloading.
5. Calculate the “Modulus of Elasticity (E)” of the material of the beam.

4.5 Observations and Calculations:

Least Count of the dial indicator = mm

Least Count of vernier calipers = mm
Effective length of beam (L) = mm
Breadth of beam (b) = mm
Height of beam (h) = mm
3
Moment of inertia of the beam (I=bh /12) = mm 4

Table 4Calculation of Modulus of Elasticity of S.S.Beam

Central Deflection-δc Modulus of

Effective Load- W/ δc Elasticity
No. of W (N)
Obs. (N/m) E=(W/δc)(L3/48I)
(N) Loading Unloading Average
From Graph
(N/m2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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4.5.1 Graph:
On graph, plot the deflection against load for the theoretical & practical results. Draw the best-fit
straight lines through the points
Deflection vs Load

4.5.2 Specimen Calculations:

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4.6 Industrial Applications:

4.7 Statistical Analysis:

4.8 Comments:

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Lab Session 5

5.1 Objective:

To determine the central deflection of a fixed ended beam loaded at mid-span by concentrated
loads and to compare with theoretical value.

5.2 Apparatus:

 Deflection of beam apparatus with clamps

 Hanger
 Weights
 Meter rod
 Dial indicator
 Vernier Caliper.

Figure 5. 1Fixed Ended Beam

Deflection of beam apparatus contains a metal beam and two knife-edge supports upon
which the beam is supported for this experiment. With the help of clamps arrangement at
ends it can be made fixed type of beam.

5.3Summery of Theory:

A fixed ended beam is supported by fixed supports at both ends as shown in Figure 5.1. The slope of
the beam is thus zero at each end, and a couple will have to be applied at each end and to make the
slope there have this value. The applied couples will be of opposite sign to that of bending moment,
due to loading.

Consider a beam AB of length “L” fixed at A and B and carrying a point load “W” as shown in figure
5.2.
The maximum deflection for this fixed beam will occur at center of the beam (mid-point).
Let,
δ = Actual deflection of beam at any point along the length of beam
δc = Actual central deflection of beam
yc = Theoretical central deflection of beam

Page | 31
 L L
2 2

Figure 5. 2Fixed Beam loaded at mid span

The maximum theoretical deflection (yc) at x = L/2 is given by:

yc = WL3/ 192EI

Where E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of

beam I = Moment of inertia of the beam

5.4 Procedure:

1. Set the Deflection of Beam apparatus on a horizontal surface.

2. Set the dial indicator at zero.
3. Apply a load of 0.5 lb and measure the deflection using dial indicator.
4. Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on
unloading.
5. Calculate:
a. the “Theoretical value of deflection (yc)” of beam at mid-span.
b. the %age error between theoretical and experimental values of central deflections.

5.5 Observations and Calculations:

Least Count of the dial indicator = mm

Effective length of beam (L) = mm
Breadth of beam (b) = mm
Height of beam (h) = mm

Page | 32
Modulus of elasticity of material of the beam = N/ mm2
Moment of inertia of the beam (I=bh3/12) = mm 4

Table 5Calculation of deflection of fixed beam

Actual Central Deflection-δc Theoretical Percentage

Deflection Error
Load- (in)
No. of W yc = WL3/192EI
Obs.
(lbs) Loading Unloading Average (in) (%)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

5.5.1 Graph:
Draw graph between load andDeflection(Theoratical&Actual)

Load Vs Deflection

Page | 33
5.5.2 Specimen Calculations:

5.6 Industrial Applications:

5.7 Statistical Analysis:

5.8 Comments:

Page | 34
Lab Session 6

6.1 Objective:
To determine the deflection at mid span of a propped cantilever beam and compare with the
theoretical values
6.2Apparatus:
 Propped cantilever beam apparatus
 Weights
 Dial gauge
 Vernier Caliper
 Specimen
 Hangers
 Spanner

Figure 6. 1Propped Cantilever Beam

6.3Summery of Theory:
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending.

6.3.1 Classification of beams :

The beams may be classified in several ways, but the commonly used classification is
based on support conditions. On this basis the beams can be divided into six types:
(1) Cantilever beams (2) Simply supported beams (3) Overhanging beams
(4) Propped beams (5) Fixed beams (6) Continuous beams

6.3.1.1 Cantilever beam:

A beam having one end fixed and the other end free is known as cantilever beam,
figure shows a cantilever with end ‘A’ rigidly fixed into its supports, and the other end ‘B’ is
free. The length between A and B is known as the length of cantilever.

Page | 35
Figure 6. 2Cantilever beam
6.3.1.2 Simply supported beam:
A beam having both the ends freely resting on supports is called a simply supported beam.
The reaction act at the ends of effective span of the beam. Figure show simply supported
beams. For such beams the reactions at the two ends are vertical. Such a beam is free to
rotate at the ends, when it bends.

6.3.1.3 Overhanging beams:

A beam for which the supports re not situated at the ends and one or both ends extend over
the supports, is called an overhanging beam. Figure represents overhanging beams.

Figure 6. 3One end overhanging beam

Figure 6. 4 Both ends overhanging beam

6.3.1.4 Propped cantilever beams:

A cantilever beam for which one end is fixed and other end is provided support, in order to
resist the deflection of the beam, is called a propped cantilever bema. A propped cantilever is
a statically indeterminate beam. Such beams are also called as restrained beams, as an end is
restrained from rotation.

Figure 6. 5 Proped cantilever beam

Page | 36
6.3.1.5 Fixed beams:
A beam having its both the ends rigidly fixed against rotation or built into the supporting
walls, is called a fixed beam. Such a beam has four reaction components for vertical loading
(i.e., a vertical reaction and a fixing moment at both ends) figure shows the fixed beam.

Figure 6. 6 Fixed ended beam

6.3.1.6 Continu
ous beam:
A beam having more than two supports, is called as continuous beam. The supports at the
ends are called as the end supports, while all the other supports are called as intermediate
support. It may or may not have overhang. It is statically indeterminate beam. In these beams
there may be several spans of same or different lengths figure shows a continuous beam.

Figure 6. 7 Continuous beam

6.3.2 Derivation of formula for deflection at mid span.

(Derive the formula as for experiment conditions)

6.4Procedure:

i Measure the width and depth of the beam with the help of scale to find the moment of inertia
of the beam.
ii Set the apparatus and put the required hangers at different points.
iii Measure the distances of each hanger from the reference end.
iv Set the deflection dial gauge at zero after putting the hangers.
v Take the reading of deflection after putting the loads in the hangers
vi Repeat the process for different loads
vii Find the theoretical deflection and compare with the experimental values by showing on
a graph

Page | 37
6.5 Observations and Calculations:

Width of Beam = b = mm
Depth of beam = d = mm
Moment of Inertia for rectangular metal bar = I = bd3/12
Modulus of Elasticity = E =

Table 6.1Variation in deflection with loads

Obs.No LOADS
(N) δ δ %age
Error
exp th

W1 W2 W3
1
2
3
4
5
6

6.5.1 Graph:
On graph, plot the deflection against load for the theoretical & practical results. Draw the best-fit
straight lines through the points
Deflection vs Load

Page | 38
6.6 Industrial Applications:

6.7 Statistical Analysis:

6.8 Conclusion:

Page | 39
Lab Session 7

7.1 Objective:
To determine the deflection at three different points of a propped cantilever beam using a brass
beam and compare with the theoretical values also find its comparison with aluminum beam
used in lab session 6.
7.2Apparatus:
 Propped cantilever beam apparatus
 Weights
 Dial gauge
 Vernier Caliper
 Specimen
 Hangers
 Spanner

Figure 7. 1 Propped Cantilever Beam

7.3Summery of Theory:
Same as for lab session#6.

7.4Procedure:
i Measure the width and depth of the beam with the help of scale to find the moment of inertia
of the beam.
ii Set the apparatus and put the required hangers at different points.
iii Measure the distances of each hanger from the reference end.
iv Set the deflection dial gauge at zero after putting the hangers.
v Take the reading of deflection after putting the loads in the hangers
vi Repeat the process for different loads
vii Find the theoretical deflection and compare with the experimental values by showing on
a graph

Page | 40
7.5 Observations and Calculations:
Width of Beam = b = 11 mm
Depth of beam = d = 20 mm
Moment of Inertia for rectangular metal bar = I = bd3/12= 7333.3𝑚𝑚4
Modulus of Elasticity = E = 97GPa
Length of beam = 85 cm

Table 7 Variation in deflection with loads

Obs.No LOADS Deflection δexp 5357 𝑊 %age

𝐸𝐼
(N) δ th = Error
Loading Un-loading (Mean)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

7.5.1 Graph:
On graph, plot the deflection against load for the theoretical & practical results. Draw the best-fit
straight lines through the points

7.7 Industrial Applications:

Page | 41
7.8 Statistical Analysis:

7.9 Conclusion:

Page | 42
Lab Session 8

8.1 Objective:
To measure the stiffness of a compression spring and compare it with theoretical values.

8.2 Apparatus:
• Compression of Spring Apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights

Figure 8. 1 Compression spring apparatus

8.3Summery of Theory:

8.3.1 Spring:
A spring is an object that can be deformed by a force and then return to its original shape after
the force is removed. Its sole purpose is to store and utilize the energy.
8.3.2 Deformations in springs:
There are broadly two types of deformation:

8.3.2.1 Elastic deformation:

When the stress is removed the material returns to the dimension it had before the load was
applied. The deformation is reversible, non-permanent.

8.3.2.2 Plastic deformation:

This occurs when a large stress is applied to a material. The stress is so large that when removed,
the material does not spring back to its previous dimension. There is a permanent, irreversible
deformation. The minimum value of the stress which produces plastic deformation is known as
the elastic limit for the material.
Any spring should be designed so that it only experience upto elastic deformation mostly for
efficient working.

Page | 43
8.3.3 Hooke’s law:
Hooke's law states that the force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance x is
proportional to that distance. That is,
F = kx
Where F is the force, x is the length of extension/compression and k is a constant of
proportionality known as the spring constant which is usually given in N/m.

Figure 8. 2 Hooke’s law visual representation

8.3.4 Material of spring:

Steel alloys are the most commonly used spring materials. The most popular alloys include high-
carbon (such as the music wire used for guitar strings), oil-tempered low-carbon,
chrome silicon, chrome vanadium, and stainless steel.
Other metals that are sometimes used to make springs are beryllium copper
alloy, phosphor bronze, and titanium. Rubber or urethane may be used for cylindrical, non-coil
springs. Ceramic material has been developed for coiled springs in very high-temperature
environments. One-directional glass fiber composite materials are being tested for possible use
in springs.

8.3.5 Types of springs according to loading conditions:

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:

8.3.5.1 Tension/extension spring

The spring is designed to operate with a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is
applied to it.

Figure 8. 3 Extension spring

Page | 44
8.3.5.2 Compression spring
It is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied
to it.

Figure 8. 4 Compression spring

8.3.5.3 Torsion spring

The load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates
through an angle as the load is applied.

Figure 8. 5 Torsion spring

8.3.5.3 Constant spring

In this the supported load will remain constant throughout the deflection of spring.

Page | 45
 Figure 8. 6 Constant spring

8.3.5.4 Variable spring:

In this, the resistance of the coil to load varies during compression.

Figure 8. 7 Variable spring

8.3.6 Types of springs according to shapes:

8.3.6.1 Coil spring:

This type is made of a coil or helix of round wire.

Figure 8. 8 Coil Spring

Page | 46
8.3.6.2 Flat spring:
This type is made of a flat spring steel.

Figure 8. 9 Flat Spring

8.3.6.3 Machined spring:

This type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation
rather than a coiling operation. Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in
addition to the elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of
compression/extension, torsion, etc.

Figure 8. 10 Machined Spring

8.3.6.4 Serpentine spring

A zig-zag of thick wire - often used in modern upholstery/furniture.

Page | 47
 Figure 8. 11 Serpentine Spring

8.4 Derivation of stiffness formula:

A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect or distort under
the action of applied load; it recovers its original shape when load is released. Springs are energy
absorbing units whose function is to store energy and to restore it slowly or rapidly depending on the
particular application. In order to derive a necessary formula which governs the behavior of springs,
consider a closed coiled spring subjected to an axial load W.

Let,
W = axial load D = mean coil diameter

d = diameter of spring wire N = number of active coils

G = modulus of rigidity ∆ = deflection of spring

Φ = Angle of twist l = length of spring wire = πDN-----(i)

In 1879, Alberto Castiglione’ an Italian railroad engineer, published a book in which he

outlined a method for determining the displacement / deflection & slope at a point in a body.
This method which referred to Castiglione’s Theorem is applied to the bodies, having constant
temperature & material (homogeneous) with linear elastic behavior.
It states that “The derivative of the strain energy with respect to the applied load gives the
deformation corresponding to that load”.
For a helical spring, the partial derivative of the strain energy w.r.t. the applied load gives
the deflection in the spring i.e. ∂U / ∂W = deflection.
Consider a helical compression spring made up of a circular wire and subjected to axial
load W as shown in the figure above.
Strain Energy is given by:
U = ½ T * Φ------(ii)
Whereas,
Page | 48
T= ½ W * D------(iii)

Φ = T l / JG------(iv)
(From Torsion formula) putting the values from eqs. # (i), (iii) & (iv) in eq. # (ii) and
simplifying, we get;
T= 4 W2D 3N / d4G------(v)

Now applying the Castiglione’ theorem by taking the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to the applied load

∂U / ∂W = ∆ = 8 WD3N / d4G------(vi)

W / ∆ = d4G / 8 D3N
Stiffness = K = d4G / 8 D3N

8.5 Experimental Procedure:

i. Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of spring with the help of Vernier
caliper.
ii. Fit the compression spring in the spring support. To fit compression spring, remove the
load hanger base by unscrewing the grip knob and base from the rod thread.
iii. Loosen or remove the grip knob on the marker and pull the load hanger down until the
top can be swung out from the slop
iv. Withdraw the rod upward, insert the new spring and reverse the above procedure to
return the apparatus to full working condition.
v. Load the spring by 5N increments recording the change in length of the spring up to the
greatest readable deflection or the max load of25N.
vi. Record the spring dimensions
vii. Repeat the same process for other springs and record the readings.

8.6 Observations and Calculations:

Wire diameter (d) = (mm)

Spring O/D = (mm)

Spring Length (l) = (mm)

Number of active turns (N) =

Page | 49
Modulus of rigidity (G) = (N/ mm2)

𝑊
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑4 𝐺
= 8𝑁 𝐷3
𝛥

Where d = Wire diameter

N = Number of turns
D = mean diameter of spring coil (O/D – d)
G = Modulus of rigidity (77 KN/ mm2 for spring steels)

8.6.1 Graph:

Deflection vs Load

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
8.6.2 Slope from Graph:

𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒1 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒2 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒3 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒4 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒5 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚

Page | 50
 Table 8 Calculations of stiffness of a compression spring

No. Load Deflection Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentage

of (W) N (∆) mm Graph Value = d4 Error (%)
Obs. G / 8N (Th.-Pr.)
(N/mm) D3 (N/mm)
Loading Unloading Mean |Th.-Pr./Th.
X100|
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Average Percentage Error= %

8.7 Industrial Applications:

8.8 Statistical Analysis:

8.9 Conclusion:

Page | 51
Lab Session 9

9.1 Objective:
To measure the stiffness of an Extension spring and compare it with theoretical values.

9.2 Apparatus:

• Extension of spring apparatus

• Hangers
• Weights

Figure 9. 1 Extension Spring Apparatus

9.3 Summary of Theory:

• Refer to Lab Session 1

9.4 Procedure:

i Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of spring with the help of Vernier caliper.
ii Fit the extension spring in the spring support.
iii To fit compression spring, remove the load hanger base by unscrewing the grip knob and base
from the rod thread.
iv . Loosen or remove the grip knob on the marker and pull the load hanger down until the top
can be swung out from the slope.
v Withdraw the rod upward, insert the new spring and reverse the above procedure to return
the apparatus to full working condition.
Page | 52
 vi Load the spring by 10N increments recording the change in length of the spring up to the
greatest readable deflection or the max load of 50N.
vii Record the spring dimensions Repeat the same process for other springs and record the
readings.

9.5 Observations & Calculations:

Wire diameter (d) = (mm)

Spring O/D = (mm)

Spring Length (l) = (mm)

Number of active turns (N) =

Modulus of rigidity (G) = (N/ mm2)

𝑊
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑4 𝐺
= 8𝑁 𝐷3
𝛥

Where d = Wire diameter

N = Number of turns
D = mean diameter of spring coil (O/D – d)
G = Modulus of rigidity (77 KN/ mm2 for spring steels)

𝑊
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑4 𝐺
= 8𝑁 𝐷3
𝛥
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =

9.5.1 Graph:

Deflection vs Load

Page | 53
 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
9.5.2 Slope from Graph:
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒1 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒2 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒3 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒4 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒5 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚

Table 9 Calculations of stiffness of an extension spring

No. Load Deflection Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentage

of (W) (∆) mm Graph Stiffness = Error (%)
Obs. N d4G / 8N ( Th.-Pr.)
(N/mm) D3 (N/mm)
Loading Unloading Mean (A) (B) Th.-Pr./Th.
X100
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Average Percentage Error= %

9.6 Statistical Analysis:

Page | 54
9.7 Industrial Applications:

9.8 Conclusion:

Page | 55
Lab Session No. 10
10.1 Objective:
To verify the relationship among load on spiral spring, number of turns and degree of
rotation of a coil spring
10.2 Apparatus:
 Coil Spring Apparatus
 Hanger
 Weights
 Two masses on the arm unit

Figure 10. 1 Coil Spring Apparatus

10.3 Summary of Theory:

10.3.1 Spring:
Springs are elastic bodies, also termed as a resilient member (generally metal), that can be
twisted, pulled or stretched by some force. They can return to their original shape when the force
is released.
10.3.2 Helical spring
Helical spring is made of a wire coiled in the form of helix. Its cross sectional area is
circular, square or rectangular. As shown above, helical spring are further classified on the basis
of force that they experience.
10.3.3 Helical Tension Springs:

10.3.3.1 Characteristics:
a) It stretches apart to create load.
b) The gap between the successive coils is small.
c) The wire is coiled in a sequence that the turn is at right angles to the axis of the spring.
d) The spring is loaded along the axis.
e) By applying load, the spring elongates in action as it mainly depends upon the end hooks
as shown in figure below.

10.3.3.2 Applications:
a) Garage door assemblies
b) Vise-grip piles
c) Carburetors

Page | 56
10.3.4 Helical Compression Springs

10.3.4.1 Characteristics:
a) The gap between the successive coils is larger.
b) It is made of round wire and wrapped in cylindrical shape with a constant pitch between
the coils.
c) By applying the load, the spring contracts in action.
There are mainly four forms of compression springs as shown in figure. They are as
follows:
a) Plain end
b) Plain and ground end
c) Squared end
d) Squared and ground end
Among the four types, the plain end type is less expensive to manufacture. It tends to
bow sideways when applying a compressive load.

10.3.4.2 Applications:
a) Ball point pens
b) Pogo sticks
c) Valve assemblies in engines
10.3.5 Torsion Springs:

10.3.5.1 Characteristics:
a) It is also a form of helical spring, but it rotates about an axis to create load.
b) It releases the load in an arc around the axis as shown in figure.
c) Mainly used for torque transmission
d) The ends of the spring are attached to other application objects, so that if the object rotates
around the center of the spring, it tends to push the spring to retrieve its normal position.

10.3.5.2 Applications:
a) Mouse tracks
b) Rocker switches
c) Door hinges
d) Clipboards
e) Automobile starters

Page | 57
10.3.6 Spiral Springs

Figure 10. 2 Spiral Spring Configuration

It is made of a band of steel wrapped around itself a number of times to create a

geometric shape as shown in figure.

10.3.6.1 Applications
a) Alarm Time-Piece
b) Watch
c) Automotive Seat Recliners

10.4 Procedure:
i. Clamp the spring to give a number of active turns from 3 to 8 inclusive.
ii. Note the initial scale reading with the load hanger on the cord.
iii. Then add a weight and note the scale reading.
iv. Tabulate your results.

10.5 Observations & Calculations:

Wire diameter mm

Spring O/D mm

Modulus of rigidity N/ mm2

Radius of the pulley mm

Width of the spring mm

Spring Thickness mm

Page | 58
Table 10 Deflection variation on different number of active turns

Sr. NO.OF LOAD DEFLECTION

No ACTIVE P Өº
COILS
(N) (N) Lading Unloading Mean
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5

Page | 59
10.6 Statistical Analysis:

10.7 Industrial Applications:

10.8 Conclusions:

Page | 60