Nitin Nishikanta Das Buckling 2306324

Introduction
Buckling is a significant failure mode in slender structures when subjected to compressive forces.
Unlike material failure through yielding or fracture, buckling results from a stability issue where a
structural element suddenly deforms laterally under axial load. This phenomenon is especially critical
in columns, beams, and similar components, as it can lead to sudden collapse even if the material
itself is not overstressed. Understanding the conditions that lead to buckling is essential in structural
design to ensure the safety and stability of buildings, bridges, and other constructions.

What is Buckling?
A process known as "buckling" happens when a structural element, like a column or a thin rod, is
compressed to the point where it bends or deforms laterally from its original straight shape. This
sudden bending may result in the structural member failing if the applied load is greater than a
certain point. The material qualities, the member's length and cross-sectional dimensions, and the
boundary conditions at the ends all affect the critical load at which buckling happens.

Buckling is particularly important in the design of columns and other slender structures because it
can lead to sudden and catastrophic failure without any significant warning. Therefore, engineers
must ensure that the loads applied to structural members are well below the critical buckling load to
avoid failure.

Euler’s Critical Buckling Load

Euler's critical buckling load is a key concept in understanding the stability of slender columns under
axial compressive loads. It defines the maximum axial load that a column can bear before it buckles.
The formula for Euler’s critical buckling load is given by:

𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝜋 2
𝐿2𝑒
• 𝑃𝑐𝑟 : Critical buckling load (the load at which the column buckles).
• 𝐸: Modulus of elasticity of the material, representing the material's stiffness.
• I: Moment of inertia of the column’s cross-section, indicating its resistance to bending.
• 𝐿𝑒 : Equivalent length or Effective length.

Applicability with Respect to Column Size

Euler's formula applies to long, slender columns, where the length is much greater than the cross-
sectional dimensions. In such columns, buckling is the primary mode of failure under compressive
loads. However, for shorter or stockier columns, material yielding or crushing may occur before
buckling, making Euler’s formula less applicable. In these cases, other approaches, such as using
empirical formulas or considering both yielding and buckling criteria, are necessary to predict failure
accurately.
 Fig. 1 Euler’s Critical Buckling Load

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Test Specimen Details, Experimental Procedure, and Boundary

Conditions
Test Specimen Details:
The test specimen used in the buckling test was an Aluminium ruler-shaped column. The rod had a
length(L) of 651mm, a width(b) of 25mm and a thickness(t) of 5mm. Aluminium was selected for its
relatively high strength-to-weight ratio, making it a suitable material for structural applications where
lightweight and durability are important.

Experimental Procedure:
The buckling test was conducted to determine the critical buckling load of a specimen with a fixed-
fixed boundary condition. The test was carried out with a specimen made of Aluminium, shaped like
a ruler with a rectangular cross-section. Below is a detailed step-by-step procedure of how the
experiment was performed:

1. Preparation of the Specimen:

• The Aluminium specimen, with a rectangular cross-section, was carefully measured to
determine its length, width, and thickness. These dimensions are crucial for calculating
the moment of inertia (I), which is used in determining the critical buckling load.
• The ends of the specimen were inspected to ensure they were flat and parallel, as any
imperfections could affect the boundary conditions and the accuracy of the test results.
2. Setting Up the Apparatus:
• The specimen was placed in the testing machine, ensuring that both ends were securely
clamped to simulate the fixed-fixed boundary conditions. The clamping was done
carefully to prevent any initial bending or Imbalance that could influence the test results.
• The alignment of the specimen was checked and adjusted as necessary. It was essential
to confirm that the specimen was perfectly straight before starting the test. Any
deviation from straightness could lead to premature buckling and inaccurate results.
3. Loading the Specimen:
• The hydraulic pump was calibrated and connected to the testing machine. The pump was
responsible for applying the compressive load gradually and uniformly along the length
of the specimen.
 • The loading rate of the hydraulic pump was carefully controlled to ensure a smooth and
incremental application of load. This gradual loading helps in accurately determining the
point at which the specimen begins to buckle.
4. Applying the Load:
• The hydraulic pump was operated to apply the compressive load to the specimen. The
load was increased at a controlled rate to prevent sudden buckling and to allow for
precise measurement of the critical load.
• As the load was applied, the specimen was continuously monitored for any signs of
deformation or lateral displacement. The rate of load application was adjusted as needed
to maintain a steady increase in compressive force.
5. Monitoring and Measurement:
• A dial gauge was used to monitor the lateral deflection of the specimen. This deflection
is an indicator of the beginning of buckling.
• The critical buckling load was identified by observing the load at which the specimen
exhibited a noticeable lateral displacement. This critical load was recorded immediately
to ensure accurate measurement.
6. Stopping the Test:
• Once buckling was observed, the hydraulic pump was stopped to prevent any further
deformation or damage to the specimen. The critical buckling load was noted as the
maximum load at which buckling occurred.
• After the specimen was carefully taken out of the testing apparatus, any damage or
permanent deformation was evaluated by a post-test examination.
7. Analysis Following Test:
• The moment of inertia (I) of the specimen’s cross-sectional area was calculated based on
the measured dimensions. This value, along with the recorded critical buckling load, was
used to verify the experimental results using Euler’s formula.
• Data from the test, including the load and corresponding deflection measurements, were
analysed to determine the critical buckling behaviour of the specimen.

Boundary Condition:
In this experiment, the Fixed-Fixed boundary condition was used. This means both ends of the
column were securely held in place, preventing rotation or displacement. This condition typically
results in the highest critical load compared to other boundary conditions (such as pinned-pinned or
fixed-free), as the effective length is reduced.

Measuring quantity using a Bulking Test

A bulking test measures several critical parameters, including:

• Critical Buckling Load: The load at which the column begins to buckle.
• Deflection: The lateral displacement experienced by the column during buckling.
• Stress-Strain Behaviour: The relationship between the applied compressive load and the
material's response can be assessed.
• Buckling Mode Shape: The shape that the column assumes when it buckles, which can be
used to understand the failure mechanism.

Experiment Data Analysis

1. Compute the Moment of Inertia (I) for the given specimen
 Consider a rectangular cross-section with:

• Width b (along the x-axis)

• Thickness t (along the y-axis)

For a rectangular cross-section, we need to calculate (I) about the axis perpendicular to the
width (x-axis) and pass through the centroid of the rectangle.

a. Element of Area:
Consider a thin horizontal strip of the rectangle with thickness dy located at a distance y
from the centroidal axis. The width of this strip is b, and its thickness is dy.

The area of this strip is: 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦

b. Moment of inertia of the strip:
The moment of inertia of this strip about the centroidal axis is:
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑦 2 . 𝑑𝐴
2
Substituting dA, 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑦 . (𝑏. 𝑑𝑦)
c. Integrate Over the Height:
Integrate this expression over the entire thickness of the rectangle to find the total
moment of inertia:
𝑡/2
𝐼 = ∫−𝑡/2 𝑦 2 . 𝑏𝑑𝑦

𝑡/2
𝐼 = 𝑏. ∫−𝑡/2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

Integral of 𝑦 2 is:
𝑦3
∫ 𝑦 2 . 𝑑𝑦 = 3

On simplify:
𝑡3
𝐼 = 𝑏.
12

Where:
• b = Width of the rectangle
• t = Thickness of the rectangle

Calculating I:

b is the width of the specimen(b=25mm)

t is the thickness of the specimen(t=5mm)

53
𝐼 = 25. 12 = 260.41𝑚𝑚4

For the above I,

𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝜋 2
𝐿2𝑒
Due to Fixed-Fixed boundary condition

𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿/2 and 𝐿 = 651mm

 69×109
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 3.142 . 𝐿2
2

9 −12
2 69×10 ×260.41×10
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 3.14 . 2 = 170.62 𝑘𝑔𝑓
651×10−3
2

Fig.2 Experimental Observation

From the observation,

The Theoretical value is 170.62 kgf and the Measured value of the load is 114 kgf
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 170.62−114
That means 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = × 100 = 33.18%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 170.62

Conclusion
The buckling test is a crucial experiment for understanding the stability of structural
elements under compressive loads. Through this test, we can determine the critical buckling
load, which is vital for designing safe and efficient structures. The experiment demonstrated
how different factors such as material properties, cross-sectional geometry, and boundary
conditions influence the buckling behaviour of a specimen. By comparing theoretical
predictions with experimental results, the importance of precise calculations and real-world
testing in engineering design is emphasized.

Q & A section
1. What is Euler’s Buckling Formula?
Ans: Euler’s buckling formula is used to determine the critical load at which a slender column
will buckle under axial compression. It is expressed as:

𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝜋 2
𝐿2𝑒
2. What are the Effects of Different Boundary Conditions?
Ans: Different boundary conditions significantly affect the critical buckling load of a column:
• Fixed-Fixed: Both ends are fixed, resulting in the highest critical load.
• Pinned-Pinned: Both ends can rotate but cannot translate, leading to a lower critical
load than Fixed-Fixed.
• Fixed-Free: One end is fixed and the other is free, resulting in the lowest critical load.
• Fixed-Pinned: One end is fixed, and the other is pinned, resulting in a critical load
between the Fixed-Fixed and Pinned-Pinned cases.

3. Calculate the Buckling Load Using Euler’s Formula for a Fixed-Fixed End Condition.
For a rod with a circular cross-section,

𝜋𝑟 4
𝐼 =
4

For diameter = 1.24cm, so r = 0.62cm

So that,
4
3.14×0.62×10−2
𝐼= 4
= 0.116 × 10−8 𝑚4

For the above (I=0.116× 10−8 𝑚4 ) and Fixed-Fixed end condition,

 𝐸𝐼
Pcr = 𝜋 2
𝐿2𝑒

69×109 ×0.116×10−8
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 3.142 . 1.242
= 2055.055 𝑘𝑔𝑓
2

So, for L=1.24m and diameter = 1.24cm

The buckling load = 2055.055 kgf