A TECHNICAL REPORT OF STUDENT’S INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING PROGRAMME

CARRIED OUT AT

EKITI STATE WATER COOPERATION

P. M B 5350, WATERWORKS ROAD AJILOSUN STREET,ADO-EKITI

WRITTEN BY

FABUSORO VICTOR OLAMIDE

CHM/2020/1016

SUBMITTED TO:

THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY,

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OYE EKITI,EKITI STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR IN SCIENCE (B.SC) DEGREE IN

CHEMISTRY

15TH OCTOBER, 2024

 CERTIFICATION

As a student of Chemistry at the Federal University of Oye-ekiti, and under the Matriculation

number CHM/2020/1016, I, FABUSORO VICTOR OLAMIDE certify that this report details

my six weeks industrial training experience at Ekiti state water cooperation in waterworks

road, ajilosun street, Ado-ekiti.The training was part of the requirements for the Students’

Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), and I am grateful for the practical experience

gained in the field of water resource management.

STUDENT TRAINEE: FABUSORO VICTOR OLAMIDE [CHM/2020/1016]

Signature and date: …………………………………………………………………

UNIVERSITY BASED SUPERVISOR:

Signature and date: …………………………………………………………………

FUOYE SIWES COORDINATOR:

Signature and date:…………………………………………………………………..

 DECLARATION

As a student at the Federal University of Oye-ekiti, I, Fabusoro victor olamide, hereby

declare that this report is an accurate record of my industrial training experience at Ekiti state

water cooperation. The training took place for six weeks

 DEDICATION

I am honored to dedicate this SIWES report to the Almighty God, who has guided me

through every step of my training at Ekiti state water cooperation. I would also like to

dedicate this report to my family, who have always been my greatest support system. I am

deeply grateful to my parents and siblings for their love, prayers, and encouragement. I also

wish to extend my thanks to the staff of Ekiti state water cooperation who made my training

such a valuable and memorable experience. Lastly, I am extremely grateful to my colleagues

and friends, who made the training fun and engaging. This report would not have been

possible without their help and support.

 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

This SIWES report is dedicated to the people who made it possible.

To my family, who have always been there for me and who provided me with love, support,

and encouragement throughout my training.

To my friends, who were a source of strength and motivation when times were tough.

To my colleagues at the Ekiti state water cooperation, who taught me so much about the

industry and about life.

To my supervisor, who guided me through this journey and gave me the opportunity to grow

and learn.

And finally, to God, for blessing me

 ABSTRACT

This SIWES technical report contains five major chapters. All the knowledge acquired during

the six (6) weeks of industrial attachment at the quality assurance department of the Ekiti

state water cooperation is summarized in these chapters. The first chapter which contains a

brief history of SIWES, its aims and objectives, brief history of Ekiti state water cooperation,

its mission and responsibilities and the organizational chart of Ekiti state water cooperation.

The second chapter contains the introduction and chemistry of water. The third chapter

contains the water treatment plant and the need for water purification. The fourth chapter

contains all the analysis carried out during water production process. The analysis are total

hardness, total alkalinity, residual chlorine, turbidity, Chloride test, Jar test, chlorine demand

test , pH analysis, microbial analysis etc. The last (fifth) chapter outlines the summary and

recommendations. Finally, the conclusion which was based on the benefit gained, problems

encountered, reference.
 TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE………………………………………………………………………………

CERTIFICATION………………………………………………………………………………

DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………

DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………,……………………………….

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………

TABLE OF CONTENT………………………………………………………………

CHAPTER 1: ………………….……..…………………………………

1.1 BACKGROUND OF S.I.W.E.S……………………………..

1.2 AIM OF SIWES…………………………………

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES……………………………….

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF SIWES………………………………………

1.5 HISTORY OF EKITI STATE WATER COOPERATION………………

1.6 MISSION OF EKITI STATE WATER COOPERATION……………….

1.7 RESPONSIBILITY OF EKITI STATE WATER COOPERATION………

1.8 ORGANIZATION CHART…………………….

CHAPTER 2:INTRODUCTION TO WATER………………………………..

2.1 WHAT IS WATER ……………………………………………

2.2 TYPES OF WATER………………

2.3 SOURCES OF WATER…………..

2.3.1 RAIN WATER……………………………………………..

2.3.2 SURFACE WATER……………………………………………..

2.3.3 SPRING WATER……………………………………………..

2.3.4.GROUND WATER……………………………………………..

2.4 USES OF WATER…………..

2.5 CHEMISTRY OF WATER. …………..

2.6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER ……………………………………………..

2.7 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER ……………………………………………..

2.8 LABORATORY SAFETY RULE……………………………………………..

CHAPTER 3: WATER TREATMENT PLANT……………………………………………..

3.1 WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES ……………………………………………..

3.2 CHEMICALS USED FOR WATER TREATMENT ……………………………

3.3 NEED FOR WATER PURIFICATION ……………………………………………..

3.4 HOW TO REMOVE TASTE AND ODOUR FROM WATER

CHAPTER 4:WATER QUALITY TEST ……………………………………………..

4.1 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS FOR WATER QUALITY TEST………………

4.2 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR WATER QUALITY TEST ………………………

4.3 QUALITY TESTS……………………………………………..

4.4 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED……………………..

CHAPTER 5……………………………………….

5.1 RECOMMENDATION……………………………………………..

5.2 CONCLUSION……………………………………………..

REFERENCES
 LIST OF FIGURES

1. Ekiti state water cooperation organizational chart

2. Polarity of water

3. Water cleaning process

4. Water treatment plant process

5. Sulfuric acid

6. Aluminum sulphate

7. Potassium chloride

8. Examples of reagents for water quality test

9. Electrical conductivity meter

10. pH meter

11. Turbidity meter

12. Calorimeter

13. Refractometer

14. Oven

15. Autoclave

16. Furnace

17. Weighing balance

18. Measuring cylinder

 19. Conical flask

20. Pipette

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF SIWES

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (S.I.W.E.S.) was established in 1973 by

the Nigerian government to give students hands-on work experience while they’re still in

school. The program was first introduced by the Nigerian government in 1973, under the

administration of General Yakubu Gowon. It was created in response to a growing concern

about the high rate of unemployment among young people, particularly graduates. The

program was originally called the Industrial Training Fund (ITF), and it was managed by the

Ministry of Employment and Labor. In 1975, the program was renamed the Student Industrial

Work Experience Scheme (S.I.W.E.S.). It was later transferred to the Ministry of Education,

where it remains.

Under S.I.W.E.S., students are placed with employers for a period of time, usually during

the summer or winter break from school. The length of the placement varies, but it is

typically between 8 and 12 weeks. During the placement, students gain practical experience

in the workplace, working on tasks related to their field of study. They are also given the

opportunity to network with professionals in their field, which can help them build

connections and find job opportunities after graduation. Many students find the S.I.W.E.S.
experience to be invaluable. Today the program continues to evolve and adapt to the needs of

students and employers.

1.2 AIM OF SIWES

To expose students to professional work methods and ways of safeguarding the work

areas and students in industries and other organizations

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF S.I.W.E.S

The objectives of Student’s Industrial Work Experience Scheme are as follows:

 To prepare students for the job market

 To develop professional skills in students

 To foster a positive relationship between students and employers

 To help students identify their career interests and goals

 To expose students to work methods, ethics and technique in handling

equipment’s and machineries that are not available in their institutions.

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF SIWES

 It provides students with opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real life

situation.

 It exposes students to more practical work, methods and techniques

 It strengthens links between the employers, universities and the industrial training

fund(ITF)

 It also prepares the student for the labour market after graduation.
1.5 HISTORY OF EKITI STATE WATER COOPERATION

At its inception after the State creation in 1996 by Late Gen., Sani Abacha the then

Military Head of State, Ekiti State Water Corporation inherited eight Water Supply Schemes

from the former Ondo State. After the state creation, Igbara-Odo Water scheme was

constructed while Ado production capacity was increased to 10,000m3.

These are the schemes located within the boundaries of Ekiti State. As at today, the total

designed capacity of these schemes is 187,230 cubic metres per day. The inability to access

the potentials of the water schemes has been addressed through intervention by World Bank

and European Union in collaboration with Ekiti State Government. The end result of this, is

the restoration of production to almost full capacity at Ero, Little Osse and Ado water supply

schemes. With this, increase access to sustained supply of potable water is gradually coming

to reality in the state.

1.6 MISSION OF EKITI STATE WATER COOPERATION

To provide potable water and safe sewage services to the residents of urban areas and

small towns in Ekiti State at a sustainable price.

1.7 RESPONSIBILITY OF EKITI STATE WATER COOPERATION

The provision of water supply, sanitation, and wastewater services generates substantial

benefits for public health, the economy, and the environment. Benefits from the provision of

basic water supply and sanitation services such as those implied by the Millennium

Development Goals are massive and far outstrip costs. Benefit-to-cost ratios have been

reported to be as high as 7 to 1 for basic water and sanitation services in developing

countries. Wastewater treatment interventions can generate significant benefits for public
health, the environment, and certain economic sectors such as fisheries, tourism, and property

markets, although these benefits may be less obvious to individuals and more difficult to

assess in monetary terms.

Finally, protecting water resources from pollution and managing water supply and demand

in a sustainable manner can deliver clear and sizeable benefits for both investors in the

services and end water users. Investments in managing water for both investors in the

services and end water users. Investments in managing water resources are going to be

increasingly needed in the context of increasing water scarcity at the global level.

The full magnitude of the benefits of water services is seldom considered for several

reasons. Non-economic benefits that are difficult to quantify but that are of high value to the

concerned individuals and society, i.e. non-use values, dignity, social status, cleanliness, and

overall well-being are frequently underestimated. In addition, benefit values are highly

location-specific (depending on the prevalence of water-related diseases or the condition of

receiving water bodies, for example) and cannot be easily aggregated.

1.8 ORGANIZATIONAL CHART OF EKITI STATE WATER COOPERATION

 CHAPTER TWO

INTRODUCTION TO WATER

2.1 WHAT IS WATER?

Water is a chemical compound with chemical formula H2O, one molecule of water has

two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. Water is the most
 abundant chemical compound on the earth. It covers about 70% of the earth surface,

appears in nature in all three common matters (solid, liquid, gas) and takes many different

forms on earth: water vapour and cloud in the sky, seawater in the oceans, icebergs in the

polar regions, fresh and salt water lakes, rivers and aquifers in the ground. Water plays

an important role as a chemical substance. It’s much important function include

being a good solvent for dissolving many solid, serving as an excellent coolant both

mechanically and biologically and acting as reactants in many chemical reactions. It has a

faint blue colour which appears in a range volume of water.

2.2 TYPES OF WATER

There are basically two (2) types of water; Natural and Treated Water.

 NATURAL WATER: Natural water is obtained directly from underground sources

protected from pollution risks characterized by its content of certain mineral salt and

their relative proportion guarantees constancy of its composition and the stability of

its flow collected under condition which guarantee the original microbiological purity

and the chemical composition packed close to the point of emergence of the source

cannot be subjected to treatment (except for limited ones such as carbonation, iron or

manganese removal) may claim medicinal effects. This natural water includes, rain

water, spring water, well water, rivers and sea water.

 TREATED WATER: Treated water may originated from any type of water supply

(including municipal water) suggested to any treatment that modifies the original

water in order to comply with chemical, microbiological, and radiological

safety requirement for packed water. Treated water is the standard for emerging

countries where purity of water means above all safety.

2.3 SOURCES OF WATER

 There are three (3) major sources of water which include: 1. Rain water 2. Surface water

(Oceans, Rivers, Ponds, Dams, Lake, Streams) 3. Ground Water (Well, Springs)

2.3.1 RAIN WATER: Rain water is the prime source of all water. A part of the water

sinks into the ground to form ground water, part of it evaporates back into the atmosphere,

and some run off to form streams and rivers which flow ultimately into the sea.

2.3.2 SURFACE WATER: Surface water originates from rain water. It is main source of water

supply in most part of the world. Examples are river water, sea, lakes. Surface water is prone

to contamination from human and animal sources.

 Rivers: River water furnishes a dependable supply of water. The chief

drawback is that it is always grossly polluted and quite unfit for drinking without

treatment. It is turbid especially in rainy season which is as a result of impurities

derived from surface washing, sewage, industrial and trade washes, and drainage

from agricultural areas.

 Sea-water: Though this source is plentiful, it has many limitations. It contains

3.5% of salt in solution desalting and demineralization must occur for it to be potable

for drinking.

2.3.3 GROUND WATER: Ground water is the cheapest and most practical means of

providing water to small communities. Ground water can be taken without treatment because

it is likely to be free from pathogenic agents, these usually requires no purification, it is

less subject to contamination although with high mineral content like salts of calcium,

magnesium which increases hardness of water. Examples of ground water are springs and

wells.
  Spring water : It is cleaner than any other source of water. It contains a considerable

amount of mineral salt but very little suspended impurities such as dust and

bacteria. It is fit for human consumption.

 Well water: It contains clay and mineral salt. It is the major source of water in most

areas and communities. Well sunk for drinking purposes should be protected and dug

far away from underground pollution such as suck away. Water from deep well tends

to be less polluted than that of surface well.

2.4 USES OF WATER

Water as one of the basic need of life can be used for municipal and industrial

purposes such as:

 Water can be used to generate power.

 In transportation

 For industrial purposes.

 For fire extinction.

 For irrigation farming.

 As an essential nutrient for plant and animal.

 For manufacturing and production purposes.

 As a source of energy

2.5 CHEMISTRY OF WATER

The polarity of water: Water has a simple molecular structure. It is composed of one oxygen

atom and two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to the oxygen via a

shared pair of electrons. Oxygen also has two unshared pair of electrons, thus there are four

pair of electrons surrounding the oxygen atom, two pair involved in covalent bond with

hydrogen and two unshared pairs on the opposite side of the oxygen atom. Oxygen is an
electronegative or electron loving atom compared to hydrogen. Water is a polar molecule

meaning there is an uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial negative

charge near the Oxygen atom due to unshared pair of electrons and partial positive charge

near the Hydrogen atom.

Polarity of water

An electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charges near the hydrogen atoms

and the partial negative charge near the oxygen results in the formation of hydrogen bond.

The ability of ions and other molecules to dissolve in water is due to polarity. Many other

unique properties of water are due to hydrogen bonds. The boiling point of water (and other

liquids) is dependent on the biometric pressure. At sea level, water boils at 100oC (212oF).

The density of liquid water is 1000 kg/m3. The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98oC

(39.16oF). Most known pure substance become denser as they cool, however, water has

anomalous property of becoming less dense when it is cooled to its solid form (ice). During

cooling, water becomes denser until reaching 3.98oC.

2.6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

 One molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to single oxygen.
  Water is a tasteless, odorless and colourless transparent liquid at ambient

temperature and pressure.

 Liquid water has weak absorption bands at wavelengths of around 750nm which

causes it to appear to have blue colour.

 Water has a molar mass of 18.01528 g/mol.

 Water has a density of 1000kg/m3.

 Boiling point of 99.98◦C, melting point of 0◦C

2.7 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

 Water is a polar substance that at standard conditions slightly dissociates

disproportionately into hydronium ion and hydroxide ion.

2H2O →H3O+ + OH-

 Water acts as an acid when it reacts with ammonia by donating a proton

(H+) H2O + NH3 → NH4+ + OH-

 Water can act as Lewis acid or base, forming hydrogen bonds between the electron

pair donors and the hydrogen atoms of water.

i. Water molecule has the ability to bond with a proton making oxonium ion.

H+ + H2O. → H3O+

(Lewis acid) (Lewis base)

ii. Water molecule reacts with chlorine to produce equilibrium mixture of

hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid.

Cl2 + H2O → HCl. +. HOCl

(Lewis base) (Lewis acid)

  When salt of weak acid or weak base is dissolves in water, water can partially

hydrolyze the salt thereby producing the corresponding base or acid, and this

gives aqueous solutions of soap and baking soda their basic pH

Na2CO3 + H2O → NaOH + NaHCO3

 Reaction with metals to give alkaline and liberate hydrogen gas

2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 (g)

Water is categorized into two. These include soft and hard water due to the absence or

presence of magnesium or calcium ions respectively.

2.8 LABORATORY SAFETY RULE

Chemical reagent employed in the analysis are to be treated with utmost care and

suppliers warning sign like poison, danger, caution, flammable are needed in handling of

such chemicals. Laboratory test equipment should be operated and handled according to the

suppliers operating instructions. In addition the following laboratory safety rules and

regulations should be strictly adhering to;

 All laboratory staff should clean white laboratory coat

 Follow the laboratory procedure exactly as in the manual.

 Look carefully at the label of a bottle before using its content.

 Never pipette dangerous chemicals with mouth. Safety pipetting should be used

whenever possible.

 Replace the reagent bottles back to their correct positions as soon as you finish using

them. Examine all glassware before use and report any breakage of defects.

 Record your observation and reading accurately.

 Keep work place tidy. All apparatus and equipment used should be thoroughly

cleaned immediately after use.

 Any spillage should be clean.

 CHAPTER THREE

WATER TREATMENT PLANT

Water is an invaluable resource that sustains life, making access to clean and safe

drinking water a critical global concern. Water treatment plants play a vital role in ensuring

that the water we consume is free from contaminants and safe for public health. Their

significance in our lives cannot be overstated, because they hold the enormous responsibility

of purifying water from a multitude of sources, ranging from rivers and lakes to underground

aquifers. In doing so, they make sure to keep up with safety and quality that are set by

regulatory authorities, guaranteeing that the water we rely on for our daily needs meets the

highest purity standards.

A freshwater treatment plant is an infrastructure designed to purify and keep the quality

of water safe from various sources before it reaches our homes. They are equipped with

machinery, technologies, and treatment processes aimed at removing impurities,

contaminants, and microorganisms from raw water. Water treatment plants are important in

protecting public health, promoting environmental safety, and guaranteeing that clean and

drinkable water is available to all.

3.1 WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

The 5 major unit processes include chemical coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation,

filtration, and disinfection (described below). There are chemicals added to the water as it

enters the various treatment processes.

Step 1 Chemical Coagulation

The first chemical added is chlorine dioxide and it is an oxidant used to break down naturally

occurring organic matter such as decaying leaves and other plant material. A chemical

coagulant known as aluminum sulfate is used as the primary coagulant. A polymer, a long

chain of synthetic organic compounds, is also added to the water as a coagulant aid to help in

strengthening the primary coagulant’s bonding chains. The coagulants are added at the rapid

mix unit; this is a unit that creates turbulent mixing energies to help thoroughly disperse the

chemical coagulants into the raw water and to begin the coagulation process. The coagulants

that cause very fine particles to clump together into larger particles that can then be removed

later in the treatment process by settling, skimming, draining or filtering.

Step 2 Flocculation

The coagulated water then flows to the next major unit process, the flocculation process.

Flocculation is a slow stirring process that causes the small coagulated particles to form floc.

The flocculation process promotes contact between the floc particles and the

particulates(sediment) in the water. Generally, these contacts or collisions between particles

result from gentle stirring created by a mechanical or hydraulic means of mixing. There are

two sets of flocculation basins that contain mechanical mixing paddles that the water passes

through to gently stir the coagulated water. The floc formed creates a surface in which the

particulates in the water adsorb (adhere) to the surface of the floc thus forming larger

settleable particles for ease of removal by sedimentation and filtration.

Step 3 Sedimentation

The flocculated water then flows to the next major unit process, the sedimentation process.

The purpose of the sedimentation process is to remove suspended solids (particles) that are

denser (heavier) than water and to reduce the particulate load on the filters. Sedimentation is

accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the water being treated below the point where it

can transport settleable suspended material, thus allowing gravitational forces to remove

particles held in suspension. When water is almost still in sedimentation basins, settleable

solids will move toward the bottom of the basin. This process of sedimentation removes

almost ninety percent of the solids in the water. The clearer water on the surface is collected

in the launder tubes that direct the water to the filter gallery to remove the remaining ten

percent of solids.

Step 4 Disinfection

The settled water then flows from the Pre-Sedimentation Building to the Filtration Facility.

Before arriving at the Filtration Facility chlorine is added to the water at the pre-chlorination
point to begin the disinfection process. The disinfection process is designed to kill or

inactivate most microorganisms in water, including essentially all pathogenic organisms

whether they are from bacteria, viruses or intestinal parasites. Pathogenic organisms are the

microscopic bugs in the water that can cause waterborne diseases such as gastroenteritis,

typhoid, dysentery, cholera, and giardiasis.

Step 5 Filtration

The chlorinated settled water then flows into the Filtration Facility and onto the filters for the

last of the major unit processes used to treat the drinking water. Filtration is the process of

passing water through material such as a bed of coal, sand, or other granular substance to

remove particulate impurities that were not removed during the sedimentation process. The

water treatment plant uses rapid rate multi-media gravity filter beds. The filters are comprised

of a top layer of anthracite, a middle layer of filter sand and then a bottom layer of garnet

sand and one an underdrain system that collects the filtered water. The water enters on top of

the filter media and passes down through the filter beds by gravity. The different materials

work like a giant strainer and trap remaining particulates. When the filters start to get packed

full of particles, the operators clean them using a procedure called backwashing. Potable

water is run backwards through the filters releasing the entrapped particulates that are

collected in drain troughs. The backwash water is sent to the Backwash Recovery Pond and,

after a settling process, the backwash water is returned to the raw water settling pond for re-

use.
 Water treatment plant

3.2 CHEMICALS USED FOR WATER TREATMENT

Chemicals are essential in treating wastewater. In fact, wastewater treatment requires even

more aggressive chemicals than municipal drinking water treatment. Some of the chemicals

are;

1. Sodium Hydroxide: Neutralization is the adjustment of the pH levels of water. In

wastewater treatment, an acid or a base is added, depending on the pH level of the

water being treated. Usually, either sulfuric acid or a base chemical such as sodium

hydroxide is added to the water to achieve optimal pH balance.

2. Sulfuric acid: It can be used in water treatment to kill bacteria. When used in water

treatment, it can kill bacteria. In fact, a study published in the Journal of Water

Research found that sulfuric acid was capable of killing more than 99 percent of the

waterborne bacteria tested. Sulfuric acid is the most commonly used acid in the world.

It is frequently used to bring the pH level of wastewater back to normal.

3. Citric Acid: It is a weak organic acid. It is a natural preservative and excellent

chelating agent. It is used to remove limescale from boilers and evaporators and can

be used to soften water.

4. Chlorine dioxide: It is a gas and its one of the most common chemicals in water

treatment chemicals list. It is commonly used to disinfect drinking water. When used

in very small quantities to disinfect water, it is safe and does not lead to health risks.

But chlorine dioxide is a disinfectant similar to bleach.

5. Calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) and calcium oxide (quicklime) are chemicals

frequently used to raise the pH of raw water before the water is treated with alum or

ferric sulfates for coagulation/flocculation

6. Aluminium sulfate: It is used in water purification and for chemical phosphorus

removal from wastewater. It causes suspended impurities to coagulate into larger

particles and then settle to the bottom of the container (or be filtered out) more easily.

This process is called coagulation or flocculation.

7. Calcium hypochlorite: It is an inorganic compound added in granular or tablet form

added to water to kill germs that can make people sick. When used correctly, this

compound destroys germs that can cause numerous health problems.

 8. Polyaluminum Chloride (PAC): It is one of the most efficient water treatment

chemicals utilized today. It is widely used in both potable water and wastewater

treatment because it provides high coagulation efficiency and it has the widest pH and

temperature application ranges compared to other water treatment chemicals.

9. Sodium chloride: It is a naturally occurring mineral found in the earth and comes from

underground salt mines or solar evaporation ponds. It’s the most commonly used salt

in water softener brine tanks. When the brine solution containing sodium chloride

washes over the resin, the hard mineral ions in the water are replaced with sodium.

10. Potassium chloride :After nearly 20 years in the market, potassium chloride has

earned its place as a significant water softener regenerate. It adds healthful potassium

to the homeowner’s drinking water.

3.3 NEED FOR WATER PURIFICATION

Water is the most important compound on this planet; without water, everything would

cease to exist.71% of our planet is covered with water, and 96.5% of water comes from the

oceans, which is boldly stated as not fit for drinking. There are very few freshwater sources,

which in turn brings us back to the agenda of water purification.

 Most of the freshwater sources which we have does not provide us potable water, which

raises the question of identifying different techniques to make water more potable because,

according to our human organ system, we do need ultra-purified water for our body to

function well and be free from a deadly waterborne disease which can easily become life-

threatening.

Purified water not only keeps the gut healthy, but it also provides various benefits to our

skin, mind, and quality of life as well; it also prevents the passing of congenital disabilities to

our upcoming generation and strengthens our immune system as well. Water is the holy elixir

of life only when it is properly purified and is free from the deadly disease-causing

microorganisms.

3.4 HOW TO REMOVE ODOUR AND TASTE FROM WATER

A. Oxidation : In most cases, oxidation is the best method for controlling taste and odor

problems. Oxidation can be carried out with the following chemicals:

 Potassium permanganate, most often used and is a very strong oxidant. According to

the California Department of Health Services Water Treatment Plant Operation, a

dosage range of 0.1 to 0.5 mg/l can control taste and odor problems.

 Ozone is also effective oxidizing of taste and odor compounds. Ozone changes the

characteristics Of the taste and odor in addition to reducing the level of the odor-

producing compound. Ozone Dosages of 2 mg/l to 5 mg/1 have been used. Several

pilot studies have shown that the Combination of ozone and hydrogen peroxide may

be superior to the use of ozone alone.

 Chlorine dioxide or chorine are also effective methods of taste and odor control, but

use as a control chemical must be evaluated carefully due to the formation of THMs

and chlorophenol when organics are present.

B. Aeration : Aeration is a practical solution for taste and odor control when the problem

is caused by volatile compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide. It is generally not the best

method for controlling taste and odors that are caused by algae. (See Aeration

Chapter)

C. Adsorption : Adding powdered activated carbon to water or using of granular

activated carbon (GAC) in the water filter can remove taste and odor. Powdered

activated carbon (PAC) is the preferred method when the taste and odor is moderate

and infrequent.

Two basic types of PAC feed systems are dry storage and dry feeding. If the hourly

feed rate is less than 150 pounds, the feed system should be use a solution tank. If the

hourly feed rate exceeds 150 pounds, a slurry system should be considered. The

powdered activated carbon dosage will vary from 1 to 50 mg/l. A dosage of 25 mg/l is

Zconsidered by many industry experts to be the maximum dosage.

D. Granular activated carbon filters should be considered when moderate-to-severe taste

and odor Problems exist frequently. GAC is similar to normal filters; however, the bed

contact time is very important. The contact time should range from 3-to-10 minutes

for purposes of taste and odor control and the filter rate will range from 3 to 6

gpm/ft2. When the GAC is exhausted, the total volume of the bed must be replaced

with new or regenerated GAC, which can be created by heating and re-burning used

GAC to destroy the material it remove.

 CHAPTER FOUR

WATER QUALITY TESTS

4.1 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS FOR WATER QUALITY TEST

Water testing reagents are essential tools for analyzing water quality across various

applications. These specialized chemicals react with specific substances in water samples,

providing crucial data on contaminants, pH levels, hardness, and other parameters. From

environmental monitoring to ensuring safe drinking water, these reagents play a vital role in
maintaining public health and ecological balance. These include: Free & Total Chlorine, and

Chlorides. Nitrates, Nitrites, Free & Total Ammonia. BOD and COD.

Examples of reagents for water quality test

Many reagents come in powder form and require dissolving in a solvent. The most

commonly used solvents include distilled water, ethanol, or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). The

substance is added to the solvent and mixed until it is fully dissolved. Sometimes, dissolution

requires heating or stirring. Depending on the specific reagent and its use, the pH may need to

be controlled. A pH meter is used to measure the reagent’s pH, and acid or base is added until

the desired pH is achieved.

Some lab reagents need to be sterilised to prevent microbial contamination. This is

typically done by autoclaving or filtration and is particularly important in biological labs

where sterility is paramount. Finally, reagents must be stored under appropriate conditions

(temperature, light exposure, etc.) to maintain their integrity 3.

 Preparing reagents can be a time-consuming process, consisting of several steps that are

prone to human error. Key challenges with reagent preparation include precision,

contamination, stability, and safety.

4.2 INSTRUMENTS USED FOR WATER QUALITY TEST

1. Electrical conductivity meter: A conductivity meter is an instrument used to measure

the electrical conductivity of a liquid and is commonly used in the fields of water

quality monitoring, chemical processing, and environmental monitoring. It evaluates

the ionic concentration of a solution by measuring the ability of ions in a liquid to

conduct electricity, thereby determining the purity and concentration of the solution. A

conductivity meter usually consists

2. PH meter: Used to measure the pH of water to determine acidity or alkalinity. PH

meter usually use electrodes to detect the concentration of hydrogen ions in the water
3. Turbidity meter;Used to measure the turbidity of water, i.e. the amount and size of

suspended matter in the water. Turbidity meters assess the clarity of water by

scattering light.

4. Calorimeter: A colorimeter is an instrument that compares the amount of light getting

through a solution with the amount that can get through a sample of pure solvent.
5. Refractometer: It is a handy instrument that can be used to measure samples in a lab,

sugars in a food, composition of chemicals and control dilution in a water sample.

Refractometers use the refraction of light to measure the concentration of solutions

and include densitometers and saccharimeters.

6. Oven: it’s used for the heating of glassware at a very high range temperature above

1000c, mostly for sterilization and disinfection.

7. Autoclave: Is use for sterilization and disinfectant of glassware.

8. Furnace: Is use for heating at a very high temperature above 1000c for dry

sterilization.

9. Weighing balance: for the determination of actual volume of a sample to analyze.

10. Measuring cylinder: for the collection of actual volume require to analyze a given

sample.

11. Conical flask: is use for the collection of sample.

12. Pipette: is use for collection of sample in small quantity

4.3 QUALITY TEST

a. pH Testing Procedure

1. Rinse each test tube with the water sample. Gloves should be worn to avoid

skin contact with the water.

2. Fill the tube to the 5mL line with sample water.

3. While holding a dropper bottle vertically, add 10 drops of Wide Range

Indicator Solution.

4. Cap and invert several times to mix.

5. Insert the tube into the Wide Range pH Comparator. Hold the comparator up

to a light source. Match the sample color to a color standard.

6. Record the pH value.

7. Wash your hands

b. Nitrate Testing Procedure

1. Fill the sample bottle with sample water. Use gloves if drawing the sample by

hand.

2. Rinse and fill one test tube to the 2.5 mL line with water from the sample

bottle.

3. Dilute to the 5 mL line with the Mixed Acid Reagent. Cap and mix. Wait 2

minutes.

4. Use the 0.1 g spoon to add one level measure (avoid any 50-60 times in one

minute). Wait 10 minutes.

 5. Insert the test tube into the Nitrate Nitrogen Comparator. Match the sample

color to a color standard. Record the result as mg/L(ppm) Nitrate Nitrogen

(NO3-N). To convert to mg/Nitrate (NO3) multiply by 4.4.

6. Place the reacted sample in a clearly marked container. Arrangements should

be made with toxic material handlers for safe disposal. Please wash your

hands after this water test is completed.

c. Dissolved Oxygen Testing Procedure

If you have a barometer, record the atmospheric pressure. Remove the cap and

immerse the DO bottle beneath the river’s surface. Use gloves to avoid contact with

the river.

Allow the water to overflow for two to three minutes (This will ensure the elimination

of bubbles).

1. Make sure no air bubbles are present when you take the bottle from the

river.

2. Add 8 drops of Manganous Sulfate Solution and 8 drops of Alkaline

Potassium Iodide Azide.

3. Cap the bottle, making sure no air is trapped inside, and invert repeatedly

to fully mix. Be very careful not to splash the chemical-laden water. Wash

your hands if you contact this water. If oxygen is present in the sample, a

brownish-orange precipitate will form (floc). The first two reagents “fix”

the available oxygen.

4. Allow the sample to stand until the precipitate settles halfway. When the

top half of the sample turnS clear, shake again, and wait for the same

changes.
 5. Add 8 drops of Sulfuric Acid 1:1 Reagent. Cap and invert repeatedly until

the reagent and the precipitate have dissolved. A clear yellow to brown-

orange color will develop depending on the oxygen content of the sample.

6. Fill the titration tube to the 20 mL line with the “fixed”: sample and cap.

7. Fill the Direct Reading Titrator with Sodium Thiosulfate 0.025 N Reagent.

Insert the Titrator into the center hole of the titration tube cap. While

gently swirling the tube, slowly press the plunger to titrate until the

yellow-brown color is reduced to a very faint yellow.

8. If the color of the fixed sample is already a faint yellow, skip to step 10.

9. Remove the cap and Tritrator. Be careful not to disturb the Titrator

plunger, as the tiration begun in step 8 will continue in step 11.

10. Add 8 drops of Starch Indicator Solution. The sample should turn blue.

11. Replace the cap and Titrator. Continue titrating until the sample changes

from blue to a colorless solution. Read the test result where the plunger top

meets the scale. Record as mg/L (ppm) dissolved oxygen.

d. Free carbon test: It is carried out to know the amount of carbon present in the water

sample. Free carbon and water react chemically to produce carbonic acid, which is a

weak acid that stimulate the same nerve receptors in your mouth as mustard.

1. Measure 100ml of the sample using a measuring cylinder and transfer into a

beaker.

2. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein as indicator into the beaker and shake

carefully.

3. Titrate immediately with sodium hydroxide (NAOH) until a pink colour is

obtained.
 4. Record your reading and calculate the carbon content by multiplying the

result by 10.

Observation: The pH of carbonated water is 3-4, which means it is slightly acidic

and however drinking carbonated water does not make your body more acidic

because the kidney and lungs remove excess carbon dioxide which in turn keep

your blood at a slightly alkaline pH of 7.35-7 regardless of what we eat and drink.

The recommended Nigerian standard for drinking water quality maximum permissible level

(NSDWQ*MPL) range of alkaline in drinking water is 100mg/l and if the corresponding

value is above 100mg/l, it means the water is not safe for drinking and can pose a high risk to

the health

e. Total hardness (CaCO3) Total hardness test is carried out to know the amount of

CaCO3 and to also know how hard the water is.

1. Measure 100ml of water sample using the measuring cylinder and transfer it

into a beaker 2ml of buffer solution into the beaker.

2. Add few drops of Eriochrome black as indicator with ethylene dimethyl

tetraacetic acid (EDTA) until a blue color is obtained your reading.

3. Calculate the total hardness of the water sample by multiplying the result by

10.

Observation Recommended range of total hardness in drinking water is classified

in mg/l or ppm.

CLASSIFICATION MG/L OR PPM

 Soft 0-17

Slightly hard 17-60

Moderately hard 60-120

Hard 120-180

Very hard 180-----

f. Calcium test: This is carried out to know the amount of calcium present in the water

sample and it is achieved by titration.

1. Measure 100ml of water sample using a measuring cylinder and transfer it into

a beaker 2ml of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) into the beaker.

2. Add few drops of Murexide as indicator with ethylene dimethyl tetraacetic

acid (EDTA) until a purple color is obtained your reading and calculate the

calcium content present in the water sample by multiplying the result by 10.

Observation: The recommended Nigerian standard for drinking water quality

maximum permissible level (NSDWQ*MPL) range of calcium in drinking water is

75mg/l.

g. Chlorine test: This is carried out to know the quality, effectiveness and how good it is

when purchasing it.

1. Dissolve 1g of chlorine in 100ml of distilled water in a conical flask

3g of sodium thiosulphate in 125ml of distilled water in a conical flask

2g of potassium iodide 2g of starch in 50ml of distilled .

2. Measure 50ml of chlorine into a conical flask and add 2g of potassium iodide,

10ml of acetic acid and 25ml of distilled water against sodium thiosulphate
 until a wine color is observed your reading 2ml of starch and titrate against

sodium thiosulphate until the wine color changes. R

3. Record your reading.

4. Add the volume of the sample to the first and second readings together and

multiply 0 to get the percentage of chlorine.

4.5 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED The following problems during the course of the SIWES

program:

1. Power is not in constant supply

2. No enough materials for further research

3. Some of the instrument used were obsolete and worn out, and need to be

replaced. 4. Security challenge (insecurity).

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 RECOMMENDATION

Based on my experience during Industrial Training, I have the following

recommendations to make:

 Industrial training fund should carry-out constant monitoring and evaluation of

industries and industrial practices to ensure that obsolete equipment and techniques

are phased-out to give way to modern equipment and techniques so that graduates
 from Nigerian universities and other institution of higher learning can be at par

with their counterparts from any part of the world.

 Create competition among industries and also among IT students for the

purpose of stimulating critical thinking on ways to improve the current practice

as a way of inducing national development.

 Funding of research for the purpose of national development.

5.3 CONCLUSION

The scheme has helped a lot by bridging the gap between theory practices. As a result of

this scheme I have been acquainted with the use of certain machines and equipment on their

operation, how they are handled and maintained. The scheme has broadened my horizon on

the need for water treatment for domestic and industrial purposes. The Processes involved,

the chemicals used and how they are applied are silent knowledge gained as these will go a

long way in determining how pure the water is before being certified fit, potable for

drinking.

REFERENCES

CRITTENDEN, JOHN C, ET AL, EDS (2005) WATER TREATMENT: PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN. 2ND

EDITION. HOBOKEN, NJ: WILEY. ISBN 0-471-11018-3

CALORIMETER, RETRIEVED FROM

HTTPS://WWW.SCIENCEDIRECT.COM/TOPICS/ENGINEERING/COLORIMETER

DEBENEDETTI, P.G. (2001).WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT FIFTH EDITION.

DETERMINING WATER HARDNESS BY EDTA TITRATION

EDZWALD, JAMES K., ED. (2011) WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT 6TH EDITION. NEW

YORK: MCGRAW HILL. ISBN 978-0-07163011-5 FILTER BACKWASH RECYCLING RULE

ACCESSED 2021-10-20

GLEIK P.H. (2005). A GUIDE TO WORLD FRESH WATER RESOURCES, OXFORD

UNIVERSITY PRESS.

HERING J. G. AND ELIMELECH M., ARSENIC REMOVAL BY ENHANCED COAGULATION AND

MEMBRANE PROCESS. AWWA, DENVER, 1996. KAWAMURA, SUSUMU (2000), INTEGRATED

DESIGN AND OPERATION OF WATER TREATMENT FACILITIES 2ND EDITION. NEW YORK:

WILEY. PP74-75, 104. ISBN 0-471-35093-1

INSTRUMENT FOR CHEMICAL TESTING, RETRIEVED FROM:

HTTPS://APUREINSTRUMENT.COM/BLOGS/WHAT-IS-A-CONDUCTIVITY-METER/

MANAHAN, S. E.(2010) ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY,9TH EDITION, CRC PRESS, NATIONAL

PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS: FILTER BACKWASH RECYCLING RULE FEDERAL

REGISTER. PP. 66,111

PROCEDURE RETRIEVED FROM:

HTTPS://WWW.MSNUCLEUS.ORG/WATERSHEDS/CHEMICAL/PROCEDURE.HTM

REAGENT PREPARATION, RETRIEVED FROM: HTTPS://AUTOMATA.TECH/BLOG/PREPARING-

REAGENTS-WITH-AUTOMATION/#:~:TEXT=MANY%20REAGENTS%20COME%20IN

%20POWDER,DISSOLUTION%20REQUIRES%20HEATING%20OR%20STIRRING

REFRACTOMETER, RETRIEVED FROM: HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/REFRACTOMETER

SUFFREDINI, C. (1994). DETERMINING WATER HARDNESS BY EDTA TITRATION DAHLING, D.,

P.V SCARPINO, M. LUCAS, G. BERG AND S.L. CHANG (1972): DESTRUCTION OF VIRUSES

AND BACTERIA IN WATER BY CHLORINE.

WASHINGTON, D.C PP 26 ASHBOLT N.J, GRABOW WO, SNOZZI M. CHAPTER 13, INDICATORS

OF MICROBIAL WATER QUALITY. ASSESSING MICROBIAL SAFETY OF DRINKING WATER. PP.

290-315 WHO (2003) IRON IN DRINKING WATER.

WATER TREATMENT,RETRIEVED FROM: https://www.canoncity.org/180/Water-

Treatment-Plant-Process

WATER TREATMENT CHEMICALS, RETRIEVED FROM: https://araxchemi.com/en/watertreatment-

chemicals/

WATER PURIFICATION, RETRIEVED FROM: https://www.doctorfresh.in/blog/6/what-are-the-

needs-of-water-purification?srsltid=AfmBOoqE4IYYHKo-LlBTelLM4wB-

WatwYkRLRWKCSSDFDTvK6m9m7x-E

WATER TREATMENT DIAGRAM, RETRIEVED : HTTPS://WWW.GOOGLE.COM/SEARCH?

CLIENT=MS-

ANDROIDTRANSSION&SCA_ESV=28F8FAB5923385A6&SXSRF=ADLYWIJMIEBCJGIADT6WU

1P5VHOQYHW7G:1729014850284&Q=WATER+TREATMENT+PLANT+DIAGRAM&UDM=2&FBS

=AEQNM0AA4SJWE7RQY32PFWRJ0UKWD8NBOJFSBGGB5IQQO6L3JYJJCLJUZBPL12QJY

PX7ESJEHOBPS5JG6J88CCM-

RK72QUV4GOVBP3LXASC35PUAEUUGWSU7AHTUYDFRSMITMBH4ZQSLQ3QFXHBBJU

ELTFWMDAQ3LBBJ2JO6YUFRE3YYWQUWL_1XTJ3S0B82ITUPKDONO&SA=X&VED=2AH

UKEWILPTMFPCJAXXQXEEAHY1MJA4QTKGLEGQIGBAB&BIW=360&BIH=666&DPR=2#I

MGRC=AXLKJ2ODMQOU4M&IMGDII=62VH6F6WKKXFCM
UDOMA M (2005). THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CLEAN WATER PRODUCTION FOR

DOMESTICS ANDINDUSTRIALS USE, JOS, NIGERIAN.

BACKGROUND DOCUMENT FOR PREPARATION OF WHO GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING WATER;

GENEVA, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. (WHO/SDE?WSH/03.04/8) IPCS (2003).

ELEMENTAL MERCURY AND INORGANIC MERCURY COMPOUNDS HUMAN HEALTH ASPECT

GENEVA, WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL

SAFETY (50) RUSIN P.A ET AL. (1997): RISK ASSESSMENT OF OPPORTUNISTIC BACTERIAL

PATHOGENS IN DRINKING WATER. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND

TOXICOLOGY 152:57-83 GRABOW WOK (2001): BACTERIOPHAGES: UPDATES ON

APPLICATION AS MODELS OF VIRUSES IN WATER. 27:251-268