About Artificial Intelligence

➢Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to computer systems capable of performing complex tasks that
historically only a human could do, such as reasoning, making decisions, or solving problems.
➢Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing(changing) the way we interact with technology and
transforming various industries. At its core, artificial intelligence involves the development of computer
systems that can perform tasks typically requiring human intelligence.
➢Its is a branch of Computer science by which we can create an intelligent machine which can behave like a
human, think like human and able to make decisions
(if you are taking TV, Cell etc those all are preprogram you can create a machine with programmed
algorithm which can work with own intelligence)
➢AI do not need to preprogram the machine to do some work, You have to create a machine with
programmed algorithm which can work with own intelligence
( Eg : Artificial (man made) and Intelligence ( Thinking power))
➢This includes problem-solving, decision-making, language
understanding, and even visual perception. To grasp the artificial
intelligence definition, it’s essential to understand that AI encompasses
(surround) a range of technologies, from machine learning and neural
networks to natural language processing and robotics.
➢By exploring the artificial intelligence meaning, we can appreciate its
profound impact on our daily lives and its potential to drive innovation
in fields such as healthcare, finance, and transportation. Whether it’s
through smart assistants, automated customer service, or advanced
data analysis, artificial intelligence is paving the way for a smarter and
more efficient future.
 Foundations of Artificial Intelligence
• The foundation provides the disciplines(knowledge of subjects)that
contributed ideas , viewpoints and techniques to AI.
 Philosophy
➢Philosophy is the very basic foundation of AI (resoning + logical thinking)
➢The study of fundamental nature of knowledge (truth), reality and existence
are considered for solving a specific problem is basic thing in artificial
intelligence.
➢Philosophy defines that how can the formal rules be used to draw valid
conclusions
With out philosophy it is difficult to answer the following questions
➢How does mind arises from a physical brain?
➢How does the knowledge lead the action?
➢How does the mind arise from a physical brain?
➢(eg: All dogs are animals and all animals have 4 legs=> All dogs have 4 legs)
Mathematics
• AI required Formal Logic and Probability for planning and learning
• Computation required for analysing relation, and implementation.
• Knowledge in Formal Representation are most required for writing actions for
agents.
Economics

Deals with investing the amount of money and maximization of utility

with minimal investment.
While developing an AI product, we should make decisions for?
When to invest?
How to invest?
How much to invest? And
Neuroscience
➢ Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system,particularly the human brain.
➢Human brains are some how different, when compared to other creatures, man
has the largest brain in propotion to his size
➢The brain consisted largely of nerve cells, or neurons and the observation of
individual neurons can lead to thought, action, and consciousness of one’s brain.
Psychology
The scientific method to the study of human vision.
➢Problem solving skills,( how the human will take decisions in complex situation
➢How do people behave(how the people behave in unexpected situation)
➢Perceive (how do they observe the environment)
➢Represent Knowledge.
➢How do humans and animals think and act?
Computer Science Engineering
Logic and inference(conclusion) theory, algorithms , programming
languages, and system building are important parts of computer science
➢Computer hardware gradually changed for AI applications, such as the Graphics
processing unit(GPU),tensor processing unit(TPU),and wafer scale engine(WSE)
( Note : These GPU,TPU,WSE these processors are invented to solve very
complicated problems related to AI )
➢AI has founded many ideas in modern and mainstream computer science,
including..
➢Time sharing , interactive interpreters , personal computers with windows ,
rapid development environment and many more
➢How can we build fast and efficient computer?
Control Theory
Control theory helps the system to analyze , define(method), debug and fix
errors by itself.
➢Developing self-controlling machine, self-regulating feedback control systems
and the submarine(one type of communication cable) are some examples of
control theory.
➢Calculus and matrix algebra, and the tools of control theory, it provide
themselves to systems that are describable by fixed sets of continuous variables,
are Foundation of AI
➢By using control theory they are going to creating a robot that will fix all errors
by itself
Linguistics
➢Speech recognition is a technology which enables a machine to understand the
spoken language and translate into a machine readable format.
➢It is a way to talk with a computer and on the basis of that command, a computer
can perform a specific task.. which includes speech to text, text to speech
 HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for
researchers. This technology is much older than you would imagine. Even there are the
myths of Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and Egyptian Myths. Following are some
milestones in the history of AI which defines the journey from the AI generation to till
date development.
❑Maturation (growth) of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)
➢Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
➢Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the
connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
➢ Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered
Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to
exhibit(show) intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing
test.
The Birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)
• Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence
program “Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52
Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
• Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer scientist
John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic
field.
• At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL were invented.
And the zeal for AI was very high at that time.
The Golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)
• Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve
mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was
named as ELIZA.
• Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as
WABOT-1.
The first AI winter (1974-1980)
➢The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter
refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of
funding from government for AI researches.
➢During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.
A boom of AI (1980-1987)
➢Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert
systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human
expert.
➢In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial
Intelligence was held at Stanford University.
The second AI winter (1987-1993)
➢The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
➢Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost
but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.
The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)
▪ Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary
Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
▪ Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a
vacuum cleaner.
▪ Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like
Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.
Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)
Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it
had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it
could understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was
able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in
the infamous "Turing test.“

Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two
master debaters and also performed extremely well.

Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual

assistant and which had taken hairdresser appointment on call and lady on other
side didn't notice that she was talking with the machine.
 Agents and Environments
Agents in artificial intelligence, an agent is a computer program or
system that is designed to perceive(consider) its environment, make
decisions and take actions to achieve a specific goal or set of goals
Environment is the area around the agent that it interacts with. An
environment can be anything like a physical space, a room or a virtual
space like a game world or the internet.
1.Environment: Environment is the area around the agent that it interacts
with. An environment can be anything like a physical space, a room or a
virtual space like a game world or the internet.
2.Sensors: Sensors are tools that AI agent uses to perceive(recognize)
their environment. They can be any physical like cameras, microphones,
temperature sensors or a software sensor that read data from files.
3.Actuators: Actuators are tools that AI agent uses to interact with their
environment through some actions. They can be any physical actuators
like wheels, motors, robotic hands, or computer screens or they can be
software actuators that send messages.
4.Effectors: Effectors take instructions from decision making mechanism
and translates them into actions and these actions are performed
through actuators.
 The Concept of Rationality
Rationality means the ability to make decisions based on logical reasoning and
optimize behavior to achieve goals.
A rational agent in AI is an agent that performs actions to achieve the best possible
outcome based on its perceptions and knowledge.
It operates under the premise of rationality, where it consistently makes decisions
that maximize its expected utility or performance measure.
Rational agents can be found in various AI applications, including robotics,
automated trading systems, and decision support systems.

Components of a Rational Agent

A rational agent comprises several key components:
1.Perception: The ability to perceive the environment through sensors.
2.Knowledge Base: Information the agent has about the environment and itself.
3.Decision-Making Process: Algorithms and rules that guide the agent’s actions.
4.Action: The ability to perform actions that affect the environment through
actuators.
 The Nature of Environments
An environment in artificial intelligence is the surrounding of the
agent. The agent takes input from the environment through sensors and
delivers the output to the environment through actuators.
There are several types of environments:
➢Fully Observable vs Partially Observable
➢Deterministic vs Stochastic
➢Competitive vs Collaborative
➢Single-agent vs Multi-agent
➢Static vs Dynamic
➢Discrete vs Continuous
➢Episodic vs Sequential
➢Known vs Unknown
Fully Observable vs Partially Observable
➢When an agent sensor is capable to sense or access the complete state of an
agent at each point in time, it is said to be a fully observable environment else it
is partially observable.
➢Maintaining a fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to keep
track of the history of the surrounding.
➢An environment is called unobservable when the agent has no sensors in all
environments.
➢Examples:
• Chess – the board is fully observable, and so are the opponent’s moves.
• Driving – the environment is partially observable because what’s around the
corner is not known.
2. Deterministic vs Stochastic

➢When a uniqueness in the agent’s current state completely

determines the next state of the agent, the environment is said to be
deterministic.
➢The stochastic environment is random in nature which is not unique
and cannot be completely determined by the agent.
➢Examples:
• Chess – there would be only a few possible moves for a chess piece at the
current state and these moves can be determined.
• Self-Driving Cars- the actions of a self-driving car are not unique, it varies
time to time.
3. Competitive vs Collaborative

➢An agent is said to be in a competitive environment when it competes

against another agent to optimize the output.
➢The game of chess is competitive as the agents compete with each
other to win the game which is the output.
➢An agent is said to be in a collaborative environment when multiple
agents cooperate to produce the desired output.
➢When multiple self-driving cars are found on the roads, they cooperate
with each other to avoid collisions and reach their destination which is
the output desired.
4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

➢An environment consisting of only one agent is said to be a single-

agent environment.
➢A person left alone in a maze is an example of the single-agent
system.
➢An environment involving more than one agent is a multi-agent
environment.
➢The game of football is multi-agent as it involves 11 players in
each team.
5. Dynamic vs Static

➢An environment that keeps constantly changing itself when the agent is
up with some action is said to be dynamic.
➢A roller coaster ride is dynamic as it is set in motion and the
environment keeps changing every instant.
➢An idle environment with no change in its state is called a static
environment.
➢An empty house is static as there’s no change in the surroundings when
an agent enters.
6. Discrete vs Continuous

➢If an environment consists of a finite number of actions that can be

deliberated in the environment to obtain the output, it is said to be a
discrete environment.
➢The game of chess is discrete as it has only a finite number of moves.
The number of moves might vary with every game, but still, it’s finite.
➢The environment in which the actions are performed cannot be
numbered i.e. is not discrete, is said to be continuous.
➢Self-driving cars are an example of continuous environments as their
actions are driving, parking, etc. which cannot be numbered.
7.Episodic vs Sequential
➢In an Episodic task environment, each of the agent’s actions is
divided into atomic incidents or episodes. There is no dependency
between current and previous incidents. In each incident, an agent
receives input from the environment and then performs the
corresponding action.
➢Example: Consider an example of Pick and Place robot, which is used
to detect defective parts from the conveyor belts. Here, every time
robot(agent) will make the decision on the current part i.e. there is no
dependency between current and previous decisions.
➢In a Sequential environment, the previous decisions can affect all
future decisions. The next action of the agent depends on what action
he has taken previously and what action he is supposed to take in the
future.
➢Example:
➢Checkers- Where the previous move can affect all the following moves.
8. Known vs Unknown

In a known environment, the output for all probable

actions is given. Obviously, in case of unknown environment, for
an agent to make a decision, it has to gain knowledge about how
the environment works.
Structure of Agent
To understand the structure of Intelligent Agents, we should
be familiar with Architecture and Agent programs.
Architecture is the machinery that the agent executes on.
It is a device with sensors and actuators, for example, a robotic car, a
camera, and a PC.
An agent program is an implementation of an agent function.
An agent function is a map from the percept sequence(history of all
that an agent has perceived to date) to an action.

• Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

Characteristics of an Agent
Types of Agents
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of
perceived intelligence and capability :

➢Simple Reflex Agents

➢Model-Based Reflex Agents

➢Goal-Based Agents

➢Utility-Based Agents
Simple Reflex Agents
Simple reflex agents ignore the rest of the percept history and act only on the
basis of the current percept. Percept history is the history of all that an agent
has perceived to date. The agent function is based on the condition-action rule.
A condition-action rule is a rule that maps a state i.e., a condition to an
action. If the condition is true, then the action is taken, else not.
This agent function only succeeds when the environment is fully
observable.
For simple reflex agents operating in partially observable environments,
infinite loops are often unavoidable.
It may be possible to escape from infinite loops if the agent can randomize
its actions.
Problems with Simple reflex agents are :
• Very limited intelligence.
• No knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the state.
• Usually too big to generate and store.
• If there occurs any change in the environment, then the collection of rules
needs to be updated.
Simple Reflex Agent
Model-Based Reflex Agents
It works by finding a rule whose condition matches the current
situation. A model-based agent can handle partially observable
environments by the use of a model about the world.
The agent has to keep track of the internal state which is adjusted
by each percept and that depends on the percept history.
The current state is stored inside the agent which maintains some
kind of structure describing the part of the world which cannot be seen.
Updating the state requires information about:
• How the world evolves independently from the agent?
• How do the agent’s actions affect the world?
Model-Based Reflex Agent
Goal-Based Agents

➢These kinds of agents take decisions based on how far they are
currently from their goal(description of desirable situations).
➢Their every action is intended to reduce their distance from the goal.
This allows the agent a way to choose among multiple possibilities,
selecting the one which reaches a goal state.
➢ The knowledge that supports its decisions is represented explicitly
and can be modified, which makes these agents more flexible.
➢They usually require search and planning. The goal-based agent’s
behavior can easily be changed.
Goal-Based Agent
Utility-Based Agents
➢The agents which are developed having their end uses as building
blocks are called utility-based agents.
➢When there are multiple possible alternatives, then to decide which
one is best, utility-based agents are used.
➢They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state.
Sometimes achieving the desired goal is not enough.
➢We may look for a quicker, safer, cheaper trip to reach a destination.
Agent happiness should be taken into consideration.
➢Utility describes how “happy” the agent is. Because of the uncertainty
in the world, a utility agent chooses the action that maximizes the
expected utility.
➢ A utility function maps a state onto a real number which describes the
associated degree of happiness.
Utility-Based Agent
 Problem Solving Agents
In artificial intelligence, a problem-solving agent refers to a type
of intelligent agent designed to address and solve complex
problems or tasks in its environment.
These agents are a fundamental concept in AI and are used in
various applications, from game-playing algorithms to robotics
and decision-making systems.
Here are some key characteristics and components of a problem-
solving agent:
Characteristics and components of a problem-solving agent
1.Perception: Problem-solving agents typically have the ability to perceive or
sense their environment. They can gather information about the current
state of the world, often through sensors, cameras, or other data sources.
2.Knowledge Base: These agents often possess some form of knowledge or
representation of the problem domain. This knowledge can be encoded in
various ways, such as rules, facts, or models, depending on the specific
problem.
3.Reasoning: Problem-solving agents employ reasoning mechanisms to
make decisions and select actions based on their perception and
knowledge. This involves processing information, making inferences, and
selecting the best course of action.
4.Planning: For many complex problems, problem-solving agents engage in
planning. They consider different sequences of actions to achieve their
goals and decide on the most suitable action plan.
5.Actuation: After determining the best course of action, problem-
solving agents take actions to interact with their environment. This can
involve physical actions in the case of robotics or making decisions in
more abstract problem-solving domains.

6.Feedback: Problem-solving agents often receive feedback from their

environment, which they use to adjust their actions and refine their
problem-solving strategies. This feedback loop helps them adapt to
changing conditions and improve their performance.

7.Learning: Some problem-solving agents incorporate machine

learning techniques to improve their performance over time. They can
learn from experience, adapt their strategies, and become more efficient
at solving similar problems in the future.
 Problem formulation
It is all about deciding what action and states to be consider
Example:

10
X Y

A Z
8
▪ Agent sensor give it enough information to tell exactly which states it is in currently.
▪ It knows exactly what each of its action does
▪ Then it can calculate exactly which state it will be in after any sequence of action.
 Problem Formulation
➢Initial State: This state requires an initial state for the problem which starts the AI agent towards a
specified goal. In this state new methods also initialize problem domain solving by a specific class.

➢Action: This stage of problem formulation works with function with a specific class taken from the
initial state and all possible actions done in this stage.

➢Transition: This stage of problem formulation integrates the actual action done by the previous action
stage and collects the final stage to forward it to their next stage.

➢Goal test: This stage determines that the specified goal achieved by the integrated transition model or
not, whenever the goal achieves stop the action and forward into the next stage to determines the cost
to achieve the goal.

➢Path costing: This component of problem-solving numerical assigned what will be the cost to achieve
the goal. It requires all hardware software and human working cost.
 Searching for solutions
• Based on the search problemswe can classify