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MIND ON STATISTICS
VIII CONTENTS

6.4 Expected values, standard deviations, medians, quartiles and percentiles of

random variables ..................................................................................................................... 212
6.5 Parameters and estimates ...................................................................................................... 217
6.6 Three special distributions ...................................................................................................... 218
Case study 6.2 Does caffeine enhance the taste of cola? 222
6.7 Normal probability plots.......................................................................................................... 230
CHAPTER 7 Estimating proportions with confidence 247
7.1 Percentages and proportions abound .................................................................................... 248
7.2 Confidence intervals for proportions ...................................................................................... 253
Case study 7.1 How many passersby would notice this? 257
7.3 Confidence intervals for the difference in two proportions .................................................. 260
7.4 Sample size to estimate a proportion..................................................................................... 265
7.5 Background for confidence intervals for proportions ........................................................... 268
7.6 Confidence intervals and decisions ........................................................................................ 274
CHAPTER 8 Analysis of variance: categorical predictors, continuous
response 285
8.1 Examples of data investigations that include continuous responses and
possible categorical explanatory variables ............................................................................ 286
8.2 One-way ANOVA ....................................................................................................................... 287
8.3 Assumptions and diagnostics for ANOVA............................................................................... 294
8.4 Multiple comparisons .............................................................................................................. 300
8.5 Two-way ANOVA ....................................................................................................................... 303
8.6 More on continuous response and categorical explanatory variables ................................. 312
8.7 Other methods for investigating effects of a categorical variable on a
continuous variable .................................................................................................................. 314
8.8 Models, notation and calculations for ANOVA........................................................................ 318
CHAPTER 9 Regression: investigating relationships between
quantitative variables 351
9.1 Some examples of data investigations that include continuous responses and
quantitative explanatory variables .......................................................................................... 352
9.2 Simple linear regression ......................................................................................................... 354
9.3 Messages from residuals ........................................................................................................ 366
 CONTENTS IX

9.4 Multiple regression .................................................................................................................. 375

Case study 9.1 Weights and lengths of fish (Example 9.4) 380
Case study 9.2 Experience counts 381
Case study 9.3 Can we predict secondhand car prices? 383
9.5 Some formulae in regression.................................................................................................. 386
CHAPTER 10 Interval estimation and quantitative variables 409
10.1 Sample statistics as estimates ............................................................................................... 410
10.2 Confidence interval for the mean of a quantitative variable ................................................. 419
10.3 Interval estimates for the median........................................................................................... 423
10.4 Confidence interval for difference between two means........................................................ 426
Case study 10.1 Confidence interval for relative risk 438
10.5 Tolerance intervals for individual values................................................................................ 438
10.6 Confidence interval for a standard deviation ......................................................................... 440
10.7 Sample size required to estimate a mean with a desired precision .................................... 442
CHAPTER 11 Testing hypotheses in one and two samples 455
11.1 Overview of statistical hypothesis testing............................................................................... 456
11.2 Testing hypotheses about a proportion .................................................................................. 465
11.3 Testing hypotheses about the difference in two proportions................................................ 471
11.4 Connection with testing independence in contingency tables .............................................. 476
11.5 Testing hypotheses about one mean ...................................................................................... 478
11.6 Testing hypotheses about the mean of paired differences ................................................... 482
11.7 Testing hypotheses about the difference between two means ............................................. 483
11.8 Non-parametric tests and medians........................................................................................ 487
11.9 Tests for one or two standard deviations ............................................................................... 494
11.10 The relationship between tests and confidence intervals ................................................... 497
11.11 t-tests and ANOVA: correspondences and pitfalls of t-testing in real investigations ....... 499
Case study 11.1 Dissolving times for soluble aspirin 501
11.12 The rejection region approach to hypothesis testing........................................................... 501
11.13 Sample size, statistical significance, practical importance and effect size....................... 507
CHAPTER 12 More on probability, random variables and distributions 529
12.1 Foundations for probability.................................................................................................... 530
12.2 Probability rules ..................................................................................................................... 534
X CONTENTS

12.3 Independence and conditional probability ............................................................................ 538

12.4 Using conditional probabilities .............................................................................................. 543
12.5 Bayes’ theorem....................................................................................................................... 546
Case study 12.1 The Punjabi drug addict report 549
12.6 Continuous distributions ........................................................................................................ 550
12.7 A very special process: the Poisson...................................................................................... 556
CHAPTER 13 Sums and differences of random variables 569
13.1 Examples for which this chapter is needed.......................................................................... 570
13.2 Sums and differences of two random variables................................................................... 571
13.3 Means and variances of linear combinations of random variables .................................... 575
Case study 13.1 Variation in a process 577
13.4 Linear combinations of normal random variables............................................................... 578
13.5 Sums of some other independent random variables........................................................... 581
13.6 The sample mean and the central limit theorem ................................................................ 582
13.7 Combining ‘errors’ ................................................................................................................. 585
CHAPTER 14 Some further data situations 593
14.1 Binary logistic regression ...................................................................................................... 594
14.2 Failure and survival data........................................................................................................ 599
Appendix A: Appendix of tables 620
Appendix B: Answers to selected questions 629
Appendix C: References 636
Index 638
PREFACE
From students – for students
Many thousands of students from across many disciplines have contributed to this book. Their
questions, writings, comments, feedback, assessment responses and reports have helped shape
the way it is organised, the approaches to learning, the styles of explanations and the design of the
examples and exercises. Many of the examples and rich datasets have come from students’ own
data investigations planned and carried out by groups on freely chosen topics or issues of interest
to them. Because the vignettes, examples and exercises use real data and/or real contexts, all the
vignettes and almost all examples are essentially case studies. The vignettes and the returns to
vignettes at the end of each chapter are particularly designed not only to bring statistics to life for
students but also to bring together the key concepts, messages and procedures of each chapter in
real contexts of interest to all students and across a variety of disciplines.
Questions and feedback from past students, graduates in diverse workplaces and postgraduate
students in disciplines ranging across science, engineering, health, information technology,
education, social sciences and business have also influenced the structure, language,
explanations, examples and exercises. Last, but not least, the approaches throughout the book are
permeated by students’ reactions as they plan, explore, analyse, problem-solve and discover that
statistics is accessible, powerful, and even exciting, as well as important for them personally now
and in their future.

From staff – for staff

The book is also the product of working with many staff as a team member, leader or mentor,
particularly staff who work at the coalface with students, and of extensive discussion with
colleagues of all levels of experience across Australia, New Zealand and the world. Comments,
suggestions and requests from a wide range of reviewers have been carefully studied and
integrated in a balanced and systematic way.
Feedback from students across disciplines from the least to the most quantitative, including
statistical graduates and postgraduates, is that the approaches of this book gave them a lasting
and enabling foundation in core statistical thinking. Courses or symposia for postgraduates from
MBA’s to researchers in all other disciplines have successfully used the strategies of this book.
Feedback from staff is that the approaches are enablers for their teaching, helping them to reduce
the pressures often associated with teaching statistics, to connect with their students and make
the essence of statistics live and meaningful. The emphases are on learning by doing; on developing
understanding of concepts and processes through examples in contexts of familiarity or relevance;
on step-wise progression but at the instructor’s choice; on flow within, and connections across,
material; on straightforward language and exposition but without trivialisation; and on flexibility for
both students and instructors to cater for a variety of students, courses, practical constraints and
learning preferences.
XII PREFACE

Using this book

The book is structured to cater for different choices in sequencing and extent of material, and for
different types of cohorts and different amounts of time available for a course. It is expected that a
single course would select from the topics in the book, but the intent is to provide choice and
coverage for introductory courses across a variety of types of cohorts and disciplines, with
sufficient content for revisiting or use beyond a first course. Although topics, examples, case
studies and exercises are cross-referenced, the book is sufficiently modularised to facilitate various
sequencing of material with good flow within and between chapters. In addition, material within
chapters is arranged to facilitate choices in the extent of material to be covered, with sections on
core topics followed by sections that can be omitted or partially selected by an instructor, or read
or revisited by students, to broaden or develop a topic.
Chapter 1 consists of real examples that illustrate the roles of statistics in tackling complex
problems in complicated contexts; it can be used as optional background reading or to lead into
discussion of key points.
Sections 2.1 to 2.3 are of core importance for statistical thinking reflecting the practice of
statistics. Sections 2.4 to 2.7 may be selectively chosen to receive more emphasis or even extension
in some courses, or to be background reading. Most introductory statistics courses would include
all of Chapter 3, and Sections 4.1 to 4.4 of Chapter 4, with an emphasis on revision and
consolidation of statistics from today’s school curricula. Sections 4.5 and 4.6 are new in this
edition, providing an optional introduction to the core inferential concepts of interval estimation
and hypothesis testing. Only the motivation for, and interpretation of, interval estimates are
presented, and simple randomisation tests illustrate the essential concepts of statistical
hypothesis testing – the emphasis on turning research questions into statistical questions
pervades the book.
It is after Chapter 4 that this book differs considerably from conventional approaches, not only
in the sequence as presented in the book, but in the variety of choices and options open to readers
and courses. The sequence as presented in Chapters 5–11 has been developed and successfully
implemented in courses built around hands-on learning of statistical data investigations, for large
student cohorts diverse in interests and attitudes, catering for quantitative inclinations ranging
from the mathematically averse to the mathematically able. But the book is written to optimise
freedom of choice in both order of progression and depth of coverage. To facilitate user
preferences and course selections, core concepts in data investigations, interval estimation and
statistical hypothesis testing are included in different contexts, providing consolidation no matter
what sequencing is preferred. Chapters 12 and 13 may be included in courses for more
quantitative cohorts or left for future courses. Similarly, it may be desired to include the further
procedures of either of Sections 14.1 and 14.2 in more extensive courses for particular disciplines.
Just some examples of the many other choices of sequences, with inclusion or not of chapters
and sections, are:

• Chapters 6, 7, 10, 11, 5, with the choice of omitting some of the later sections of some chapters,
and then continuing to Chapters 8 and/or 9 in either order.

• The above could be varied by moving Chapter 5 to before Chapter 10 or after Chapters 8 and/or
9 if desired.
 PREFACE XIII

• Chapter 12 could be included after Chapter 6 in either the original sequence or in the sequences
above.

• Chapters 6 and 9, preceded by either (Sections 4.5 and 4.6), or (Sections 10.1–10.4 and Sections
11.1, 11.5–11.7), could be followed by Section 14.1.

• Section 14.2 could be preceded by Chapter 6, and either (Sections 4.5 and 4.6), or (Sections 10.1–
10.4 and Sections 11.1, 11.5–11.7), and Chapter 12.

It should be noted that introducing statistical inference via categorical data, with hypothesis
testing as in Chapter 5, and interval estimation as in Chapter 7, has proven remarkably successful
for all disciplines and quantitative inclinations or non-inclinations.

New to this edition

New features in this edition include:

• Each chapter starts with a rich vignette of universal interest, which is revisited at the end of the
chapter as a case study illustrating the material of the chapter.
• The Keep in mind feature captures core concepts, results and procedures.

• The Mind your step feature provides cautions and pointers to common mistakes or
misunderstandings.

• The Signposts at the beginning of each chapter outline what will be covered by each section.
• An extensive Key terms glossary has been added to each chapter, to maximise student
understanding of the key terms as they appear within each chapter of the book.
• Sections 4.5 and 4.6 have been added as described above, and are also intended to optimise
flexibility.
• The number of available datasets has been considerably increased.

• As well as the addition of vignettes, examples have been updated to include new scenarios and
data.
• The Bringing minds together feature replaces ‘For discussion’.

• Correspondence of exercises to sections is indicated.

In addition, all the text has been carefully examined and modified in the light of reviewers’
comments and to enhance reader-friendly exposition, accessibility of concepts and language, as
well as progression and flexibility. For example, the former Section 4.5 has (mostly) moved to
become Section 6.5. The alternative procedures in Chapter 7 are now mentioned only at the
chapter’s end. In Chapter 10, Section 10.1 discusses sample statistics generally, and non-
parametric procedures have their own section. More of the sections which provide background or
may be chosen to be omitted are moved further to the end of chapters. The large number of
exercises has been retained.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to all the colleagues in Australia, New Zealand, UK, South Africa, Canada, USA and
elsewhere internationally, who have used or commented on my materials and strategies, and with
whom I have shared many discussions on the never-ending challenges, fascinations and
richnesses of teaching, learning and students in statistics. Thanks to the Australian and New
Zealand statistical education communities for their initiatives and dedication in statistics
education. Thanks to all lecturing and tutoring staff who have worked with me at a number of
universities and who care passionately about helping students’ learning in statistics.
Thanks to Jessica Utts and Robert Heckard for the spirit of their book and the opportunity to
build on that spirit.
Thanks to all the reviewers and colleagues who have provided valuable feedback and comments –
both general and detailed – on the book. Your efforts and dedication are much appreciated.
Thanks to the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC) for the many and far-reaching
opportunities given to me by the award of a national Senior Teaching Fellowship, and the
subsequent support as an ongoing Fellow.
Thanks to the thousands of students who worked with commitment in their statistics courses,
and who developed statistical understanding, confidence and appreciation of the importance and
power of statistical thinking beyond their expectations. Their enthusiasm and teamwork in their
data investigations and problem-solving and their willingness to share their thoughts with me
have contributed to my ongoing learning in understanding students’ learning in statistics.
Thanks to the judges of the Australian Educational Publishing Awards for their comments in
awarding the first edition a joint winner in the 2011 Tertiary Education Awards – Teaching and
Learning category (Adaptation).
My sincere appreciation and gratitude to Fiona Hammond, Emily Spurr, Kylie McInnes,
Michaela Skelly, Greg Alford and the staff of Cengage, without whom this book could not, and
would not, have been written. Finally, my thanks and gratitude to my family for their ongoing
support, encouragement and patience, especially Bernie, Bryony and Jen.
The authors and Cengage Learning would also like to thank the following reviewers for their
incisive and helpful feedback:

• Patricia van den Nieuwenhuijzen, ANU

• Raymond Summit, Deakin University

• Irene David, University of Canterbury

• Judi McWhirter, Waikato University

• Di Warren, University of Sydney

• Jason Hay, Griffith University

• Fiona Kate Barlow, University of Queensland

• Gareth Evans, The University of Queensland

• Bronwen Whiting, ANU
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XV

• Carmel Coady, University of Western Sydney

• Maureen Townley-Jones, University of Newcastle

• Peter Petocz, Macquarie University

• Phillip Rayment, Monash University

• Sharon Gunn, University of Melbourne and several other anonymous reviewers.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Helen MacGillivray
Helen’s university teaching and curriculum design experience extends across many areas of
statistical sciences and their applications, across all levels of subjects, all class sizes and most
disciplines. Her work has received support through many national or university grants, including a
national (ALTC) leadership grant and one of the first national (ALTC) Senior Fellowships. She has
published widely, including textbooks, book chapters and more than 80 refereed, keynote or
invited papers, and delivered approximately 100 local, national or international presentations and
workshops on learning, teaching and assessment in statistics and quantitative learning support.
Helen was the first female President and the first female Honorary Life Member of the
Statistical Society of Australia Inc. (SSAI), and is now a Vice-President of the International
Statistical Institute. She is a past president of the International Association for Statistical
Education, a Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society, and has also been President of the Australian
Mathematical Sciences Council, Board member of the Federation of Australian Scientific and
Technological Sciences and a member of the Institutional Grants Committee of the ARC. She is
joint chair and editor of OZCOTS, the Australian Conference on Teaching Statistics, and member
of the International Programme Executives for both the 8th and 9th International Conferences on
Teaching Statistics. She has been a member of the organising or editorial committees for many
conferences, including World Statistics Conferences, Australian Statistics Conferences, Southern
Hemisphere Conferences on Undergraduate Mathematics and Statistics Teaching and Learning,
and Australasian Engineering Education Conferences. She has chaired reviews of university
departments and centres, and worked as a consultant on teaching statistics in Australian
universities, and with the Royal Statistical Society Centre in Statistical Education and the UK
Learning and Teaching Support Network for Mathematics, Statistics and OR. She is also currently
Australian representative on the editorial board of the journal Teaching Statistics.
Helen has played key roles in mathematics and statistics school education with the Queensland
Studies Authority, the Australian national curriculum and the Australian Mathematical Sciences
Institute’s TIMES project. This has included work on syllabus committees, state panels, core skills
scrutineering and as a statistical adviser in research and moderation. She has given many
professional development workshops for teachers, and a variety of successful extension and
enrichment programs in mathematics and statistics for high school students.

Jessica M Utts
Jessica Utts is a Professor of Statistics at the University of California at Irvine, previously at Davis
where she joined the faculty in 1978. She received her BA in Math and Psychology at SUNY
Binghamton, and her MA and PhD in Statistics at Penn State University. She is the author of Seeing
Through Statistics (3rd edition, 2005) and the co-author with Robert Heckard of Statistical Ideas and
Methods (1st edition, 2006) both published by Duxbury Press, an imprint of Cengage Learning. She is
also the Editor-in-Chief of CYBERSTATS, an interactive online introductory statistics course.
Jessica has been active in the statistics education community at the high school and college level.
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS XVII

She served as a member and then chaired the Advanced Placement Statistics Development
Committee for six years, and was a member of the American Statistical Association task force that
produced the GAISE (Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education)
recommendations for Elementary Statistics courses. She is the recipient of the Academic Senate
Distinguished Teaching Award and the Magnar Ronning Award for Teaching Excellence, both at
the University of California at Davis. She is also a Fellow of the American Statistical Association,
the Institute of Mathematical Statistics and the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. Beyond statistics education, Jessica’s major contributions have been in applying statistics
to a variety of disciplines, most notably to parapsychology, the laboratory study of psychic
phenomena.

Robert F Heckard
Robert Heckard is a Senior Lecturer in Statistics at the Pennsylvania State University where he has
taught for over 30 years. He has taught introductory and intermediate applied statistics to more
than 15 000 college students. Bob has been awarded several grants to develop multimedia and
web-based instructional materials for teaching statistical concepts. He is the co-author of Statistical
Ideas and Methods (1st edition, 2006) and is a co-author of CYBERSTATS, a web-based introductory
course. As a consultant, he is active in the statistical analysis and design of highway safety
research and has frequently been a consultant in cancer treatment clinical trials.
RESOURCES GUIDE

As you read this text you will find a number of features to enhance your study of
statistics and help you understand its applications. We have added a number of new
features, based on your feedback, to help you navigate through the text and find what
is most important. These features are indicated by the new to this edition! icon. NEW TO TH
EDITIO IS
N!

CHAPTER 2 GATHERING AND PREPARING USEFUL DATA 55

Fairfax/Steven Siewert

Using the past as a source of data

If at all possible, prospective studies should be used. That is not always possible. For example,
researchers who first considered the potential causes of AIDS or toxic-shock syndrome had to start
with those who were ill and try to find common factors from their pasts. If possible, retrospective
studies should use authoritative sources such as medical records rather than relying on memory.
However, as with other examples, the key is to be aware of the possibilities of the context. Often
this may mean including other variables in the study.

WHERE DID THE CANCER COUNCIL’S DATA COME FROM?

EXAMPLE 2.10
In November 2009, the Cancer Council of Australia marked the start of a National Skin Cancer Action week with a video and Do left-handers die young?
pictures that graphically depicted the dangers of tanning (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼QlcTDHvbvIs&noredirect¼1). Some years ago, a highly publicised study pronounced that left-handed people did not live as long as right-
The campaign used a picture of 1700 beach towels stretched out on Sydney’s Bondi beach, each with a chalk outline of a handed people (Coren and Halpern, 1991). In one part of the study, the researchers had sent letters to next of
‘victim’ to represent the 1700 Australians who, according to the Cancer Council, die of skin cancer each year in Australia. The kin for a random sample of recently deceased individuals, asking which hand the deceased had used for writing,
data prompting this campaign, and a range of news and web items since, came from the 2006–2007 National Sun Protection drawing and throwing a ball. They found that the average age of death for those who had been left-handed was
Survey (http://annualreview.cancer.org.au/2008-09/ReducingTheImpact/ReducingRisk/ReducingSkinCancer/SunSurveyResults.htm). 66, while for those who had been right-handed, it was 75.
This second National Sun Protection Survey aimed to investigate people’s behaviour and attitudes to sun protection, including What the researchers failed to take into account was that in the early part of the 20th century, many
whether people get sunburnt or attempt to tan. New Zealand’s SunSmart organisation also runs a National Sun Protection Survey, children were forced to write with their right hands, even if their natural inclination was to be left-handed.
and has been doing so since 1994. New Zealand’s Sunsmart website (http://sunsmart.org.nz/) says: ‘New Zealand has the Therefore, people who died in their 70s and 80s during the time of this study were more likely to be right-
handed than were those who died in their 50s and 60s. The confounding factor of how long ago one learned to
highest rate of melanoma skin cancer in the world. But the good news is it’s easy to reduce your chances of developing skin
write was not taken into account. A prospective study, following current left- and right-handers to see which
cancer – you only have to be SunSmart – Slip, Slop, Slap and Wrap!‘ Compare this with Australia’s slogan since 2007 ‘Slip, Slop,
group survived longer, would have enormous practical difficulties; the participants could well outlive the
Slap, Seek, Slide’. researchers!
The difficulties in asking questions relating to people’s behaviour are that behaviour tends to vary from day to day and
depends on many individual influences. How does the Cancer Council collect their data so that they can defend the statistics
they quote? Interpretations of questions can also cause problems. For example, a question such as ‘do you wear a hat when
outside in summer?’ is too vague to enable consistent, comparable replies across respondents. Is there evidence that people
tend to heed the messages in the Cancer Council’s campaigns? Are adults different to teenagers? WHERE DID THE CANCER COUNCIL’S DATA COME FROM?

This example is revisited

The beginning of this chapter describes some of the behaviour are that behaviour tends to vary from day
work of the Australian Cancer Council and New to day and to depend on many individual influences.
Zealand’s Sunsmart in providing advice, conducting Interpretations of questions can also cause
campaigns and collecting data on attitudes to problems.
NEW
protection from the harmful effects of the sun.
Clearly the type of investigation to obtain such data
is a survey, so how do they conduct it and what
The Australian National Sun Protection Survey
of 2006–2007 was the second such survey; the first
was conducted in 2003–2004. The study was funded
TO TH
EDITIO IS
in the return to vignette
N!
difficulties are encountered?
The National Sun Protection Survey investigates
people’s sun-related knowledge, attitudes and
by the Cancer Council Australia and the Australian
Government through Cancer Australia. The 2006–
2007 survey was carried out by telephone interviews
at the end of the chapter.
behaviours. The challenge in this general issue or on Monday and Tuesday evenings over summer and
topic is to investigate people’s behaviour and
attitudes to sun protection, including whether
asked about weekend behaviour. The interviews
also recorded whether the person was an
These two features act as
people get sunburnt or attempt to tan. The adolescent or an adult, and in which state they
difficulties in asking questions relating to people’s lived. cc
‘bookends’ to demonstrate
and illustrate the key concepts
in the chapter.

Chapter opening vignettes

NEW provide you with a contextual
TO TH
EDITIO IS
N!
example to illustrate the key
concepts of each chapter.

5
Investigating categorical variables and their
relationships

In this chapter you will see:

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• more about creating and managing categories of categorical variables

• more about planning collection of categorical data

• more about presenting and interpreting presentations of categorical data

• row and column percentages for two categorical variables and their interpretation in context

•
Chapter objectives give you a clear
the possible effects of other variables on the relationships between two categorical variables

• concepts and principles of testing statistical hypotheses, test statistics and the interpretation of p-values

• how to test a model of probabilities/proportions for one categorical variable

sense of what each chapter will cover •

•
how to test if two categorical variables are statistically dependent on each other
measurement and understanding of risk and relative risk.

and what you should be able to do after Section 5.1 summarises key aspects of collecting, presenting and summarising data on categorical variables and poses
SIGNPOSTS

reading the chapter.

questions about them, using data from some real and contemporary investigations as illustrations. This section
thus covers relevant points about planning and collecting categorical data as discussed in Chapter 2, and about
graphs and summaries of categorical data as in Section 3.1, including bar charts, contingency tables, row and
column percentages, and introducing the concepts of conditional percentages.

Section 5.2 looks at exploration and presentation of data from more than two categorical variables, and the importance of
considering the effect(s) of possible confounding or lurking variables, including the phenomenon known as
Simpson’s paradox.
Section 5.3 introduces the chi-square test for the statistical hypothesis specifying a set of proportions for one categorical

Chapter signposts give you a Section 5.4

variable.

uses the test procedure of Section 5.3 to discuss p-values and the general principles of statistical hypothesis

NEW list of the major sections to be

testing. This section thus links with, and builds on, the concepts introduced in Section 4.6, contributing to the
development of understanding of statistical hypothesis testing.
TO TH Section 5.5 covers the chi-square test of independence of two categorical variables – a test that is much used across all
EDITIO IS disciplines. The section also includes some comments on research questions versus statistical questions, and
N!
covered in the chapter. Section 5.6
statistical versus practical significance.
defines and discusses risk and relative risk with examples illustrating the care required in interpreting risk
statistics. The odds ratio is also defined.
 RESOURCES GUIDE XIX

Key terms are highlighted in bold and

defined at the end of the chapter.
252 MIND ON STATISTICS

Not only is this a voluntary online survey, but the total number of respondents is not given and there is no
disclaimer as in Example 7.1 above. On an episode (24 October 2012) of the Gruen Planet (ABC TV), the Guardian
was praised for its many ways of interacting with, and involving its readers online. How do you think the above
poll could be improved while retaining interaction with readers?

EXAMPLE 7.8
‘Pension savings gender gap widens’
Relevant examples form the basis for
A report ‘Pension savings gender gap widens’ in the UK’s Guardian by Hilary Osborn, 22 October 2012 (http://
www.guardian.co.uk/money/2012/oct/22/pension-savings-gender-gap-widens), includes the following: discussion in each chapter and walk
The report, which was based on interviews with 5,200 adults, found the number of women saving
nothing at all increased year on year from 23% in 2011 to 26% today. The proportion of men not
saving for retirement stands at 19%.
Women who are saving put aside £203.21 a month on average, down from £227 in previous years,
you step-by-step through real-life uses
of statistical concepts.
and 29% are saving on a regular basis.
5 200 is a lot of observations, but the report does not give the breakup into men and women which is critical
information as the emphasis is on comparing men and women. Also it is not clear further in the article if the
29% who are saving on a regular basis is a percentage of the women who are saving or of all the women in the
survey.

In all of the above reports, percentages obtained from data are an integral part of the story, and
all are being used, explicitly or implicitly, as estimates of proportions or probabilities in more
general situations or populations that the data are being assumed to randomly represent. Such
estimates are called point estimates because they provide a single value with no information about
the error of the estimate. Other names that are used are sample estimates or sample statistics. The
quantities they are being used to estimate are called parameters. A parameter is a quantity that is a
measure of some feature or characteristic of a general situation or population.
In considering how appropriate and how good these estimates are, we need to know how the
LINK ME

Mind your step margin icons

data were collected so that we can judge for which situation or population the estimates could be
Chapter 2
applied, and we need sufficient information to be able to quantify the variability there could be in
these estimates.

NEW highlight things for you to be

LINK ME
Section 4.5
The fundamental rule for using data for statistical inference is that available data can be used
to make inferences about a more general situation or a much larger group if the data can be
TO TH considered to be randomly representative with regard to the question(s) of interest.
EDITIO IS MIND YOUR STEP This section has focused on the abundance of proportions quoted in reports, the
N!
aware of, as well as common 1 If you are reporting data, always
report how it was collected and
numbers of observations.
importance of reporting how the data are collected and of including full
information in reports. The remainder of this chapter focuses on procedures to
provide intervals to estimate proportions – intervals that allow for sampling

mistakes you can learn to

2 If you are reading reports with variation and that we are confident include the appropriate parameter proportion
percentages, remember that you need
desired to be estimated. Such intervals are called confidence intervals.
to know how the data were collected,
including sufficient information about However, we must never lose sight of the need to know how the data are collected.

identify and avoid.

the numbers of observations.

262 MIND ON STATISTICS

^2 ¼ sample proportion for the sample from the second situation or population.
p

Keep in mind margin icons The point estimate of the difference between the proportion parameters is the sample statistic
^1  p
p ^2 ¼ the difference in sample proportions.

NEW LINK ME You will have noticed in Section 7.2 that the value 1.96 used in the 95% confidence intervals

TO TH
EDITIO IS
and highlighted text has Section 7.5 comes from the standard normal, and that the interval (1.96, 1.96) has probability 0.95 lying in it
for the standard normal. Section 7.5 explains that we can use this because for large values of n, the
sample proportion has an approximately normal distribution. Similarly, the distribution of the
N!
been selected by the author difference of proportions in two independent samples is approximately normal for sufficiently
large values of the sample sizes n1 and n2, provided the samples are independent and randomly
selected from the two situations or populations of interest.

to draw attention to critical

An approximate 95% confidence interval for p1 – p2 is
0 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi1
^1 ð1  p
p ^1 Þ p ^ ð1  p ^2 Þ ^1 ð1  p
p ^1 Þ p ^ ð1  p ^2 Þ
KEEP IN MIND @p
^1  p
^2  1:96 þ 2 ^1  p
,p ^2 þ 1:96 þ 2 A
n1 n2 n1 n2

concepts and knowledge that If a different confidence level is wanted, the appropriate standard normal multiplier can be
used instead of 1.96.

you ‘need to know’. You can see the similarities between this confidence interval and the traditional approximate
method for a single proportion; these are discussed in Section 7.5.
The conditions that must be met in order to use the above approximate confidence interval are:

1 Independent sample proportions are available. These could be based on two independent,
randomly selected samples on a categorical variable, or from a randomly selected sample on
two categorical variables, one of which has two categories that we wish to compare.
2 The sample sizes must be reasonably large and the proportions not too close to 0 or 1. One ‘rule
of thumb’ that is sometimes used to help ensure that the approximations are reasonable is that
^1 , n1 ð1  p
all of the quantities n1 p ^2 , and n2 ð1  p
^1 Þ, n2 p ^2 Þ are at least 10. These quantities
represent the counts observed in the category of interest, and not in that category, respectively,

Link me margin icons identify

for the two samples.

EXAMPLE 7.11
(CONTINUED)
NEW where chapter concepts link
Lift or stairs and time of day TO TH
Consider the data in Table 7.2 to compare proportions of people who use the lift to go up in the morning peak EDITIO IS
N!
time with those in the evening peak time. First let us consider the condition we need that we have independent
samples. Do we? We have no way of knowing how many people in the morning sample and in the evening sample
are the same and, if so, is it random if they use the lift or the stairs? The morning and evening samples might be
to concepts in other chapters,
to help you connect the
taken in times or in places in the bus station such that we can assume independence. The bus station is clearly a
very busy place as it was easy to obtain large samples. If we have context knowledge of the bus station and
exactly where and when the samples were taken, we would be able to better comment on this. This illustrates
the importance of reporting as much as possible about the context of the data and how they were collected.
Here all we can do with the information given is to state that we are assuming that the two sample
proportions of morning and evening commuters who use the lift when going up are independent. There is
nothing wrong with stating this assumption. Stating assumptions is very important in all statistical work and all
theory and concepts in a
statistical reports.

larger context.

CHAPTER 2 GATHERING AND PREPARING USEFUL DATA 25

first challenge was to define what they meant by ‘dissolved’ in order to have a consistent measure of time to
dissolve. They decided to define the tablet as ‘dissolved’ when the form of tablet first disappeared, that is, when it
first could not be discerned that there was a tablet. They decided not to stir the liquid to avoid the difficulty of
ensuring the same stirring conditions each time. They chose their experimental conditions to be water temperature
(two temperatures, one approximately room temperature and one cool), pH of water (neutral and a selected
slightly acidic one), and water type (normal and slightly salt water at a selected concentration). Five brands of
soluble aspirin were tested and three tablets from each were tested for each of the eight combinations of

Bringing minds together

temperature, pH and water type. The same volume of water was used each time. Randomisation came from using a
random order of testing conditions for each brand and choosing the tablets at random for each test.

NEW
TO TH
EDITIO IS
boxes appear throughout Bringing minds together 2.2
N!
each chapter and encourage For chemistry fans: is there any other information about the design of this experiment that should be
reported?

discussion and questioning

EXAMPLE 2.3

about statistical ideas. Are brown eggs stronger than white?

This question motivated an investigation into measuring the
Data set margin icons identify where
A. Warr and S. Yu, QUT

strength of eggs – that is, of their shells. The home-made

apparatus held the egg steady on its side under a container
that was gradually filled with water until the shell first
cracked. It had been intended to distinguish between load
Dataset:
Egg crush
relevant datasets are available online
until first crack and load until egg collapsed but in practice
once the egg cracked it collapsed. The measure of strength
was the weight of water at which an egg collapsed. The
explanatory variables were colour (white and non-white),
on the CourseMate website. A list of
examples and cases that relate to
brand of egg, housing (caged or free range), length and width
of egg. The experimenters did not expect the dimensions of
the egg to matter, but recorded them in case they did, as such
information certainly cannot be obtained after testing to
destruction. Other conditions were kept the same, with the
same person adding the water and the same person observing
the eggs.
these datasets can also be found on
Is this an experiment or an observational study? Certainly
an experiment was designed and carried out, but note that colour and dimensions of the eggs are observed not
controlled. Many real investigations are a mixture of experiment and observation. Randomisation in this
experiment is due to random selection of eggs from brands and random order of eggs in carrying out the
the website.
experiment.
XX RESOURCES GUIDE

72 MIND ON STATISTICS CHAPTER 7 ESTIMATING PROPORTIONS WITH CONFIDENCE 257

manufacturing process, it is likely that the company would want to be more precise in a 95%
picture focuses on the comparison, that is, on the parts relative to the whole and this comparison is the same. confidence interval for the proportion of defectives. A range of just below 2% up to just over 7%
The category ‘other’ is very small and could be combined with one of the other categories. Which category would may not be sufficiently precise in a situation where hundreds of thousands of cells are being sold
you choose to combine it with? This depends on the context. In this case, looking at the speeds of the users in by the company. We will see in Section 7.5 how many observations need to be collected in order to
the ‘other’ category of transport shows that they are close in speed to joggers, so they could be combined with
give a more precise estimate for this company. In that section, we will also see that it takes many
the joggers. An alternative procedure could be to omit them from the dataset because there are so few, but the
more observations to reliably estimate a proportion close to 0.5 than it does to
usual procedure is not to throw data away without good reason, and in the case of categorical variables, we
often combine categories in real data investigations. estimate a proportion close to 0 or 1.

Software tip boxes offer details on the

MIND YOUR STEP
The other aspect to notice in this example is that the difference between the
t 3FNFNCFS UIBU UIF GPSNVMB HJWFO
traditional approximate method and the accurate method is not much in actual IFSF JT BQQSPYJNBUF BOE SFRVJSFT n
values but would be important in a situation like this where reliable information is MBSHF BOE p OPU UPP DMPTF UP  PS 

Table and graphs for one categorical variable

• To determine how many and what Simple to graph one variable. Then, in the
use of statistical software technology, needed about defectives in a manufacturing process.

percentage fall into the categories of a ‘Categorical variables’ box, specify the
including Minitab, Excel, SPSS, HOW MANY PASSERSBY WOULD NOTICE THIS?

CASE STUDY 7.1

single categorical variable, use column containing the raw data for the
Stat>Tables>Tally Individual Variables. In variable. To graph percentages rather
the dialog box, specify a column containing than counts, use the Bar Chart Options A group of university students decided to
the raw data for a categorical variable. button.
R and Genstat. investigate how curious people were about
objects in a public place. Conducting such an

Source: A. Davidson, S. Palmer, S. Ross and

Click on any desired options for counts and • To draw a pie chart, use Graph>Pie Chart.
percentages under ‘Display’. In the pie options, the default is to combine experiment took a lot of thought and more than
• To draw a bar graph, use Graph>Bar two (or more) slices containing fewer than one pilot study, as well as consultation with
Minitab tip Chart. In the resulting display, select 0.6% of the observations. security staff and their permission. How to
measure human curiosity was a major challenge
of this investigation, but this example considers
only the categorical measure of degree of notice
Table and graphs for one categorical variable
Case studies apply statistical ideas to

C. Watterson, QUT
or attention, with categories ‘no attention’, ‘some
• To create a frequency table for one • To create a bar chart or pie chart for one attention’ and ‘considerable attention’. A large
categorical variable, use categorical variable, continue from box was placed in a public thoroughfare for

SPSS tip
Analyze>Descriptive
Statistics>Frequencies.
creating frequencies by selecting Charts
and selecting the desired chart. interesting real-world scenarios, to help 1 hour on three days with sufficient separation
to be able to assume no overlap of people or
sufficient separation of the experience. On the first day, the box was plain. On the second day, the box had the

The history of the pie chart is very interesting. It was developed by William Playfair in 1801.
Florence Nightingale used a form of pie chart with great effect in the presentation of her data on
develop your understanding of concepts visual stimuli as shown in the accompanying photograph. On the third day the box had no visual stimuli but a
mobile phone was constantly ringing inside the box. On each day, observations were taken on 51 randomly
selected ‘groups’ where the number in the group was also recorded (taking values of 1, 2,. . .). The numbers that
Dataset:
Human Curiosity

causes of mortality in military hospitals. Pie charts can be used only for one categorical variable so
have limited use. Unfortunately fancy versions have also been invented that often distort the very
feature that makes a pie chart useful and representative of the data – namely the areas of the
covered in the text. fell in the category of ‘no attention’ were 35 for the plain box, 14 for the visually decorated box, and 36 for the
box with the phone constantly ringing.
From these data, an approximate 95% confidence interval for the probability that no notice is taken of a
pieces of pie which give the relative frequencies of the categories. Three-dimensional pie charts plain box is (0.56, 0.81). And a 95% confidence interval for the probability that no notice is taken of a box with
and doughnut pie charts are poor graphs because neither the third dimension nor the doughnut considerable visual stimuli is (0.15, 0.4).
‘hole’ represents any information, and the essential information of the accurate representation of In the first case, the accurate 95% confidence interval from software is (0.17, 0.41). Notice that the difference
the relative frequencies is hidden or distorted. Similarly, three-dimensional bar charts are poor between the traditional 95% approximate confidence interval and the Jeffrey 95% accurate confidence interval is
graphs because the third dimension does not represent any information and distorts the cc
presentation of the information, which is the height of the bars. Section 3.7 comments on some
reasons for graphs not doing the job they are supposed to do. The various ‘innovations’ in pie
charts seem to be some of the worst in this respect.

At the end of each chapter you’ll find several tools to help you to review the chapter and key learning
concepts, and also to help extend your learning.
The summary section recaps the keys points from each section of the chapter, giving you a snapshot of the
important concepts covered.
Exercises are found at the end of each chapter. They include questions designed for practice and review, as well
as conceptual and data analysis exercises.

Answers to selected exercises are Exercises marked with # have related Key terms are bolded when first
indicated by blue question numbers in datasets that can be found on introduced in the text and are
the exercises section. These questions the CourseMate website. A list of listed with a definition at the end of
have solutions in the back of the text examples and cases that relate to each chapter. You will also find them
for checking your answers and guiding these datasets can also be found on the defined in the full glossary on the
your thinking on similar problems. CourseMate website. CourseMate site.

102 MIND ON STATISTICS CHAPTER 4 DATA SUMMARIES AND INFERENTIAL CONCEPTS 139 122 MIND ON STATISTICS

We have already seen the interquartile range and, to a lesser extent, the overall range
Summary Exercises
(maximum – minimum) of the data in commenting on how spread out or how concentrated the
# Denotes dataset is available on the website but is not required to solve the exercise. data are.
3.1 Exploratory data analysis (EDA) of the data. Each type of plot has its advantages and
Blue-numbered exercises have answers in the back of the text and on the website.
disadvantages.
Exploratory data analysis (EDA) refers to procedures to present
data in an informative way, using graphical, pictorial and 3.4 Continuous and categorical data Sections 4.1–4.4
Boxplot of price ($)
summary methods. 4.1 # Student textbooks (refer Example 3.5): EXAMPLE 4.3 (CONTINUED)
It is often desired to compare continuous data across categories
Data were collected on all textbooks from the university 200 *
3.2 Categorical data of categorical variables. Any of the plots of Section 3.3 may be * Referring to the fish lengths of Table 4.1, we can find the quartiles. For the 57 observations on fish lengths
bookshop with staff permission. Course notes were not * * (without the shark):
used provided the same scale is used. Dotplots and boxplots tend
Categorical data fall into categories and are reported in terms of included, nor were general reference books. To qualify, a 150
to be the most useful because they facilitate comparisons.
frequencies or relative frequencies of observations in categories, book was required to have at least five copies on the shelf. t UIF NFEJBO JT UIF UI PCTFSWBUJPO ¼  NN
Price ($)

either of a single variable or the joint categories of two variables. Where multiple editions of a book were available, only the
3.5 More than one continuous variable most recent was included. The books were classified
100 t FBDI PG UIF UXP AIBMWFT PG UIF EBUB IBWF  PCTFSWBUJPOT JO UIFN
Tables summarise these, and visual displays can be pie charts
Scatterplots are essential tools in exploring relationships according to discipline area, whether the cover was hard or * t UIF MPXFS RVBSUJMF JT UIFO IBMGXBZ CFUXFFO UIF UI BOE UI PCTFSWBUJPOT GSPN UIF MPXFS FOE UIJT HJWFT
and bar charts. Pie charts can be used only for single variables
between continuous variables. The relationships may not fit soft, and if it came with a CD. The level of colour used was 50 * **  NN
but bar charts can present data from two-way tables for two (or *
simple representations, may be affected by other variables and considered to be either full (F), some (Y) or none (N). Each *
*
more) categorical variables. Row or column percentages in two- * * t UIF VQQFS RVBSUJMF JT IBMGXBZ CFUXFFO UIF UI BOE UI PCTFSWBUJPOT GSPN UIF VQQFS FOE UIJT HJWFT  NN
may involve much variation across the whole range or for book was weighed, its thickness measured and its price *
way tables can indicate or illustrate association between two 0
particular parts of the range. Scatterplots facilitate and guide (in $) and year of publication noted. 5IF JOUFSRVBSUJMF EJTUBODF JT UIFO  NN
categorical variables. a The stem-and-leaf plot below is of the prices of Cover H S H S H S
exploration and later analysis. Continuous data collected over Colour F N Y
textbooks in Law. Use this plot to answer the following
3.3 Graphs and plots for one continuous time and dependent on previous observations in time are usually
questions.
explored through time series plots.
variable Stem-and-leaf of Law price N ¼ 72
i Hard cover books are generally more expensive Another measure of spread is the data standard deviation, usually called the sample standard
A dotplot is a plot of the individual observations of raw data of a 3.6 Outlying observations than soft cover books.
Leaf Unit ¼ 1.0 deviation. We find this by first finding the sample variance. You can think of the sample variance as
continuous variable with a dot for each observation, or for a Many datasets have extreme observations which may be part of ii The prices of hard cover books are generally more roughly the average squared distance that values fall from the mean. Put another way, it measures
fixed number of observations in very large datasets. A histogram 4 1 1799 variable than those of soft cover books.
the natural variability or may need individual investigation to variability by summarising how far individual data values are from the mean.
groups continuous data into ‘bins’ based on intervals chosen by 7 2 369
check if they correspond to different conditions or are due to iii The average price of a soft cover textbook with no In words, the sample variance is the total of the squared distances from the sample average,
the investigator or by computer software. If equal-sized intervals 10 3 137
error. No observation should be omitted without good reason. 23 4 2355677777899 colour is $75.
are chosen the heights of the boxes represent frequencies and divided by (the number of observations – 1). We will not do an example of finding this ‘by hand’ as
Graphs and plots can help identify observations that may need 29 5 223666 iv The standard deviation of the prices of soft cover
relative frequencies of the intervals. A histogram is not a bar all technology aids provide it – from calculators to statistical software. If you use a calculator,
checking of circumstances. Sometimes such observations (8) 6 26667799 textbooks with no colour is approximately $50.
chart and the bins must abut each other. A stem-and-leaf plot is provide valuable information. 35 7 257 check that the function you use has the divisor (n – 1) where n is the number of observations.
like a histogram on its side but it retains the original observed v Half of the soft cover books with some colour are
32 8 1145556
more expensive than three-quarters of the soft
values to a certain number of significant figures, with repeated 3.7 Good graphs and bad graphs 25 9 13999 General notation
digits in the ‘leaves’ representing the frequency of the 20 10 334667 cover textbooks with no colour.
Good graphs summarise information in the data in pictures that
corresponding observed value. A boxplot divides the 14 11 224557799 vi The prices of the soft cover books with some colour In general notation, with n observations with values x1, x2 . . ., xn, and denoting the data or sample
provide insight and with clear representation. Bad graphs distort
observations from smallest to largest into four equally 5 12 0239 are skew to the left. average by x, the sample variance can be written as
or misrepresent information, through unnecessary third 1 13 4
sized groups, with identification of the median, the quartiles
dimensions, poor choice of scaling or optical deception. vii Some of the observations should be discarded. !
and individual observations if they are away from the bulk i Obtain the median of the price for Law texts. Xn
(Data source: Textbooks on the website.) ðxi  xÞ2 =ðn  1Þ
ii Find the lower quartile of the price for Law texts.
i¼1
4.2 Real-estate data:
iii From the data, estimate the probability that the
Exercises price for a Law textbook is more than $50.
The data are of 280 houses sold in four regions from 2000–
2003. Townhouses and duplexes were omitted from the This is usually denoted by s2. The data or sample standard deviation is then the square root of this
# Denotes dataset is available on the website but is not required to solve the exercise. b The boxplots below are of the prices in A$, classified by study. and is denoted by s.
Blue-numbered exercises have answers in the back of the text and on the website. colour and type of cover (H ¼ hard, S ¼ soft). For each of a The boxplots below are of the selling price per unit land The formula above should not be used for calculations by hand. Any spreadsheet or calculator
the statements following, decide whether the statement area, across four regions. For each of the statements with basic statistical functions will calculate s for you. If you need to calculate s by hand, use
Section 3.2 a Which plot would you choose to represent these data? is an appropriate one to make based only on the boxplots below, decide whether the statement is an appropriate ! !
3.1 In a pilot study of vehicles travelling on residential streets, b Either row or column percentages could be useful for below. one to make based only on the boxplots on the next page. Xn

these two variables. If you were commenting on data xi 2  nx2 =ðn  1Þ

the following table gives the numbers by gender and by
i¼1
type of vehicle. for these two variables, give an example of a question
for which you would quote row percentages, and an Any statistical software, and many other software packages of all sorts and varieties will give you
Type example of a question for which you would quote .
what are called descriptive or summary statistics (even if their statistical plotting capabilities are non-
Gender Sedan Family 4WD Sports Total column percentages.
existent or negligible!), including the data median, quartiles, minimum, maximum, average and
Female 39 14 19 8 80 c Do you think the classification of vehicle type is clear by
standard deviation.
Male 34 3 8 5 50 the names? How would you describe ‘family’ and
Total 73 17 27 13 130 ‘sports’?
 RESOURCES GUIDE XXI

Online resources
Visit http://login.cengagebrain.com and login using the code card in the front of
this text for 12 months’ access to the CourseMate website. You’ll find an eBook,
interactive self-assessments, datasets, technical manuals, glossary, flashcards,
crosswords, case questions and more tools to help you excel in your studies.

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Online homework has never been easier! Enhanced Web Assign is the perfect
solution for your homework management needs, with assignable questions and
an online gradebook. Once set up by instructors, students can access online
review questions related to the text.
Enhanced Web Assign is an extensive online program for statistics to encourage
the practice that’s so critical for concept mastery. The meticulously crafted
pedagogy and exercises in our texts become even more effective in Enhanced
WebAssign, supplemented by multimedia tutorial support and immediate
feedback as students complete their assignments. Key features include: all of
the end-of-chapter problems, conceptual questions, master its, watch its, active
figures and quick quizzes.

For the instructor

Cengage Learning is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources that will help you prepare for your lectures.
These teaching tools are available on the companion website accessible via http://login.cengage.com.

Data sets Technical manuals ExamView® test bank

Provided in CSV format, you can import The technical manuals provide you with ExamView helps you
these datasets into any statistics information on some of the commonly to create, customise
software program. A grid showing the used statistics technology packages, and deliver tests
cases, examples and exercises related to and how they can be used with this text. in minutes for both print and online
each dataset is provided for instructors applications. The ‘quick test wizard’
on the companion website. PowerPointTM presentations and ‘online test wizard’ guide you
C h a p t e r- b y - c h a p t e r P o w e r P o i n t step-by-step through the test-creation
Instructor’s manual presentations cover the main concepts process. With ExamView’s complete
The instructor’s manual addressed within the text and can be word-processing abilities, you can add
provides you with content to edited to suit your own requirements. an unlimited number of new questions
help set up and administer Use these slides to enhance your lecture to the bank, edit existing questions
your subject. It includes presentations and to reinforce the and build tests of up to 250 questions
learning objectives, key principles of your subject, or for using up to 12 question types. You can
teaching notes for the ‘bringing minds student handouts. also export the files into Blackboard
together’ discussion questions in the or WebCT.
text, case projects and more. Test bank
Artwork
The question bank for each chapter
Solutions manual addresses learning objectives and key These digital files of graphs, tables,
The solutions manual provides you topics. It can be exported into your pictures and flow charts from
with solutions to all the end-of-chapter learning management system so you the text can be used in a variety of
exercises in the text. can easily create, customise and deliver media. Add them into your course
tests, both in print and online. management system, use them within
student handouts or copy them into
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