Manufacturing Processes

(ET ZC 235/PE ZC 236)

Prof. Karthikeyan
Mechanical Engineering Department,
BITS Pilani BITS Pilani, Goa Campus
Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Fundamentals of the Mechanical

Behavior of Materials
Lecture No. 2
Fundamentals of the Mechanical
Behavior of Materials
• Fundamental aspects of the mechanical behavior of
materials during plastic deformation (bulk deformation
processes and sheet-forming processes).
• Deformation modes,
• Stresses,
• Forces,
• Work of deformation,
• Effects of rate of deformation and temperature,
• Hardness,
• Residual stresses, and
• Yield criteria

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Fundamentals of the
Mechanical contd…

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Fundamentals of the
Mechanical contd…

Types of strain: (a) tensile, (b) compressive, (c) shear.

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Fundamentals of the
Mechanical contd…

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 Tension

• The tension test is the most common test for

determining the strength-deformation characteristics of
materials.
• It involves the preparation of a test specimen according
to ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
standards.
• The test specimen has an original length lo and an
original cross-sectional area Ao.
• The engineering stress, or nominal stress, is defined as
the ratio of the applied load to the original area of the
specimen,

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Tensile Testing

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Tensile Testing contd…

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Tensile Testing contd…

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 Tensile Testing contd…

Ultimate tensile
strength (UTS)

Yield Strength (Y)

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Tensile Testing contd…

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Typical mechanical properties

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 Tensile Testing contd…

• With increasing load, the specimen begins to yield; that is,

it begins to undergo plastic (permanent) deformation.
• The relationship between stress and strain is no longer
linear.
• For most materials the rate of change in the slope of the
stress–strain curve beyond the yield point is very small,
thus the determination of Y can be difficult.
• The usual practice is to define the yield stress as the point
on the curve that is offset by a strain of (usually) 0.2%, or
0.002.

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 Tensile Testing contd…

• As the specimen continues to

elongate under increasing load
beyond Y, its cross-sectional
area decreases permanently and
uniformly throughout its gage
length.
• If the specimen is unloaded from
a stress level higher than Y, the
curve follows a straight line
downward and parallel to the
original elastic slope.

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 Example 1
A tensile test uses a test specimen that has a gage length of 50 mm and an area =
200 mm2 . During the test the specimen yields under a load of 98,000 N. The
corresponding gage length = 50.23 mm. This is the 0.2 percent yield point. The
maximum load = 168,000 N is reached at a gage length = 64.2 mm. Determine: (a)
yield strength Y, (b) modulus of elasticity E, and (c) tensile strength TS

Solution:

(a) Y = 98,000/200 = 490 MPa.

(b) s = E e
Subtracting the 0.2% offset,
e = (50.23 - 50.0)/50.0 - 0.002 = 0.0026
E = s/e = 490/0.0026 = 188.5 GPa.

(a) TS = 168,000/200 = 840 MPa.

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 Ductility

• The strain in the specimen at fracture is a measure of

ductility, that is, how large a strain the material
withstands before fracture.
• The strain up to the UTS is called uniform strain.
• The elongation at fracture is known as the total
elongation and is measured between the original gage
marks after the two pieces of the broken specimen are
placed together.
• Two quantities that are commonly used to define ductility
in a tension test are elongation and reduction of area.

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Tensile Testing contd…

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Ductility contd…

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Ductility contd…

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True Stress and True Strain

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True Stress and True Strain
contd…

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True Stress and True Strain
contd…

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True stress–true strain curves

• The relationship between engineering and true values for

stress and strain, respectively, can now be used to
construct true stress–true strain curves from a curve.
• A typical true stress–true strain curve is shown in the
following figure.

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True stress-true strain curve

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True stress-true strain curve
plotted on log-log scale

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True stress-true strain curve in tension for
1100-O Aluminium plotted on log-log scale

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True stress–true strain curves
contd…

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 Example 2

In a tensile test on a metal specimen, true strain = 0.08 at a stress =

265 MPa. When the true stress = 325 MPa, the true strain = 0.27.
Determine the flow curve parameters n and K
Solution:
(1) 265 = K(0.08)n and (2) 325 = K(0.27)n

325/265 = (0.27/0.08)n
1.2264 = (3.375)n
n ln(3.375) = ln(1.2264)
1.2164 n = 0.2041
n = 0.1678

Substituting this value with the data back into the flow curve equation,
we obtain the value of the strength coefficient K:
(1) K = 265/(0.08).1678 = 404.85 MPa
(2) (2) K = 325/(0.27).1678 = 404.85 MPa

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Values of K and n

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True stress–true strain curves
for various metals

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Toughness

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Types of stress–strain curves

1. A perfectly elastic material displays linear behavior with

slope E.
2. A rigid, perfectly plastic material has, by definition, an
infinite value of E.
3. The behavior of an elastic, perfectly plastic material is
a combination of the first two: It has a finite elastic
modulus and its undergoes elastic recovery when the
load is released.
4. A rigid, linearly strain-hardening material requires an
increasing stress level to undergo further strain.
5. An elastic, linearly strain-hardening curve.

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Various types of idealized
stress-strain curves

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 Hardness

• Hardness of a material is generally defined as its resistance to

permanent indentation;
• it can also be defined as its resistance to scratching or to
wear.
• Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized
plastic deformation (a small dent or scratch).
• Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed
where a small indenter is forced into the surface of a material.
• The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and
corresponds to a hardness number.
• The softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation
(and lower hardness number).

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 Hardness contd…

• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.

• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
--better wear properties.

Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)

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 Hardness contd…

• Several techniques have been developed to measure

the hardness of materials using various indenter
geometries and materials.
• Hardness is not a fundamental property because
resistance to indentation depends on the shape of the
indenter and the load applied.
• The most common standardized hardness tests are
described next and summarized in the following Figure.

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General characteristics of
hardness testing methods

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Hardness Testing Method

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Relationship between
hardness and strength

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Relationship between Brinell hardness
and yield stress for aluminium and steel

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 Fatigue

• Gears, cams, shafts, springs, and tools and dies are

typically subjected to rapidly fluctuating (cyclic or periodic)
loads.
• These stresses may be caused by fluctuating mechanical
loads (such as gear teeth, dies, and cutters), or by thermal
stresses (such as a cool die coming into repeated contact
with hot workpieces).
• Under these conditions, the part fails at a stress level
below which failure would occur under static loading.
• This phenomenon is known as fatigue failure and is
responsible for the majority of failures in mechanical
components.

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 Fatigue contd…

• Fatigue tests repeatedly subject specimens to various

states of stress, usually in a combination of tension and
compression, or torsion.
• The test is carried out at various stress amplitudes (S)
and the number of cycles (N) to cause total failure of the
specimen or part is recorded. Stress amplitude is the
maximum stress, in tension and compression, to which
the specimen is subjected.
• A typical plot of the data obtained, known as S-N curves,
is shown in Fig.

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Typical S-N curves for two
metals

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 Fatigue contd…

• The fatigue test can also be performed on a rotating

shaft with a constant downward load.
• The maximum stress to which the material can be
subjected without fatigue failure, regardless of the
number of cycles, is known as the endurance limit or
fatigue limit.
• The fatigue strength for metals has been found to be
related to their ultimate tensile strength, UTS.

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Ratio of fatigue strength to tensile
strength for various metals

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Fatigue contd…

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 Creep

• Creep is the permanent elongation of a material under a static

load maintained for a period of time.
• It is a phenomenon of metals and some nonmetallic materials,
such as thermoplastics and rubbers, and it can occur at any
temperature.
• Creep is especially important in high-temperature applications,
such as gas turbine blades and similar components in jet
engines and rocket motors.
• High pressure steam lines and nuclear-fuel elements are also
subject to creep.
• Creep deformation also can occur in tools and dies that are
subjected to high stresses at elevated temperatures during
metalworking operations such as hot forging and extrusion.

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 Creep contd…

• A creep test typically consists of subjecting a specimen to

a constant tensile load (hence constant engineering
stress) at a certain temperature, and measuring the
change in length over a period of time.
• A typical creep curve usually consists of primary,
secondary, and tertiary stages.
• The specimen eventually fails by necking and fracture, as
in the tension test, which is called rupture or creep
rupture.
• As expected, the creep rate increases with temperature
and the applied load.

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A typical creep curve

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?
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Thank You

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