5 Numerical Methods

Introduction

N umerical Analysis is a branch of Mathematics

which leads to approximate solution by repeated
applications of four basic operations of Algebra. The
Joseph-Louis Lagrange knowledge of finite differences is essential for the study of
(25.01.1736 - 10.04.1813) Numerical Analysis.

Joseph-Louis Lagrange was an Italian mathematician and astronomer. he made

significant contributions to the fields of analysis, number theory, and both classical and
celestial mechanics.

of x are in increasing order and equally spaced

Learning Objectives
with a space length h. Then the values of x may
After studying this chapter, students will be be taken to be x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h,, x0 + nh
able to understand and the function assumes the values
z the finite differences f (x0 ), f (x0 + h), f (x0 + 2h), , f (x0 + nh) .
z how to find the Here we study some of the finite differences of
polynomial using finite the function y = f ( x ) .
differences
z how to find the relations 5.1.1 Forward Difference Operator, Backward
between the operators Difference Operator and Shifting
z how to find the missing Operator
terms
z how to interpolate the values of a Forward Difference Operator (∆ ):
given series using Newton’s interpolation Let y = f(x) be a given function of x. Let
formulae y0 , y1 , y2 ,, yn be the values of y at
z how to apply the Lagrange’s x = x0 , x1 , x2 ,…, xn respectively. Then
interpolation formula
y1 − y0 , y2 − y1 , y3 − y2 , …, yn − yn−1 are
5.1 Finite Differences called the first (forward) differences of the
Consider the arguments x0 , x1 , x2 ,, xn function y. They are denoted by
and the entries y0 , y1 , y2 ,, yn . y = f ( x ) be Dy0 , Dy1 , Dy2 ,..., Dyn−1 respectively.
a function of x. Let us assume that the values

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 (i.e) Dy0 = y1 − y0 , Dy1 = y2 − y1 , Dy2 = y3 − y2 ,..., =cyfn(−x )]yn=−1c f ( x + h ) − c f ( x )
Dyn−1D[
Proof:
, Dy1 = y2 − y1 , Dy2 = y3 − y2 ,..., Dyn−1 = yn − yn−1
= c [ f ( x + h) − f ( x )]
In general, Dyn = yn+1 − yn , n = 0,1, 2, 3,...
= c Df ( x )
The symbol D is called the forward
difference operator and pronounced as delta. Results without proof
The forward difference operator ∆ can 1. I f m and n are positive integers then
also be defined as Df ( x ) = f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) , ∆ m . ∆ n f ( x ) = ∆ m+n f ( x )
h is the equal interval of spacing.
2. ∆  f ( x ) g ( x )  = f (x )∆g (x ) + g (x ) ∆f ( x )
Proof of these properties are not included in
 f (x )  g (x )∆f (x ) − f (x ) ∆g (x )
our syllabus: 3. ∆  =
 g (x )  g (x ). g (x + h).
Properties of the operator D :
Property 1: If c is a constant then Dc = 0 The differences of the first differences
Proof: Let f ( x ) = c denoted by D2 y0 , D2 y1 ,..., D2 yn are called
second differences, where
∴ f ( x + h ) = c (where ‘h’ is the interval of
difference) D2 yn = D (Dyn ) = D ( yn+1 − yn )

∆ f (x ) = f (x + h) − f (x ) = Dyn+1 − Dyn

Dc = c − c = 0 D2 yn = Dyn+1 − Dyn , n = 0,1,2,…

Property 2: D is distributive i.e. D2 y0 = Dy1 − Dy0

D ( f (x ) + g (x )) = Df (x ) + Dg (x )
D2 y1 = Dy2 − Dy1 ,...
Proof: ∆  f ( x ) + g ( x )
Similarly the differences of second
=  f ( x + h ) + g ( x + h )  −  f ( x ) + g ( x ) differences are called third differences.
   
 f (x + h) + g (x + h) −  f (x ) + g (x ) D3 y n = D2 y n+1 − D2 yn , n = 0,1,2,…
= f ( x + h) + g ( x + h) − f ( x ) − g ( x ) In particular,

= f ( x + h) − f ( x ) + g ( x + h) − g ( x ) D3 y0 = D2 y1 − D2 y0
= ∆f ( x ) + ∆g ( x ) ∆3 y1 = D2 y2 − D2 y1
Similarly we can show that In general kth differences of yn is
∆  f ( x ) − g ( x ) = ∆ f (x ) − ∆g ( x )
Dk yn = Dk −1 y n+1 − Dk −1 yn , n = 0,1,2,…
In general, ∆  f1 ( x ) + f 2 (x )...... + fn (x )
= ∆ f1 (x ) + ∆ f 2 (x ) + .... + ∆ fn (x ) Note
Property 3: If c is a constant then Dk f (x ) = Dk −1 f (x + h) − Dk −1 f (x )
Dc f (x ) = c D f (x )

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 It is convenient to represent the above differences in a table as shown below.
Forward Difference Table for y :

x y ∆y ∆2 y ∆3 y ∆4 y ∆5 y
x0 y0
∆y0
x1 y1 ∆ 2 y0
∆y1 ASS
∆ 3 y0
x2 y2 ∆ 2 y1 ∆ 4 y0
∆y2 ∆ 3 y1 ∆ 5 y0
x3 y3 ∆ 2 y2 ∆ 4 y1
∆y3 ∆ 3 y2
x4 y4 ∆ 2 y3
∆y 4
x5 y5

The forward difference table for f(x) is given below.

x f (x )
∆ f (x )
x+h f ( x + h) ∆ 2 f (x )
∆ f ( x + h) ∆ 3 f (x )
x + 2h f (x + 2h) ∆ 2 f ( x + h) ∆ 4 f (x )
∆ f (x + 2h) ∆ 3 f ( x + h)
x + 3h f (x + 3h) ∆ 2 f (x + 2h)
∆ f (x + 3h)
x + 4h f ( x + 4h)
Backward Difference operator (∇) : yn − yn−1 = ∇yn

Let y = f(x) be a given function of x. Let are called the first(backward) differences.
y0 , y1 ,..., yn be the values of y at
The operator ∇ is called backward
x = x0 , x1 , x2 ,..., xn respectively. Then difference operator and pronounced as nepla.

y1 − y0 = ∇y1 
Second (backward) differences:
∇2 yn = ∇yn − ∇yn+1 , n = 1,2,3,…
y2 − y1 = ∇y2

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Third (backward) differences: ∇f ( x + h) = f ( x + h) − f ( x ) = Df ( x )
3 2 2
∇ yn = ∇ yn − ∇ yn−1 n = 1,2,3,…
∇f (x + 2h) = f (x + 2h) − f (x + h)
In general, kth (backward) differences: = Df ( x + h)

∇k yn = ∇k −1 yn − ∇k −1 yn−1 n = 1,2,3,… ∇2 f (x + 2h) = ∇f (x + 2h) − ∇f (x + h)

Backward difference table: = Df ( x + h) − Df ( x )

x y = D2 f ( x )
∇y 2
∇ y ∇ y 3 4
∇ y
x0 y0 In general, ∇n f ( x + nh) = Dn f ( x )

∇y1 Shifting operator (E):

x1 y1 ∇2 y 2 Let y = f ( x ) be a given function of x and
x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h, x0 + 3h,…, x0 + nh be the
∇y2 ∇3 y 3 consecutive values of x. Then the operator E is
x2 y2 ∇2 y 3 ∇4 y 4 defined as

∇y3 ∇3 y 4 E  f (x0 ) = f (x0 + h)

x3 y3 ∇2 y 4 E is called the shifting operator . It is also
called the displacement operator.
∇y 4
E  f ( x0 + h ) =  f (x0 + 2h), E[ f (x0 + 2h)]
x4 y4
f (x0 + 2h), E[ f (x0 + 2h)] = f (x0 + 3h),...,
Backward differences can also be defined E[ f (x0 + (n − 1)h)] = f (x0 + nh)
as follows.
∇f ( x ) = f ( x ) − f ( x − h) E [ f (x )] = f (x + h) , h is the
(equal) interval of spacing
First differences:
∇f ( x + h) = f ( x + h) − f ( x ) E 2 f (x ) means that the operator E is
applied twice on f ( x )
∇f (x + 2h) = f (x + 2h) − f (x + h),...,
, h
h is the interval of spacing. (i.e) E2 f ( x ) = E E f ( x )
= E[ f ( x + h) = f ( x + 2h)
Second differences:
∇2 f (x + h) = ∇(∇f (x + h)= ∇( f (x + h) − f (x )) In general ,

= ∇f ( x + h) − ∇f ( x ) En f (x ) = f (x + nh) and
E −n f (x ) = f (x − nh)
∇2 f (x + 2h) = ∇f (x + 2h) − ∇f (x + h)
Third differences: Properties of the operator E:

∇ 3 f ( x + h) = ∇ 2 f ( x + h) − ∇ 2 f ( x ) 1. E  f1 ( x ) + f 2( x ) + ..... + fn ( x ) = Ef1 ( x )+ Ef 2 ( x ).... + .... + E 

3 2 2
∇ f (x + 2h)E=∇ f (x + 2h) − ∇ f (x + h)
 f1 (x ) + f 2( x ) + ..... + fn (x ) = Ef1 (x )+ Ef 2 (x ).... + .... + E  fn (x )
Here we note that,
2. E c f ( x ) = cE [ f ( x )] c is a constant

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 ( )
3. Em En f ( x ) = En Em f ( x ) = Em+n f ( x ) ∴ E ∆ ≡ ∆E
E −1
3. ∇ ≡
4. If ‘n’ is a positive integer, then E
E E
n −n
( f (x )) = f (x ) . Proof:
∇f (x ) = f ( x ) − f ( x − h)
Note = f (x ) − E −1 f (x )

Let y = f(x) be given function of x. = (1 − E −1 ) f (x )

Let y0 , y1 , y2 ,, yn be the values of y at ⇒∇ ≡ 1 − E −1
1
x = x0 , x1 , x2 ,..., xn . Then E can also be i.e., ∇ ≡ 1−
E
defined as
E −1
Ey0 = y1 , Ey1 = y2 ,..., Eyn−1 = yn Hence, ∇ ≡
E
E Ey0  = E ( y1 ) = y2 and
In general E n y0 = yn
(i) (1 + ∆ ) (1 − ∇) = 1
Relations between the operators ∆ , ∇ and E: (ii) ∆∇ ≡ ∆ − ∇
1. D ≡ E − 1 (iii) ∇ ≡ Ε −1∆
Proof: From the definition of D we know that
Example 5.1
∆f (x ) = f (x + h) − f (x ) Construct a forward difference table for
and E[ f (x )] = f (x + h) the following data
where h is the interval of difference. x 0 10 20 30
∆f (x ) = f (x + h) − f (x ) y 0 0.174 0.347 0.518

∆f (x ) = Ef (x ) − f (x ) Solution:
The Forward difference table is given
⇒ D f (x ) = (E − 1) f (x ) below:
∆ ≡ E −1 x y Dy D2 y D3 y
0 0
∴ E ≡ 1+ ∆
0.174
2. E∆ ≡ ∆ E 10 0.174 –0.001
0.173 –0.001
Proof: 20 0.347 –0.002
E ( ∆f (x )) = E  f (x + h) − f (x ) 0.171
30 0.518
= E f ( x + h) − E f ( x )
= f (x + 2h) − f (x + h) Example 5.2
= ∆f (x + h) Construct a forward difference table for
= ∆Ef (x ) y = f(x) = x 3 + 2 x + 1 for x = 1,2,3,4,5.

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 Solution: Example 5.4
y = f(x) = x 3 + 2 x + 1 for x =1,2,3,4,5
Find (i) ∆e ax (ii) ∆ 2e x (iii) ∆ log x
x y Dy D2 y D3 y Solution:
D4 y
1 4 (i) ∆e ax = e a( x +h ) − e ax
9
= e ax . e ah− e ax a m+n = a m . an 
2 13 12
21 6 = e ax eah − 1
 
3 34 18 0
39 6 ∆ 2e x = ∆.  ∆e x 
(ii)
4 73 24
= ∆ e x +h − e x 
63

5 136 = ∆ e x e h − e x 

Example 5.3 = ∆e x e h − 1

( )
By constructing a difference table and
using the second order differences as constant,
= e h − 1 ∆e x
= (e − 1) . (e − 1) . e
find the sixth term of the series 8,12,19,29,42… h h x

= (e − 1) .e
h
2
x
Solution:
Let k be the sixth term of the series in the
difference table. ∆ log x = log( x + h) − log x
(iii)
First we find the forward differences. x+h
= log
x
x y Dy ∆2 y  x h
= log  + 
1 8  x x
4  h
= log  1 + 
2 12 3  x
7 Example 5.5
3 19 3  5x + 12 
Evaluate D  2  by taking ‘1’
10  x + 5x + 6 
4 29 3 as the interval of differencing.
13 Solution:
5 42 k–55  5x + 12 
k–42 D 2 
6 k  x + 5x + 6 
By Partial fraction method
Given that the second differences are 5x + 12 A B
2
= +
constant x + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2
∴ k – 55 = 3 5x + 12
A =
x+2
[ x = −3]
k = 58
−15 + 12 −3
∴ the sixth term of the series is 58 = = =3
−1 −1
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 5x + 12 2 Example 5.7
B =  x =− 2 = = 2
x+3 1 Prove that f (4) = f (3) + Df (2) + D2 f (1) + D3 f (1)
5x + 12  3 2  taking ‘1’ as the interval of differencing.
2
=  + 
x + 5x + 6  x + 3 x + 2 Solution:
 5x + 12   3 2  We know that f (4) − f (3) = D f (3)
D 2  = D x + 3 + x + 2
 x + 5x + 6    f (4) − f (3) = D f (3)

 3 3   2 2 
= −  +  −  = ∆  f (2) + Df (2)    f (3) − f (2) = Df (2)
 x + 1+ 3 x + 3  x + 1+ 2 x + 2
= ∆f (2) + ∆ 2 f (2)
 1 1   1 1 
= 3 −  + 2 −
 x + 3 x + 2
 x + 4 x + 3   = ∆f (2) + D2  f (1) + ∆f (1)

 −3 2 
= −  ∴ f (4) = f (3) + ∆f (2) + ∆ 2 f (1) + ∆ 3 f (1).
 (x + 4)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 2) 
−5 x − 14 Example 5.8
=
( x + 2)( x + 3)( x + 4) Given U 0 = 1, U1 , = 11, U 2 = 21, U 3 = 28 and U 4 = 29 find
U 0 = 1, U1 , = 11, U 2 = 21, U 3 = 28 and U 4 = 29 find D4U 0
Example 5.6
 1 Solution :
Evaluate D2   by taking ‘1’ as the
 x
1
interval of differencing.
1 1
Solution: 1 2 1
 1   1
D2   = D  D    1 3 3 1
 x   x
1 4 6 4 1
1 1 1
Now D  = −
x x +1 x
∆ 4U 0 = ( E − 1) U 0
4

 1  1
∆ 2   = ∆ 
 x
1
− 
 1+ x x
(
= E 4 − 4 E 3 + 6E 2 − 4 E + 1 U 0 )
= E 4U 0 − 4 E 3U 0 + 6 E 2U 0 − 4 EU 0 + U 0
 1   1
= ∆   − ∆  = U 4 − 4U 3 + 6U 2 − 4U1 + U 0

 1+ x  x
= 29 − 4(28) + 6 (21) − 4 (11) + 1.
 1 2 2
Similarly D   =
 x x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) = 156–156 = 0

Example 5.9
Given y3 = 2, y 4 = −6, y5 = 8, y6 = 9
and y7 = 17 Calculate D4 y3
 1
n
D  =
( −1) n ! n
Solution :
 x  x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) ...... ( x + n) Given y3 = 2, y 4 = −6, y5 = 8, y6 = 9
and y7 = 17

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 D4 y3 = (E − 1)4 y3 Hence D5 y k = 0 (ie) ( E − 1)5 y k = 0
= (E 4 − 4 E 3 + 6 E 2 − 4 E + 1) y3 i.e., ( E 5 − 5E 4 + 10 E 3 − 10 E 2 + 5E − 1) y k = 0
= E 4 y3 − 4 E 3 y3 + 6 E 2 y3 − 4 Ey3 + y3 E 5 y k − 5 E 4 y k + 10 E 3 y k − 10 E 2 y k + 5Eyk − y k = 0 (1)
= y7 − 4 y6 + 6 y5 − 4 y 4 + y3
Put k = 0 in (1)
= 17 – 4(9) + 6(8) –4(–6)+2
E 5 y0 − 5E 4 y0 + 10 E 3 y0 − 10 E 2 y0 + 5Ey0 − y0 = 0
= 17 – 36 + 48 +24+2 = 55
y5 − 5 y 4 + 10 y3 − 10 y2 + 5 y1 − y0 = 0
5.1.2 Finding the missing terms
Using the difference operators and y5 − 5(350) + 10 y3 − 10(260) + 5(220) − 200 = 0
shifting operator we can able to find the missing y5 + 10 y3 = 3450 (2)
terms.
Put k = 1 in (1)
Example 5.10
From the following table find the missing E 5 y1 − 5E 4 y1 + 10 E 3 y1 − 10 E 3 y1 − y1 = 0
value y6 − 5 y5 + 10 y 4 − 10 y3 − y1 = 0
x 2 3 4 5 6
430 − 5 y5 + 10 (350) − 10 y3 + 5 (260) − 220 = 0
f(x) 45.0 49.2 54.1 - 67.4
5 y5 + 10 y3 = 5010 (3)
Solution: (3) – (2) ⇒ 4y5 = 1560
Since only four values of f(x) are given,
y5 = 390
the polynomial which fits the data is of degree
three. Hence fourth differences are zeros. From (1) 390 + 10 y3 = 3450
10 y3 = 3450 – 390
(ie) D4 y0 = 0 , ∴ (E − 1)4 y0 = 0
y3 ≅ 306
4 3 2
(E − 4 E + 6 E − 4 E + 1) y0 =0
1
E 4 y0 − 4 E 3 y0 + 6 E 2 y0 − 4 Ey0 + y0 =0
1 2 1
y 4 − 4 y3 + 6 y2 − 4 y1 + y0 =0 1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
67.4 − 4 y3 + 6 (54.1) − 4 (49.2(+ 45 =0
1 5 10 10 5 1
240.2 = 4 y3 ∴ y3 = 60.05

Example 5.11 Exercise 5.1

Estimate the production for 1964 and
1966 from the following data 1. Evaluate D(log ax ) .

Year 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 2. If y = x 3 − x 2 + x − 1 calculate the values
of y for x = 0,1,2,3,4,5 and form the forward
Production 200 220 260 - 350 - 430
differences table.
Solution: 3. If h then = 1 prove that
Since five values are given, the polynomial −1 3
(E D)x = 3x − 3x + 1 . 2

which fits the data is of degree four.

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 5.2.1 Methods of interpolation
4. If f (x ) = x 2 + 3x than show that
There are two methods for interpolation.
D f (x )= 2 x + 4 .
One is Graphical method and the other one is
 1 
5. Evaluate D  by taking ‘1’ algebraic method.
 ( x + 1) ( x + 2) 
as the interval of differencing 5.2.2 Graphical method
6. Find the missing entry in the following table We are given the ‘n’ values of x and the
corresponding values of y for given function
x 0 1 2 3 4 y = f (x ) . we plot these n observed points
yx 1 3 9 - 81 ( xi , yi ) , i = 1, 2, 3.... and draw a free hand curve
7. Following are the population of a district passing through these plotted points. From the
graph so obtained, we can find out the value of
Year (x) 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 y for any intermediate value of x. There is one
Population (y) drawback in the graphic method which states
363 391 421 - 467 501
Thousands that the value of y obtained is the estimated
Find the population of the year 1911 value of y. The estimated value of y differs from
the actual value of y.
8. Find the missing entries from the following.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 Example 5.12
Using graphic method, find the value of y
y = f(x) 0 - 8 15 - 35 when x = 38 from the following data:
x 10 20 30 40 50 60
5.2 Interpolation
Consider the profit of a manufacturing y 63 55 44 34 29 22
company in various years as given below:
Solution:
Year (x) 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 Steps in Graphic method:
Profit Take a suitable scale for the values of x
25 29 24 30 32 31
(Rs. in lakhs) and y, and plot the various points on the graph
paper for given values of x and y.
The profit for the year 1989 is not
available .To estimate the profit for 1989 we Draw a suitable curve passing through the
use the technique called interpolation. Let x plotted points.
Y
denote the year and y denote the profit. The 70
independent variable x is called the argument 60

and the dependent variable y is called the entry. 50

If y is to be estimated for the value of x between 40

30
two extreme points in a set of values, it is called
20
interpolation.
10

X′ O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 X
Y¢

If y is to be estimated for the values Fig. 5.1

of x which lies outside the given set of the Find the point corresponding to the
values of it, is called extrapolation.
value x = 38 on the curve and then read the

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 corresponding value of y on the y- axis, which In general Newton’s forward interpolation
will be the required interpolated value. formula not to be used when the value of y is
From the graph in Fig. 5.1 we find that for required near the end of the table. For this we
x = 38, the value of y is equal to 35. use another formula, called Newton’s Gregory
backward interpolation formula.
5.2.3 Algebraic method Then the value of f(x) at x = xn +nh is
Newton’s Gregory forward interpolation given by
formula (or) Newton’s forward interpolation n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n
f (xn + nh) = f (xn ) + ∇f ( x n ) + ∇ f ( xn ) +
formula (for equal intervals). 1! 2! 3!
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
f (xn + nh) = f (xn ) +∇f ( x n ) + ∇ f ( xn ) + ∇ f (xn ) + ...
1! 2! 3!
The first two terms will give the linear n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2)
(or) y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇
interpolation and the first three terms will 1! 2! 3!
give a parabolic interpolation and so on.
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3 x − xn
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ... when n =
1! 2! 3! h
Let y = f ( x ) denote a polynomial of
degree n which takes (n + 1) values. Let them
Note
be y0 , y1 , y2 ,... yn corresponding to the values
x 0 , x 1 ,... xn respectively. Newton’s backward interpolation formula is
used when the value of y is required near the
The values of x ( x0 , x1 , x2 ,... xn ) are at
end of the table.
equidistant.
Example 5.13
(i.e.) x1 = x0 + h, x2 = x0 + 2h, x3 = x0 + 3h,…, xn = x0 + nh
Using Newton’s formula for interpolation
x2 = x0 + 2h, x3 = x0 + 3h,…, xn = x0 + nh estimate the population for the year 1905 from
Then the value of f(x) at x = x +nh is given by the table:
0
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n1891
− 2) 1901
f (x0 + nh) = f (x0 ) +
Df (x0 ) + D f (x0 ) + Year D3 f (x0 )1911
+ ... 1921 1931
1! 2! 3!
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 Population 98,752 1,32,285 1,68,076 1,95,670 2,46,050
Df (x0 ) + D f (x0 ) + D f (x0 ) + ...
2! 3!
Solution
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(or) y( x = x +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + y0 +population
D the
To find ... for the year 1905
0
1! 2! 3 !
(i.e) the value of y at x = 1905.
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 x − x0
0 + D y0 + D y0 + ... where n = Since the value of y is required near the
2! 3! h
beginning of the table, we use the Newton’s
Newton’s Gregory backward interpolation forward interpolation formula.
Formula. n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 +
Dy0 + D y0 + D y0
Note 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ...
Newton’s forward interpolation formula1!is 2! 3!
used when the value of y is required near the
beginning of the table. To find y at x = 1905 ∴ x0 + nh = 1905 ,
x0 = 1891, h = 10 .
1891+n(10)=1905 ⇒ n = 1.4

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 x y Dy D2 y D3 y D4 y x0 + nh = 3.2, x0 = 3, h = 1
1
1891 98,752 ∴ n=
33,533 5
1901 1,32,285 2,258 The difference table is
35,791 –10,435
1911 1,68,076 -8,177 41,358
x y ∆y ∆2 y ∆3 y
27,614 30,293 3 16
1921 1,95,690 22,746 4
50,360 4 20 0
1931 2,46,050 4 10
y (x =1905) = 98, 752 + (1.4)(33533) + (1.4)(0.4) (2258) 5 24 10
2 14
(1.4)(0.4) 6 38
= 98, 752 + (1.4)(33533) + (2258)
2 1  −4  1  −4   −9 
    
(1.4)(0.4) (−0.6) y(x=3.2) = 16 + 1 (4) + 5  5  (0) + 5  5   5  × 10
+ (−10435) 5 2 6
6
(1.4)(0.6)(−0.6)(−1.6) 1  −4  1  −4   −9 
+ (413581) 
5 5   5  5   5 
24 = 16 + (4) +
5 2
( 0) +
6
× 10
= 16 + 0.8 + 0 + 0.48

= 98752 + 46946.2 + 632.24 + 584.36 + 1389.63
= 16 + 0.8 + 0 + 0.48 = 17.28
= 148304.43 = 17.28 Example 5.15
≅ 1,48,304 From the following table find the number
Example 5.14 of students who obtained marks less than 45.
The values of y = f ( x ) for x = 0,1, 2, ..., 6 Marks 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
are given by
No. of Students 31 42 51 35 31
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Solution:
y 2 4 10 16 20 24 38 Let x be the marks and y be the number of
students.
Estimate the value of y (3.2) using forward By converting the given series into
interpolation formula by choosing the four cumulative frequency distribution, the
values that will give the best approximation. difference table is as follows.
x y Dy ∆ 2 y ∆ 3 y D4 y
Solution:
Since we apply the forward interpolation Less than 40 31
formula,last four values of f ( x ) are taken into 42
consideration (Take the values from x = 3). 50 73 9
The forward interpolation formula is 51 –25
60 124 -16 37
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ... 35 12
1! 2! 3!
70 159 -4
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 31
y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ...
1! 2! 3! 80 190

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 Let us calculate the number of students
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + whoseDweight y0 + ...is below 70. For this we use
1! 2! 3 ! forward difference formula.
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ... n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
1! 2! 3! y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0
1! 2! 3!
To find y at x = 45 ∴ x0 + nh = 45 ,
1 n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
x0 = 40, h = 10 ⇒ n =y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ...
2 1 ! 2 !
3 !
1  −1 1  −1  −3  To find y at x = 70 ∴ x0 + nh = 70 ,
1 
 
 
 
 
 

y( x =45) = 31 + × 42 + 2 2 (9) + 2 2 x20 = × 40(,−h25= )20
2 2 6
40+n(20) =70 ⇒ n = 1.5
1  −1 1  −1  −3 
2  2  2  2   2  ∴ y(x=70) (1.5)(0.5) −20 + (1.5) (0.5) ( −0.
1
+ × 42 + (9 ) + × ( −25) = 250 + 1 . 5 (120 ) +
2!
( ) 3!
2 2 6
1  −1  −3  =−250 5  + 1.5 (120) + (1.5)(0.5) ( −20) + (1.5) (0.5) ( −0.5) ( −10)
    
2  2   2   2  2 ! 3!
+ × (37 )
24 (1.5) (0.5) ( −0.5) ( −1.5) 20
+
4!
( )
9 25 37 × 15
= 31 + 21 − − −
8 16 384
= 47.867 ≅ 48 = 250 + 180 – 7.5 + 0.625 + 0.46875
Example 5.16 = 423.59
Using appropriate interpolation formula ≅ 424
find the number of students whose weight is
Number of students whose weight is between
between 60 and 70 from the data given below:
60 and 70 = y (70) − y (60) = 424 − 370 = 54
Weight in lbs 0-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-120
No. of Example 5.17
250 120 100 70 50
Students The population of a certain town is as
Solution: follows:
Let x be the weight and y be the number Year : x 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
of students. Population in
20 24 29 36 46 51
Difference table of cumulative frequencies lakhs : y
are given below.
Using appropriate interpolation formula,
x y Dy ∆2 y ∆3 y D4 y estimate the population during the period 1946.
Below 40 250 Solution:
120 x 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
60 370 –20
100 –10 y 20 24 29 36 46 51
80 470 –30 20
Here we find the population for year1946.
70 10
100 540 –20 (i.e) the value of y at x=1946. Since the value of
50 y is required near the beginning of the table, we
120 590 use the Newton’s forward interpolation formula.

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 formula. Let temperature be x and the pressure
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + be y. D y0 + ...
1! 2! 3!
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ yn +
= y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ... 1! 2! 3!
1! 2! 3!
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
To find y at x = 1946 y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2 ! 3 !
∴ x0 + nh = 1946 , x0 = 1941, h = 10 To find y at x = 175
1941+n(10) =1946 ⇒ n = 0.5 ∴ xn + nh = 175 , xn = 180, h = 10 ⇒ n = −0.5
x y Dy D2 y D3 y D4 y D5 y
x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y ∇4 y
1941 20
140 3.685
4
1951 24 1 1.169
5 1 150 4.854 0.279
1961 29 2 0 1.448 0.047
7 1 –9 160 6.032 0.326 0.002
1971 36 3 –9 1.774 0.049
10 –8 170 8.076 0.375
1981 46 –5 2.149
5 180 10.225
1991 51
y(x=175) = 10.225 + ( −0.5)(2.149) + ( −0.5) (0 − 5) (0.375)
y(x=1946) = 20 + 0.5 (4) + 0.5(0.5 − 1) (1) + 0.5(0.5 − 1)(0.5 − 2) (1) 2!
1! 2! 3! ( )( )
− 0 . 5 0 − 5
= 10.225 + ( −0.5)(2.149) +
2!
(0.375)
0.5 0.5(0.5 − 1) 0.5(0.5 − 1)(0.5 − 2)
20 + ( 4) + (1) + (1)
1! 2! 3! ( −0.5) (0 − 5)(1.5)
0.5(0.5 − 1)(0.5+ − 2)(0.5 − 3)(0.55 − 4(0).049) +
( −0 − 5)(0.5)(1.5)(2.5)
+
0.5(0.5 − 1)(0.5 − 2)(0.5 − 3)
(0) + 3! (−9) 4!
(
4! 5!
0.5 − 2)(0.5 − 3) 5 0−.54))(0 − 5)(1.5) (0.049) + ( −0 − 5)(0.5)(1.5)(2.5) (0.002)
0.5(0.5 − 1)(0.5 − 2)(0.5 − 3)(+0(.5−
(0) + (−9)
4! 5! 3! 4!
= 20 + 2 − 0.125 + 0.0625 − 0.24609 = 10.225 − 1.0745 − 0.046875 − 0.0030625 − 0.000078
= 21.69 lakhs = 10.225 − 1.0745 −    0.046875 − 0.0030625 − 0.000078125

Example 5.18 = 9.10048438 = 9.1

The following data are taken from the Example 5.19
steam table. Calculate the value of y when x = 7.5 from
the table given below:
Tempreture C0 140 150 160 170 180
Pressure kg f/cm2 3.685 4.854 6.302 8.076 10.225 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y 1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512
Find the pressure at temperature t = 1750
Solution:
Solution:
Since the required value is at the end of
Since the pressure required is at the end
the table, apply backward interpolation formula.
of the table, we apply Backward interpolation

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 x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y ∇4 y To find y at x = 63 ∴ xn + nh = 63 ,
2
1 1 xn = 65, h = 5 ⇒ n = −
7 5
2 8 12
19 6 x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y ∇4 y
3 27 18 0 45 114.84
37 6 -18.68
4 64 24 0 50 96.16 5.84
61 6 -12.84 -1.84
5 125 30 0
55 83.32 4 0.68
91 6
6 216 36 0 -8.84 -1.16
127 6 60 74.48 2.84
7 343 42 -6
169 65 68.48
8 512 −2  −2  −2  −2   −
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3 −2 + 1 + 1 
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ... 5 
5  5  
5  5 
1! 2! y
3 ! (x =63) = 68.48 +
1!
( −6) +
2!
2.84 +
3!
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
= y n + ∇y n + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2! 3! −2 −2  −2  −2  −2   −2 
 + 1 + 1  + 2
5 5  5  5  5  5 
To find y at x == 7.5 ∴ x
68.48 +n + nh
1!
( −6) +
= 7 . 5 ,
2!
2.84 +
3!
( −1.16)
xn = 8, h = 1 ⇒ n = –0.5
y (x =7.5) = 512 + −0.5 169 + −0.5 ( −0.5 + 1) 42 + −0.5 ( −0.5 +
−21)(−20.5 +2) −2   −2 
+ 1  6 +…+� 2  + 3

1! 2! 35!  5  5  5 
+ (0.68)
0. 5 −0.5 ( −0.5 + 1) −0.5 ( −0.5 + 1) ( −0.5 + 2) 3!
169 + 42 + 6 +…
�
1! 2! 3! = 68.48 + 2.4 – 0.3408 + 0.07424 – 0 – 0.028288
= 421.88
y(63) = 70.437.
Example 5.20
From the following table of half- yearly Example 5.21
premium for policies maturing at different ages. Find a polynomial of degree two which
Estimate the premium for policies maturing at takes the values.
the age of 63.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Age 45 50 55 60 65
y 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 29
Premium 114.84 96.16 83.32 74.48 68.48
Solution:
Solution: We will use Newton’s backward
Let age = x and premium = y interpolation formula to find the polynomial.
To find y at x = 63. So apply Newton’s
backward interpolation formula. n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ yn +
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3 1! 2 ! 3 !
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ y + ...
1! 2! n 3 !n(n + 1) 2 n n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
n (n + 1) 2
n n(n + 1)(ny+( x2= x)n +nh3 ) = yn + 1! ∇yn + 2 ! ∇ yn + 3!
∇ yn + ...
= y n + ∇y n + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2! 3!
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 x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y y = f (x ) =
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y
0 1 ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 )... ( x0 − xn ) 0

1
1 2 1
+
( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y + ... +
2 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) ... ( x1 − xn ) 1
2 4 1
3 0 +
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ... ( x − xn−1 ) y
3 7 1 ( xn − x0 ) ( xn − x1 )... ( xn − xn−1 ) n
4 0
4 11 1 Example 5.22
5 0 Using Lagrange’s interpolation formula
5 16 1 find y(10) from the following table:
6 0 x 5 6 9 11
6 22 1
y 12 13 14 16
7
7 29 Solution:
Here the intervals are unequal. By
To find y in terms of x ∴ xn + nh = x ,
Lagrange’s interpolation formula we have
x n = 7, h = 1 ⇒ n = x − 7 .
x0 = 5, x1 = 6, x2 = 9, x3 = 11
y (x ) = 29 + ( x − 7 )(7 ) +
( x − 7 ) ( x − 6)
2
(1) y0 = 12, y1 = 13, y2 = 14, y3 = 16

= 29 + 7 x − 49 +
1 2
x − 13x + 42 ( ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) × y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 )
y= f ( x ) =

1
2 ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x0 − x3 ) 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 )
= 58 + 14 x − 98 + x 2 − 13x + 42
2 ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) × y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) × y
1 2

=  x + x + 2  ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x0 − x3 ) 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) ( x1 − x3 ) 1
2
+
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x3 ) × y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x
5.2.4 Lagrange’s interpolation formula ( x2 − x0 ) ( x2 − x1 ) ( x2 − x3 ) 2 ( x3 − x0 ) ( x3 −
The Newton’s forward and backward
interpolation formulae can be
( x − x0 ) (when
+ used only
x − x1 ) ( x − x3 )
× y2 +
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) × y
( xIf2 −thex0values
the values of x are at equidistant. ) ( x2 −ofx1 ) ( x2 − x3 ) ( x3 − x0 ) ( x3 − x1 ) ( x3 − x2 ) 3
x are at equidistant or not at equidistant, we use ( x − 6) ( x − 9) ( x − 11) 12 + ( x − 5) ( x − 9) ( x − 11) 1
Lagrange’s interpolation formula.
=
(5 − 6) (5 − 6) (5 − 11)
( ) (6 − 5 ) (6 − 9 ) (6 − 9 )
(
Let y = f ( x ) be a function ( x − 6such
) ( x −that
9) ( x − 11) ( x − 5) ( x − 9) ( x − 11) 13
f ( x ) takes the values y0 , (y51 ,−y62 ,.......,
) (5 − 6y)n(5 − 11)
( )
12 +
(6 − 5 ) (6 − 9 ) (6 − 9 )
( )

corresponding to x = x0 , x1 , x2 ..., xn That is
yi = f ( xi ) , i = 0,1, 2,..., n . Now, there are ( x − 5) ( x − 6) ( x − 11) 14 + ( x − 5) ( x − 6) ( x − 9)
+
(9 − 5) (9 − 6) (9 − 11)
( )
(11 − 5) (11 − 6) (11 − 9)
(n + 1) paired values ( xi , yi ) , i = 0,1, 2,..., n
and hence f ( x ) can be represented ( x − 5) (by
x − 6a ) ( x − 11) ( x − 5) ( x − 6) ( x − 9) 16
+
polynomial function of degree n in(9x.− 5) (9 − 6) (9 − 11) ( )
14 +
(11 − 5) (11 − 6) (11 − 9)
( )
Then the Lagrange’s formula is

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 Put x = 10 5. In an examination the number of candidates
y (10) = f (10) =
4 (1) ( −1) (5)(1) ( −1) 13 + 5 (4) ( −1who
) 14secured
(5)(4marks
)(1) 16 between certain interval
(12) + ( ) ( ) + ( )
( −1) ( −4) ( −6) (1) ( −3) ( −5) 4 (3) ( −2were 6 (5)(2)
) as follows:
4 (1) ( −1) (5)(1) ( −1) 13 + 5 (4) ( −1) 14 + (5)(4)(1) 16 Marks 0-19 20-39 40-59 60-79 80-99
(12) + ( ) 4 3 −2 ( ) 6 5 2 ( )
( −1) ( −4) ( −6) (1) ( −3) ( −5) ( )( ) ( )( ) No. of
41 62 65 50 17
candidates
1 13 5 (14 ) 4 × 16
=
6
(12) − +
3 3×2
+
12
Estimate the number of candidates whose
marks are lessthan 70.
= 14.6663
6. Find the value of f ( x ) when x = 32 from
Exercise 5.2 the following table:

x 30 35 40 45 50
1. Using graphic method, find the value of y
when x = 48 from the following data: f(x) 15.9 14.9 14.1 13.3 12.5

x 40 50 60 70 7. The following data gives the melting point

y 6.2 7.2 9.1 12 of a alloy of lead and zinc where ‘t’ is
the temperature in degree c and P is the
2. The following data relates to indirect labour percentage of lead in the alloy.
expenses and the level of output
P 40 50 60 70 80 90
Months Jan Feb Mar
T 180 204 226 250 276 304
Units of output 200 300 400
Find the melting point of the alloy containing
Indirect labour
2500 2800 3100 84 percent lead.
expenses (Rs)
8. Find f (2.8) from the following table:
Months Apr May June
Units of output 640 540 580 x 0 1 2 3
f(x) 1 2 11 34
Indirect labour
3820 3220 3640
expenses (Rs)
9. Using interpolation estimate the output of a
Estimate the expenses at a level of output of factory in 1986 from the following data.
350 units, by using graphic method.
Year 1974 1978 1982 1990
3. Using Newton’s forward interpolation
Output in 1000
formula find the cubic polynomial. 25 60 80 170
tones
x 0 1 2 3
10. Use Lagrange’s formula and estimate from
f(x) 1 2 1 10
the following data the number of workers
4. The population of a city in a censes taken getting income not exceeding Rs. 26 per
once in 10 years is given below. Estimate the month.
population in the year 1955. Income not
15 25 30 35
Year 1951 1961 1971 1981 exceeding (`)
Population in No. of workers 36 40 45 48
35 42 58 84
lakhs

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 11. Using interpolation estimate the business
7. If ‘n’ is a positive integer ∆ n  ∆ − n f ( x )
done in 1985 from the following data
(a) f (2 x ) (b) f ( x + h )
Year 1982 1983 1984 1986
(c) f ( x ) (d) ∆f ( x )
Business done
150 235 365 525
(in lakhs) 8. E f ( x ) =

12. Using interpolation, find the value of f(x) (a) f ( x − h ) (b) f ( x )

when x = 15 (c) f ( x + h ) (d) f ( x + 2h )
x 3 7 11 19
9. ∇ ≡
f(x) 42 43 47 60
(a) 1+E (b) 1-E
(c) 1 − E −1 (d) 1 + E −1
Exercise 5.3
10. ∇f (a ) =
Choose the correct Answer (a) f (a ) + f (a − h )
2
1. ∆ y0 =
(b) f (a ) − f (a + h )
(a) y2 − 2 y1 + y0 (b) y2 + 2 y1 − y0
(c) f (a ) − f (a − h )
(c) y2 + 2 y1 + y0 (d) y2 + y1 + 2 y0
(d) f (a )
2. ∆f ( x ) =
( )
11. For the given points x0 , y0 and x1 , y1 ( )
(a) f ( x + h ) (b) f ( x ) − f ( x + h ) the Lagrange’s formula is
(c) f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) (d) f ( x ) − f ( x − h ) (a) y ( x ) =
x − x1
y0 +
x − x0
y
x0 − x1 x1 − x0 1
3. E ≡
x1 − x x − x0
(a) 1 + ∆ (b) y ( x ) = y0 + y
x0 − x1 x1 − x0 1
(b) 1 − ∆
x − x1 x − x0
(c) 1 + ∇ (c) y ( x ) = y1 + y
x0 − x1 x1 − x0 0
(d) 1 − ∇
x1 − x x − x0
(d) y ( x ) = y1 + y
4. If h=1, then ∆ x ( )=2
x0 − x1 x1 − x0 0
(a) 2x (b) 2 x − 1 12. Lagrange’s interpolation formula can be
(c) 2 x + 1 (d) 1 used for
(a) equal intervals only
5. If c is a constant then ∆c =
(b) unequal intervals only
(a) c (b) ∆ (c) both equal and unequal intervals
2
(c) ∆ (d) 0 (d) none of these.
6. If m and n are positive integers then 13. If f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x + 2 and the interval of
∆ ∆ f (x ) =
m n
differencing is unity then ∆f ( x )
(a) ∆ m+n f ( x ) (b) ∆ m f ( x ) (a) 2 x − 3 (b) 2 x + 3
(c) ∆ f ( x )
n
(d) ∆ m −n
f (x ) (c) x + 3 (d) x − 3

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  rom the following data find y at x = 43 and
6. F
14. For the given data find the value of ∆ 3 y0 is
x = 84.
x 5 6 9 11
x 40 50 60 70 80 90
y 12 13 15 18
y 184 204 226 250 276 304
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) –1
 e area A of circle of diameter ‘d’ is given
7. Th
Miscellaneous Problems for the following values

D 80 85 90 95 100
1. I f f ( x ) = e ax then show that f (0) , ∆f (0) , ∆ 2 f (0)
A 5026 5674 6362 7088 7854
f (0) , ∆f (0) , ∆ 2 f (0) are in G.P.
Find the approximate values for the areas of
2. Prove that i) (1 + ∆ ) (1 − ∇) = 1 circles of diameter 82 and 91 respectively.
ii)∆∇ = ∆ − ∇ (iii) E∇ = ∆ = ∇E 8. I f u0 = 560, u1 = 556, u2 = 520, u4 = 385,
show that u3 = 465 .
3. A
 second degree polynomial passes though
the point (1,-1) (2,-1) (3,1) (4,5). Find the 9. F
 rom the following table obtain a polynomial
polynomial. of degree y in x.

4. F
 ind the missing figures in the following x 1 2 3 4 5
table: y 1 –1 1 –1 1
x 0 5 10 15 20 25
10. Using Lagrange’s interpolation formula find
y 7 11 - 18 - 32
a polynomial which passes through the
points (0, –12), (1, 0), (3, 6) and (4,12).
5. F
 ind f (0.5) if f ( −1) = 202, f (0) = 175 ,
f (1) = 82 and f (2) = 55 .

Summary
In this chapter we have acquired the knowledge of
zz ∆f ( x ) = f ( x + h ) − f ( x )
z z ∇f ( x ) = f ( x ) − f ( x − h )
zz ∇f ( x + h ) = ∆f ( x )
zz Ef ( x ) = f ( x + h )
zz E n f ( x ) = f ( x + nh )
zz Newton’s forward interpolation formula:
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ...
1! 2! 3!
zz Newton’s backward interpolation formula:
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇y n + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2! 3!

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 zz Lagrange’s interpolation formula:

y = f (x ) =
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y +...
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 )... ( x0 − xn ) 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 )... ( x1 − xn ) 1
+
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ... ( x − xn−1 ) y
( xn − x0 ) ( xn − x1 )... ( xn − xn−1 ) n

GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Algebraic methods இயற்கணித முறைகள்

Backward difference operator பின்நோக்கு வேறுபாட்டுச் செயலி

Extrapolation புறச்செருகல்

Finite differences திட்டமான வேறுபாடுகள்

Forward difference operator முன்நோக்கு வேறுபாட்டுச் செயலி

Graphic method வரைபட முறை

Gregory- Newton’s formulae கிரிக�ோரி-நியுட்டனின் சூத்திரங்கள்

Interpolation இடைச்செருகல்

Lagrange’s formula இலக்ராஞ்சியின் சூத்திரம்

Numerical எண்ணியியல்

Policy காப்பீடு

Shifting operator இடப்பெயர்வுச் செயலி

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 ICT Corner
Expected Result is shown
in this picture
Step 1

Step 1

Open the Browser, type the URL Link given

below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra
work Book named “12th Standard Business
Mathematics and Statistics” will open.
In the work book there are two Volumes.
Select “Volume-1”.

Step 2

Select the worksheet named “Numerical

Methods”

In this Forward Difference table is given.

You can type new function in the box
given. Calculate and Check the table.

Browse in the link

12th standard Business Mathematics and Statistics:

https://ggbm.at/uzkcrnwr (or) Scan the QR Code.

Numerical Methods 123

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